gistfile1.txt

<doc id="90422" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90422" title="The Offspring">
The Offspring

The Offspring is an American <a href="punk%20rock">punk rock</a> band from <a href="Huntington%20Beach%2C%20California">Huntington Beach, California</a>, formed in 1984. Formed under the name Manic Subsidal, the band consists of lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist <a href="Dexter%20Holland">Dexter Holland</a>, bassist <a href="Greg%20K.">Greg K.</a>, lead guitarist <a href="Noodles%20%28musician%29">Kevin "Noodles" Wasserman</a> and drummer <a href="Pete%20Parada">Pete Parada</a>. The Offspring is often credited—alongside fellow <a href="Punk%20rock%20in%20California">California punk</a> bands <a href="Green%20Day">Green Day</a> and <a href="Rancid%20%28band%29">Rancid</a>—for reviving mainstream interest in punk rock in the 1990s. They have sold over 40 million records worldwide, being considered one of the best-selling punk rock bands of all time.
The Offspring has released nine studio albums so far. Their first three albums for the independent record labels <a href="Nemesis%20Records">Nemesis</a> and <a href="Epitaph%20Records">Epitaph</a> earned them a cult following. The band's third studio album, "<a href="Smash%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Smash</a>" (1994), became their first commercial success, and has sold over 11 million copies worldwide, setting a record for most albums sold on an <a href="Independent%20record%20label">independent label</a> and becoming the first album on Epitaph to obtain <a href="Recording%20Industry%20Association%20of%20America">gold and platinum</a> status. After signing to <a href="Columbia%20Records">Columbia Records</a> in 1996, The Offspring continued their commercial success with its next four studio albums, "<a href="Ixnay%20on%20the%20Hombre">Ixnay on the Hombre</a>" (1997), "<a href="Americana%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Americana</a>" (1998), "<a href="Conspiracy%20of%20One">Conspiracy of One</a>" (2000) and "<a href="Splinter%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Splinter</a>" (2003), reaching platinum, multi-platinum, platinum and gold status respectively. "Splinter" was followed five years later by "<a href="Rise%20and%20Fall%2C%20Rage%20and%20Grace">Rise and Fall, Rage and Grace</a>" (2008), and then four years later by "<a href="Days%20Go%20By%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Days Go By</a>" (2012). The Offspring is currently in production of their tenth studio album, which is due for release in 2016.
The foundations for The Offspring began with guitarist/vocalist <a href="Dexter%20Holland">Bryan "Dexter" Holland</a> (who was a drummer at the time) and bassist <a href="Greg%20K.">Greg Kriesel</a> playing music together in a garage in <a href="Cypress%2C%20California">Cypress, California</a>. After hearing the <a href="T.S.O.L.">T.S.O.L.</a> album "<a href="Change%20Today%3F">Change Today?</a>" at a party, and following a riot at a 1984 <a href="Social%20Distortion">Social Distortion</a> show, they decided to form a band called Manic Subsidal. Holland changed his role from drums to guitar, and the band was rounded out by singer Doug Thompson and drummer Jim Benton. Marcus Parrish briefly joined as a second guitarist, however, no recordings were made at this point. After Thompson was forced out, Holland took over vocals, and Benton was replaced by Clowns of Death drummer <a href="James%20Lilja">James Lilja</a>. In 1985, school janitor <a href="Noodles%20%28musician%29">Kevin "Noodles" Wasserman</a> (also formerly of Clowns of Death) joined as a second guitarist, allegedly because he was old enough to purchase <a href="alcoholic%20beverage">alcohol</a> for the other members, who were under the legal drinking age.
In 1986, after changing their name to The Offspring, the band released their first <a href="Single%20%28music%29">single</a>; the 7" "<a href="I%27ll%20Be%20Waiting%20%28The%20Offspring%20song%29">I'll Be Waiting</a>". They released the single on their self-made Black Label record company, named after the <a href="Carling">brand of beer</a>. An earlier version of "I'll Be Waiting", which was then known as "Fire and Ice", appeared on the long-out of print "Subject to Blackout" compilation tape, which was also released in 1986 Also in 1986, The Offspring recorded a demo tape, which received a positive review in <a href="Maximumrocknroll">Maximum Rocknroll</a> magazine. Lilja left The Offspring in 1987 to pursue a medical career in <a href="gynecology">gynecology</a>, and was replaced by <a href="Ron%20Welty">Ron Welty</a>, who was only 16 years old at the time.
After recording another demo in 1988, The Offspring signed a record deal with a small-time label, <a href="Nemesis%20Records">Nemesis Records</a>. Then in March 1989, the band teamed up with producer <a href="Thom%20Wilson">Thom Wilson</a> (who had worked with <a href="The%20Adolescents">The Adolescents</a>, <a href="Dead%20Kennedys">Dead Kennedys</a>, <a href="Social%20Distortion">Social Distortion</a>, <a href="The%20Vandals">The Vandals</a> and <a href="Youth%20Brigade%20%28band%29">Youth Brigade</a>) to record their first album, titled "<a href="The%20Offspring%20%28album%29">The Offspring</a>". The album was released in limited numbers by the label, only on the <a href="Gramophone%20record">12" vinyl</a> and cassette formats, and was not released on CD until 1995. A six-week national tour followed, but <a href="Noodles%20%28musician%29">Noodles</a> was later stabbed during their <a href="Hollywood%2C%20Los%20Angeles%2C%20California">Hollywood</a> anti-nuclear benefit.
In 1991, The Offspring teamed up with Wilson again to produce the "<a href="Baghdad%20%28album%29">Baghdad</a>" 7" EP and a third demo tape. This EP and demo were instrumental to the band's signing with <a href="Epitaph%20Records">Epitaph Records</a>. In 1992, Thom Wilson and The Offspring returned to the studio to record their second album "<a href="Ignition%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Ignition</a>", which was released in October of that year. The band went on U.S. tours with <a href="Pennywise%20%28band%29">Pennywise</a> and <a href="Lunachicks">Lunachicks</a>, and a European tour with <a href="NOFX">NOFX</a>.
When The Offspring returned to the studio to work on their third album in 1993, the band's relations with producer Thom Wilson had begun to strain. The band released what would become their biggest selling album, titled "<a href="Smash%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Smash</a>" (1994). Fueled by the hit singles "<a href="Come%20Out%20and%20Play%20%28song%29">Come Out and Play</a>", "<a href="Self%20Esteem%20%28song%29">Self Esteem</a>", and "<a href="Gotta%20Get%20Away%20%28The%20Offspring%20song%29">Gotta Get Away</a>", the album set the all-time record for most units sold by an independent label band at 16 million records. "Smash" has continued to sell consistently well in the twenty-one years since its release, and has also been certified 6x Platinum in the United States. The album also sold very well outside the U.S., particularly in Australia, where it debuted No. 1 on the <a href="ARIA%20Charts">ARIA Charts</a>, and remained in that position for three weeks in 1995.
After the release of "Smash", and armed with a newly expanded income, the band decided to buy out the rights to their first album. Holland and Greg K. then created their own record label "<a href="Nitro%20Records">Nitro Records</a>" and started signing bands. One of their first releases was a re-release of their first album "The Offspring". The label also signed a number of punk bands including <a href="The%20Vandals">The Vandals</a>, <a href="Guttermouth">Guttermouth</a> and <a href="Jughead%27s%20Revenge">Jughead's Revenge</a>. Soon after, <a href="Nitro%20Records">Nitro Records</a> became solely Dexter's responsibility.
The Offspring left <a href="Epitaph%20Records">Epitaph</a> and signed with <a href="Columbia%20Records">Columbia Records</a>. Epitaph retained its rights to release the next album in Europe, while Columbia had it for all other territories. The band's attorney, Peter Paterno, had issued a letter to Epitaph stating that the band had "substantial and fundamental reasons" for wanting to leave the label and that Epitaph had "breached its contract." The band began writing and recording their fourth album, titled "<a href="Ixnay%20on%20the%20Hombre">Ixnay on the Hombre</a>", in 1996. The album was released on February 4, 1997, which happened to be Noodles' 34th birthday. This album was not as successful as "Smash", although it did sell four million units and spawned five singles. The album saw the band move away from the political-punk themes common to many Epitaph bands, and more into mainstream rock with songs like: "<a href="All%20I%20Want%20%28The%20Offspring%20song%29">All I Want</a>", "<a href="Gone%20Away">Gone Away</a>", and "<a href="I%20Choose">I Choose</a>". The video for the last track was directed by Holland himself. Dexter commented that "Ixnay" probably wasn't as well-received as "Smash" because it was such a departure, and that many fans probably were expecting "Smash Part Two".
In 1998, The Offspring released "<a href="Americana%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Americana</a>". Three of the album's singles: "<a href="Pretty%20Fly%20%28for%20a%20White%20Guy%29">Pretty Fly (for a White Guy)</a>", "<a href="Why%20Don%27t%20You%20Get%20a%20Job%3F">Why Don't You Get a Job?</a>", and "<a href="The%20Kids%20Aren%27t%20Alright">The Kids Aren't Alright</a>" became the band's biggest hits and making the album the peak of The Offspring's mainstream popularity. "<a href="She%27s%20Got%20Issues">She's Got Issues</a>" was also released as a single, and was a minor hit.
In 1999, the band appeared as themselves in the film "<a href="Idle%20Hands">Idle Hands</a>". They played a cover version of "<a href="I%20Wanna%20Be%20Sedated">I Wanna Be Sedated</a>" (originally by <a href="Ramones">The Ramones</a>) and "Beheaded" at a school dance before Holland's character is killed. They also appeared at the infamous <a href="Woodstock%201999">Woodstock 1999</a>, where their performance was broadcast live on <a href="pay-per-view">pay-per-view</a> television.
2000 saw the band release their sixth album called "<a href="Conspiracy%20of%20One">Conspiracy of One</a>". The band intended to release the entire album online through their official website, to show their support for <a href="music%20download">downloading music</a> on the internet. However, under threat of legal action by Columbia through their parent company Sony, only the first single "Original Prankster" was released on their official website (the rest of the record was leaked to fan sites). The band also sold T-shirts on their website with the <a href="Napster">Napster</a> logo on it and donated money to Napster creator <a href="Shawn%20Fanning">Shawn Fanning</a> with the profits.
The band also released a single "<a href="Defy%20You">Defy You</a>" exclusively for the film "<a href="Orange%20County%20%28film%29">Orange County</a>".
Longtime drummer <a href="Ron%20Welty">Ron Welty</a> left the group in 2003 to play in <a href="Steady%20Ground">Steady Ground</a>, a band in which he played drums and co-produced (they broke up in 2007). Neither Welty nor the remaining members have elaborated on the departure.
In 2003, the band released their seventh album "<a href="Splinter%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Splinter</a>". The Offspring recruited <a href="Josh%20Freese">Josh Freese</a> to record the drums for "Splinter" and later announced that <a href="Atom%20Willard">Atom Willard</a> would be the official replacement for Ron Welty. The album's original title was to be "Chinese Democrazy (You Snooze, You Lose)", from the name of the <a href="Chinese%20Democracy">long-delayed album</a> by <a href="Guns%20N%27%20Roses">Guns N' Roses</a>. As a result, Guns N' Roses frontman <a href="Axl%20Rose">Axl Rose</a> filed a <a href="cease%20and%20desist">cease and desist</a> order against The Offspring, but eventually began to calm down when he realized the date this was announced was April 1. The first single "Hit That" enjoyed moderate success on MTV. "Hit That" used a variety of electronic samples, different from what The Offspring has done in the past.
In 2005, the band released a "<a href="Greatest%20Hits%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Greatest Hits</a>" album in both <a href="DualDisc">DualDisc</a> and regular CD editions. "Greatest Hits" contains 14 of the band's hits between "<a href="Smash%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Smash</a>" and "<a href="Splinter%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Splinter</a>", and two previously unreleased songs, "<a href="Can%27t%20Repeat">Can't Repeat</a>" and "<a href="Next%20to%20You%20%28The%20Police%20song%29">Next to You</a>" (a cover of <a href="The%20Police">The Police</a>) (a hidden track). The compilation does not contain any material from the <a href="The%20Offspring%20%28album%29">first album</a> or "<a href="Ignition%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Ignition</a>". The DualDisc contains video of Dexter and Noodles discussing the band's history and a bonus acoustic version of the song "Dirty Magic." About a month later, the band released a video DVD with all of their music videos, and some videos from a live show.
During the summer of 2005, the band played the <a href="Vans%20Warped%20Tour">Vans Warped Tour</a> for the first time, and followed that with a tour of Europe and Japan. After the "Greatest Hits" world tour the band took a break from writing, recording and touring. During the hiatus, Willard was recruited by <a href="Tom%20DeLonge">Tom DeLonge</a> for his band <a href="Angels%20%26amp%3B%20Airwaves">Angels & Airwaves</a> and released an album, "<a href="We%20Don%27t%20Need%20to%20Whisper">We Don't Need to Whisper</a>", in 2006.
In November 2006, it was reported that The Offspring was back in the studio recording their eighth studio album, "<a href="Rise%20and%20Fall%2C%20Rage%20and%20Grace">Rise and Fall, Rage and Grace</a>" with producer <a href="Bob%20Rock">Bob Rock</a> and "a fistful of demos". In July 2007, Dexter announced that the band had finished two more songs and the album was being recorded in Orange County, California.
It was announced on July 27, 2007, that former <a href="Saves%20the%20Day">Saves the Day</a> drummer <a href="Pete%20Parada">Pete Parada</a> had been chosen to be The Offspring's new drummer, replacing Atom Willard, who went on to join <a href="Angels%20and%20Airwaves">Angels and Airwaves</a>. The band's first shows with Parada were at the Summer Sonic festival in Japan in August of the same year. It was during these shows that the band debuted "<a href="Hammerhead%20%28The%20Offspring%20song%29">Hammerhead</a>" which would become the first single from the new album. Parada did not play on the new album however; Josh Freese once again handled drum duties, as he did with "<a href="Splinter%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Splinter</a>".
The Offspring co-headlined the Australian <a href="Soundwave%20Festival">Soundwave Festival</a> during February and May 2008, alongside <a href="Incubus%20%28band%29">Incubus</a> and <a href="Killswitch%20Engage">Killswitch Engage</a>.
On April 9, 2008, Dexter announced that the album would be called "<a href="Rise%20and%20Fall%2C%20Rage%20and%20Grace">Rise and Fall, Rage and Grace</a>" and would be released on June 17. The album's first single, "Hammerhead", went to radio on May 6. Additionally, The Offspring's official site provided an <a href="MP3">MP3</a> download of the song to the general public on May 5. The second single from the album, "<a href="You%27re%20Gonna%20Go%20Far%2C%20Kid">You're Gonna Go Far, Kid</a>", had topped the <a href="Hot%20Modern%20Rock%20Tracks">Hot Modern Rock Tracks</a> chart, and had stayed there for 11 weeks, a record for the band. It was also The Offspring's only RIAA Gold song, proving it to be one of the most successful singles the band had released in their over-twenty-year career. Despite this, "Rise and Fall, Rage and Grace" has never received any certification by the RIAA.
Also in April 2008, <a href="Epitaph%20Records">Epitaph Records</a> announced that the label would be reissuing "<a href="Ignition%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Ignition</a>" and "<a href="Smash%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Smash</a>"; both albums were remastered, and "Smash" contained a new 24-page booklet. The re-issues were released on the same day as "Rise and Fall, Rage and Grace", coinciding with the new album's release.
The supporting tour for the album began on May 16 with a performance at the <a href="X-Fest">X-Fest</a> festival in California. On May 28, it was announced on the band's website that <a href="Scott%20Shiflett">Scott Shiflett</a> (from <a href="Face%20to%20Face%20%28punk%20band%29">Face to Face</a>) would replace bassist <a href="Greg%20K.">Greg K.</a> on current tour dates due to a birth in the family. Kriesel returned in mid-June. In October, with the addition of touring guitarist <a href="Andrew%20Freeman%20%28musician%29">Andrew Freeman</a>, the band embarked on a 3-week Japanese tour followed by a tour of South America. On December 13, 2008, The Offspring headlined the nineteenth annual <a href="KROQ-FM">KROQ</a> <a href="KROQ%20Almost%20Acoustic%20Christmas">Almost Acoustic Christmas</a>. In an interview at the Almost Acoustic Christmas show, guitarist <a href="Noodles%20%28musician%29">Noodles</a> stated that The Offspring would be taking a break for a month or two and promised a US tour to kick off in 2009. They toured North America on their "Shit is Fucked Up" tour from May through July with <a href="Dropkick%20Murphys">Dropkick Murphys</a>, <a href="Alkaline%20Trio">Alkaline Trio</a>, <a href="Street%20Dogs">Street Dogs</a>, <a href="Pennywise%20%28band%29">Pennywise</a>, <a href="Shiny%20Toy%20Guns">Shiny Toy Guns</a>, <a href="Sum%2041">Sum 41</a> and <a href="Frank%20Turner">Frank Turner</a>.
In May 2009, the band started doing preliminary work with <a href="Bob%20Rock">Bob Rock</a> in Hawaii for what would be the ninth Offspring album. They recorded sporadically through the next year. In June 2010 the Offspring headlined two dates in Western Canada. The Offspring took a break from the studio in order to join <a href="311%20%28band%29">311</a> on their summer 2010 Unity Tour. The 19-date tour was held in amphitheaters around the U.S., also featuring <a href="Pepper%20%28band%29">Pepper</a> as a special guest. Before the 311 and Pepper tour, The Offspring played four West Coast dates in June, which were supported by <a href="Terrible%20Things">Terrible Things</a>. At the Las Vegas show on June 18, 2010, they debuted a new song, titled "You Will Find a Way", which later became the song "Days Go By". After that the band started working on the new album. In January 2011, session drummer <a href="Josh%20Freese">Josh Freese</a> (who recorded drum tracks for the band's last two albums) mentioned on his website that he was in the studio working with The Offspring again. <a href="Ronnie%20King">Ronnie King</a> had also confirmed that he would appear as the keyboardist on the album, after performing the same role on "<a href="Splinter%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Splinter</a>". The band interrupted their work in 2011 in order to tour and took the main stage at the 2011 <a href="Reading%20and%20Leeds%20Festivals">Reading and Leeds Festivals</a>.
After the tour, the band started recording in earnest and it was later announced that the album was in the mixing stage. They headlined the PunkSpring Festival in Japan, on March 31, 2012 in <a href="Tokyo">Tokyo</a> and on April 1, 2012 in <a href="Osaka">Osaka</a>, with <a href="Sum%2041">Sum 41</a>, <a href="New%20Found%20Glory">New Found Glory</a> and <a href="All%20Time%20Low">All Time Low</a>. At one of the shows, The Offspring performed a new song called "The Future Is Now". They were also confirmed to play at the <a href="Rock%20am%20Ring%20and%20Rock%20im%20Park">Rock am Ring/im Park</a> and <a href="Nova%20Rock%20Festival">Novarock</a> festivals in the summer 2012. Prior to that, the band would be playing at the 20th annual <a href="KROQ-FM">KROQ</a> <a href="KROQ%20Weenie%20Roast">Weenie Roast</a>, which was to take place at the <a href="Verizon%20Wireless%20Amphitheatre%20%28Irvine%29">Verizon Wireless Amphitheatre</a> in <a href="Irvine%2C%20California">Irvine, California</a> on May 5, 2012.
In March 2012, the band announced on their Twitter page that the album was finished. On April 20, 2012, <a href="Kevin%20and%20Bean">Kevin and Bean</a> announced that The Offspring's new single "<a href="Days%20Go%20By%20%28The%20Offspring%20song%29">Days Go By</a>" would be premiered on April 27. Three days later, the band announced on their website that "<a href="Days%20Go%20By%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Days Go By</a>" would be the name of their ninth studio album, which was eventually released on June 26, 2012. On April 30, 2012, the band released another song from "Days Go By", "Cruising California (Bumpin' in My Trunk)".
In early fall 2012, The Offspring toured with <a href="Neon%20Trees">Neon Trees</a> and <a href="Dead%20Sara">Dead Sara</a>. They were co-headliners of the <a href="Soundwave%20%28Australian%20music%20festival%29">Soundwave</a> in Australia in 2013 alongside <a href="Metallica">Metallica</a> and <a href="Linkin%20Park">Linkin Park</a>. After this, they performed at the 20th annual <a href="WJRR">WJRR Earthday Birthday</a> on April 13, 2013, and at the Gulfport Music Festival a month later. The Offspring will spend much of the spring, summer and fall of 2013 playing shows in Europe, the United States and South America. In November and December of that year, they will play <a href="Warped%20Tour">Warped Tour</a> for the first time in eight years, this time in Australia.
On June 20, 2013, it was reported that The Offspring was working on a live album with engineer Ian Charbonneau. Instead of a standard release, the live album (which was recorded at in Warsaw, Poland at the Orange Warsaw Festival held at Narodowy Stadium) will be available online. As of September 2014, however, the live album has not been released.
The Offspring was expected to begin work on their tenth studio album after the "Days Go By" tour, and has considered releasing it independently as they have fulfilled their contract with <a href="Columbia%20Records">Columbia Records</a>. Guitarist <a href="Noodles%20%28musician%29">Noodles</a> stated that he hoped they would enter the studio in 2014 to begin recording their new album. Vocalist <a href="Dexter%20Holland">Dexter Holland</a> stated in a May 2013 interview that he had written a "punk" song about "the government keeping you down." On July 16, 2013 Dexter posted 5 new photos of the recording process to The Offspring's Facebook page titled "In the Studio July 2013", indicating that the band had started work on their new album, which was scheduled for a 2014 release. Like "Rise and Fall, Rage and Grace" and "Days Go By", the new album will be produced by <a href="Bob%20Rock">Bob Rock</a>, and is expected to be released in 2016.
On October 23, 2013, bassist <a href="Greg%20K.">Greg K.</a> told May the Rock Be With You that The Offspring had been "working on a couple of singles", but was unsure what they were "going to do with them." Then he added, "As far as a full scale album there's nothing in the works, if we do something it wouldn't be until at least next year, but we're still moving forward and still going to keep trying to put out new stuff."
The Offspring spent the summer of 2014 on tour commemorating the of their third album "<a href="Smash%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Smash</a>". They headlined the Summer Nationals 2014 tour from July to September, with support from their former labelmates <a href="Bad%20Religion">Bad Religion</a> and <a href="Pennywise%20%28band%29">Pennywise</a> as well as <a href="The%20Vandals">The Vandals</a>, <a href="Stiff%20Little%20Fingers">Stiff Little Fingers</a> and <a href="Naked%20Raygun">Naked Raygun</a>. To coincide with the Summer Nationals tour, The Offspring released cover versions of Pennywise's "No Reason Why", and Bad Religion's "Do What You Want" and "No Control" on their <a href="YouTube">YouTube</a> account. These cover versions were released on the EP "<a href="Summer%20Nationals">Summer Nationals</a>", which was released digitally in August 2014.
On December 24, 2014, <a href="Radio%20Contraband">Radio Contraband</a> announced on their <a href="Facebook">Facebook</a> page that they would premiere the Offspring's new single, "<a href="Coming%20for%20You%20%28The%20Offspring%20song%29">Coming for You</a>", on January 30, 2015. "Coming for You" was posted on the Offspring's <a href="YouTube">YouTube</a> account on January 30, 2015. It was unclear if "Coming for You" would be released as a one-off single or would appear on the band's upcoming tenth studio album, but a tweet from frontman <a href="Dexter%20Holland">Dexter Holland</a> heavily implied the album was in an unfinished state. However, according to guitarist <a href="Noodles%20%28musician%29">Noodles</a>, "Coming for You" is expected to appear on the album. The Offspring toured in support of the "Coming for You" single and performed their 1998 album "<a href="Americana%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Americana</a>" in its entirety at the <a href="Amnesia%20Rockfest">Amnesia Rockfest</a> on June 19, 2015, in Montebello, Canada.
The Offspring reacquired the rights to their <a href="Columbia%20Records">Columbia Records</a> albums in 2014. The band started auctioning off the rights to those albums in August 2015, as well as their songwriting credits, for around US$30 million. <a href="Sony%20Music%20Entertainment">Sony Music Entertainment</a> (the owner of Columbia Records) and Round Hill Music are allegedly interested in bidding for the Offspring's music. In January 2016, Round Hill Music acquired the band's Columbia Records catalogue for £23 million. By September 2015, the band had finished 2-3 tracks without a label. A month later, Noodles posted a picture of himself, Holland, Parada and <a href="Bob%20Rock">Bob Rock</a> in the studio on his <a href="Instagram">Instagram</a> page, which indicated that they are recording their new album. In a November 2015 interview on <a href="KROQ-FM">KROQ</a>'s "<a href="Kevin%20and%20Bean">Kevin and Bean</a>", Noodles said that he hopes the album will be released in 2016.
The Offspring has been labeled under multiple genres, such as <a href="punk%20rock">punk rock</a>, <a href="pop%20punk">pop punk</a>, <a href="skate%20punk">skate punk</a>, and <a href="alternative%20rock">alternative rock</a>. A signature style of The Offspring is their chorused "whoas", "heys", or "yeahs". <a href="NOFX">NOFX</a> (who were labelmates with The Offspring from the early to mid-1990s) poked fun at them for this in their song "Whoa on the Whoas". Several tracks also incorporate elements of Eastern music, which can be heard on the likes of "Pay the Man" and the verse hook from "Come Out and Play". Their lyrics cover a wide range of topics, like personal relationships, such as in their songs "She's Got Issues", "Self Esteem" and "Spare Me the Details", and the degradation of the United States, politics, and society in general with songs like "It'll Be a Long Time", "Americana" and "Stuff Is Messed Up". The lyrics generally reflect a sarcastic viewpoint, which, along with the language, can be offensive to some. This is acknowledged in the first track from their album "<a href="Ixnay%20on%20the%20Hombre">Ixnay on the Hombre</a>", "Disclaimer", which is sarcastic itself. Like "Disclaimer", the first track of most of The Offspring's albums are an introduction of some sort, "Time to Relax" (from "Smash"), "Welcome" (from "Americana"), "Intro" (from "Conspiracy of One"), and "Neocon" (from "Splinter") are also examples of this.
Growing up in Orange County, the band was influenced by local punk bands such as <a href="Social%20Distortion">Social Distortion</a>, <a href="Youth%20Brigade%20%28band%29">Youth Brigade</a>, <a href="T.S.O.L">T.S.O.L</a>., <a href="The%20Vandals%20%28band%29">The Vandals</a>, <a href="D.I.%20%28band%29">D.I.</a>, <a href="The%20Adolescents">The Adolescents</a>, <a href="Channel%203%20%28band%29">Channel 3</a> and <a href="Agent%20Orange%20%28band%29">Agent Orange</a>. Other influences include <a href="Bad%20Religion">Bad Religion</a>, <a href="The%20Clash">The Clash</a>, <a href="Dead%20Kennedys">Dead Kennedys</a>, <a href="Ramones">The Ramones</a>, <a href="Sex%20Pistols">Sex Pistols</a>, <a href="D.O.A.%20%28band%29">D.O.A.</a> and <a href="The%20Dickies">The Dickies</a>.
With the mainstream success of "<a href="Smash%20%28The%20Offspring%20album%29">Smash</a>", going six times multi-platinum and earning worldwide airplay, The Offspring's impact persists to this day. As one of the most popular punk bands of the 1990s, they are credited with reviving popular interest in punk rock and bringing the genre into the mainstream. They have influenced younger artists such as <a href="Simple%20Plan">Simple Plan</a>. The Los Angeles <a href="modern%20rock">modern rock</a> radio station <a href="KROQ-FM">KROQ</a> listed The Offspring at No. 21 in the "top 106.7 biggest KROQ bands of all time" memorial, and No. 8 at the "Top 166 Artists of 1980–2008" list.
The Offspring's music has appeared in movies such as "<a href="The%20Chase%20%281994%20film%29">The Chase</a>", "<a href="Batman%20Forever">Batman Forever</a>", "<a href="I%20Know%20What%20You%20Did%20Last%20Summer">I Know What You Did Last Summer</a>", "<a href="The%20Faculty">The Faculty</a>", "<a href="Varsity%20Blues%20%28film%29">Varsity Blues</a>", "<a href="Wanted%20%282008%20film%29">Wanted</a> ", "<a href="Idle%20Hands">Idle Hands</a>" (which also features a cameo by the band, while Dexter Holland plays himself), "<a href="Me%2C%20Myself%20%26amp%3B%20Irene">Me, Myself & Irene</a>", "<a href="Loser%20%28film%29">Loser</a>", "<a href="Tomcats%20%282001%20film%29">Tomcats</a>", "<a href="Bubble%20Boy%20%28film%29">Bubble Boy</a>", "<a href="The%20Animal">The Animal</a>", "<a href="American%20Pie%202">American Pie 2</a>", "<a href="Orange%20County%20%28film%29">Orange County</a>", "<a href="The%20New%20Guy">The New Guy</a>", "<a href="Bowling%20for%20Columbine">Bowling for Columbine</a>", "<a href="Pauly%20Shore%20Is%20Dead">Pauly Shore Is Dead</a>", "<a href="Click%20%282006%20film%29">Click</a>" and "<a href="How%20to%20Eat%20Fried%20Worms%20%28film%29">How to Eat Fried Worms</a>" (for the trailer). "Mota", "Amazed", "<a href="The%20Meaning%20of%20Life%20%28The%20Offspring%20song%29">The Meaning of Life</a>" (all from "<a href="Ixnay%20on%20the%20Hombre">Ixnay on the Hombre</a>") were featured in <a href="Warren%20Miller%20%28director%29">Warren Miller</a>'s 1997 documentary "Snowriders II". "<a href="Pretty%20Fly%20%28for%20a%20White%20Guy%29">Pretty Fly (for a White Guy)</a>" can be heard in the "<a href="King%20of%20the%20Hill">King of the Hill</a>" episode "Escape From Party Island". "<a href="You%27re%20Gonna%20Go%20Far%2C%20Kid">You're Gonna Go Far, Kid</a>" was featured in the "<a href="90210%20%28TV%20series%29">90210</a>" episode "We're Not in Kansas Anymore", while "<a href="Kristy%2C%20Are%20You%20Doing%20Okay%3F">Kristy, Are You Doing Okay?</a>" appeared in the episode "Zero Tolerance". In video games, The Offspring's songs have appeared in "<a href="Crazy%20Taxi">Crazy Taxi</a>", "<a href="Tony%20Hawk%27s%20Pro%20Skater%204">Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 4</a>" and "<a href="List%20of%20songs%20in%20SingStar%20games%20%28PlayStation%202%29">SingStar Rocks!</a>". "Pretty Fly (for a White Guy)" appears in "". "<a href="Hammerhead%20%28The%20Offspring%20song%29">Hammerhead</a>", "<a href="Gone%20Away">Gone Away</a>", "<a href="Pretty%20Fly%20%28for%20a%20White%20Guy%29">Pretty Fly (for a White Guy)</a>", "<a href="Self%20Esteem%20%28song%29">Self Esteem</a>", "<a href="All%20I%20Want%20%28The%20Offspring%20song%29">All I Want</a>", "<a href="The%20Kids%20Aren%27t%20Alright">The Kids Aren't Alright</a>", "A Lot Like Me" and "<a href="Days%20Go%20By%20%28The%20Offspring%20song%29">Days Go By</a>" are downloadables for the <a href="Rock%20Band">"Rock Band" series</a>. "Hammerhead" was also featured in the football video game "<a href="Madden%20NFL%2009">Madden NFL 09</a>". "Days Go By" was featured in "<a href="NHL%2013">NHL 13</a>".
<div style="float:left;">

</doc>
<doc id="90424" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90424" title="Mystic Records">
Mystic Records

Mystic Records is an American <a href="record%20label">record label</a> and music production company specializing in <a href="hardcore%20punk">hardcore punk</a>, <a href="crossover%20thrash">crossover thrash</a>, <a href="underground%20music">underground music</a>, vintage and cult records. It is owned and operated by Doug Moody. The label was first established in <a href="Hollywood%2C%20California">Hollywood, California</a> and subsequently moved its operations to <a href="Oceanside%2C%20California">Oceanside, California</a>. Mystic Records is an independent label and not a member of the Recording Industry Association of America (<a href="RIAA">RIAA</a>). 
Mystic Records is closely associated with the personality of its founder, Doug Moody, regarded as a pioneer of the independent <a href="Rock%20and%20Roll">Rock and Roll</a> industry. Moody's father, Walter Moody, was himself an influential figure in the music industry, running EMI Studios (Abbey Road) in London during the 1930s. In 1953 the family moved to the United States.
Moody decided to himself become involved in the music business, first working in the <a href="Artists%20and%20repertoire">A&R department</a> of <a href="Silvertone%20Records%20%281916%29">Silvertone Records</a> in <a href="New%20Jersey">New Jersey</a>. A series of music industry jobs followed throughout the decades of the 1960s and 1970s, including stints in various capacities at <a href="Kama%20Sutra%20Records">Kama Sutra Records</a>, <a href="20th%20Century%20Fox">20th Century Fox</a>, and <a href="A%26amp%3BM%20Records">A&M Records</a>.
Seeking another place in the music industry outside of the major record labels, Moody opened a <a href="recording%20studio">recording studio</a> in <a href="Hollywood%2C%20California">Hollywood, California</a> at the location of the old Mustang Studios, made famous as a facility used by the <a href="Bobby%20Fuller%20Four">Bobby Fuller Four</a>. Moody changed out the studio's superannuated 2 track <a href="monaural">mono</a> recording gear and replaced it with state of the art 8-track <a href="Stereophonic%20sound">stereo</a> gear, leaving the recording rooms otherwise largely unaltered.
In tandem with the studio was launched the Mystic Records label. During the label's peak period of activity, from 1982 through 1990, Mystic released over 200 <a href="gramophone%20record">records</a>, many of which were multi-band compilations, involving the work of several hundred artists. Emerging as a prominent force in the <a href="Southern%20California">Southern California</a> <a href="punk%20rock">punk rock</a> music scene, Mystic put out an array of alternative bands, with an emphasis on the <a href="hardcore%20punk">hardcore punk</a>, <a href="crossover%20thrash">crossover thrash</a>, and <a href="speed%20metal">speed metal</a> styles in vogue during this period.
Moody claimed to have invested $70,000 in the label in 1983 alone, but taking into account recording costs and sales figures averaging about 2,000 copies per record, found the operation with about $40,000 left to recover at the end of that year. Bands would purchase studio time, with Mystic recouping its investment against royalties due, which in 1984 Moody claimed was approximately 40 cents per record.
In conjunction with the label, Moody and Mystic established its own wholesale record distribution branch, MD Distributing. This distributorship handled not only Mystic releases but those of other labels as well.
Some of the best known artists on Mystic Records include <a href="NOFX">NOFX</a>, <a href="Dr.%20Know%20%28band%29">Dr. Know</a>, <a href="RKL">RKL</a>, <a href="Battalion%20of%20Saints">Battalion of Saints</a>, <a href="Ill%20Repute">Ill Repute</a>, <a href="Agression%20%28band%29">Agression</a>, and <a href="The%20Mentors">The Mentors</a>. Mystic Records has also released vinyl compilations featuring <a href="Suicidal%20Tendencies">Suicidal Tendencies</a>, <a href="New%20Regime%20%28American%20band%29">New Regime</a>, <a href="Black%20Flag%20%28band%29">Black Flag</a>, <a href="SIN%2034">SIN 34</a>, <a href="Government%20Issue">Government Issue</a>, <a href="Minutemen%20%28band%29">The Minutemen</a>, <a href="Habeas%20Corpus%20%28band%29">Habeas Corpus</a>, The Instigators, and <a href="Bad%20Religion">Bad Religion</a>.
Mystic Records was instrumental in establishing the punk rock scenes of <a href="Simi%20Valley">Simi Valley</a> and <a href="Oxnard%2C%20California">Oxnard</a>, California, which they marketed as "Slimey Valley" and "<a href="Nardcore">Nardcore</a>" respectively.
Mystic Records has been credited with several innovations in the independent record industry of the 1980s. It introduced Super Sevens (7-inch 33rpm extended play records featuring seven songs) and helped popularize the manufacture of limited edition records on colored vinyl. The label was also influential through its release of multi-band compilation albums, such as its "The Sound of Hollywood" series, and promotional label samplers making use of album tracks, typified by its "Mystic Sampler" series.
Moody's key collaborators on the Mystic Records project included producer and engineer Phillip "Philco" Raves, sales and distribution manager Bill Karras, and "Mystic Mark" Wilkins, coordinator of record and tour promotion.

</doc>
<doc id="90425" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90425" title="Big Joe Turner">
Big Joe Turner

Joseph Vernon "Joe" Turner, Jr. (May 18, 1911 – November 24, 1985), best known as Big Joe Turner, was an American <a href="blues%20shouter">blues shouter</a> from <a href="Kansas%20City%2C%20Missouri">Kansas City, Missouri</a>, United States. According to the songwriter <a href="Doc%20Pomus">Doc Pomus</a>, "<a href="Rock%20and%20roll">Rock and roll</a> would have never happened without him." While he had his greatest fame during the 1950s with his rock and roll recordings, particularly "<a href="Shake%2C%20Rattle%20and%20Roll">Shake, Rattle and Roll</a>", Turner's career as a performer endured from the 1920s into the 1980s. Turner was inducted into the <a href="Rock%20and%20Roll%20Hall%20of%20Fame">Rock and Roll Hall of Fame</a> in 1987, with the Hall lauding him as "the brawny voiced 'Boss of the Blues'".
Known variously as The Boss of the Blues, and Big Joe Turner (due to his 6'2", 300+ lbs stature), Turner was born in Kansas City. His father was killed in a train accident when Joe was only four years old. He first discovered a love of music in his involvement at church. He began singing on street corners for money, quitting school at age fourteen to work in Kansas City's nightclubs, first as a cook, and later as a singing bartender. He became known eventually as The Singing Barman, and worked in such venues as The Kingfish Club and The Sunset, where he and his piano playing partner <a href="Pete%20Johnson">Pete Johnson</a> became resident performers. The Sunset was managed by Piney Brown. It featured "separate but equal" facilities for caucasian patrons. Turner wrote "Piney Brown Blues" in his honor and sang it throughout his entire career.
At that time Kansas City nightclubs were subject to frequent raids by the police, but as Turner recounts, "The Boss man would have his bondsmen down at the police station before we got there. We'd walk in, sign our names and walk right out. Then we would cabaret until morning."
His partnership with <a href="boogie-woogie">boogie-woogie</a> pianist Pete Johnson proved fruitful. Together they went to New York City in 1936, where they appeared on a playbill with <a href="Benny%20Goodman">Benny Goodman</a>, but as Turner recounts, "After our show with Goodman, we auditioned at several places, but New York wasn't ready for us yet, so we headed back to K.C.". Eventually they were witnessed by the talent scout, <a href="John%20Hammond%20%28producer%29">John H. Hammond</a> in 1938, who invited them back to New York to appear in one of his "<a href="From%20Spirituals%20to%20Swing">From Spirituals to Swing</a>" concerts at <a href="Carnegie%20Hall">Carnegie Hall</a>, which were instrumental in introducing <a href="jazz">jazz</a> and <a href="blues">blues</a> to a wider American audience.
Due in part to their appearance at Carnegie Hall, Turner and Johnson had a major success with the song "<a href="Roll%20%27Em%20Pete">Roll 'Em Pete</a>". The track, basically a collection of <a href="Traditional%20blues%20verses">traditional blues lyrics</a> featured one of the earliest recorded examples of a <a href="beat%20%28music%29">back beat</a>. It was a song that Turner recorded many times, with various combinations of musicians, over the ensuing years.
In 1939, along with boogie players <a href="Albert%20Ammons">Albert Ammons</a> and <a href="Meade%20Lux%20Lewis">Meade Lux Lewis</a>, they began a residency at <a href="Caf%C3%A9%20Society">Café Society</a>, a nightclub in New York City, where they appeared on the same playbill as <a href="Billie%20Holiday">Billie Holiday</a> and Frank Newton's band. Besides "Roll 'Em, Pete", Turner's best-known recordings from this period are probably "Cherry Red", "I Want A Little Girl" and "Wee Baby Blues". "Cherry Red" was recorded in 1939 for the <a href="Vocalion%20Records">Vocalion</a> <a href="record%20label">label</a>, with <a href="Hot%20Lips%20Page">Hot Lips Page</a> on <a href="trumpet">trumpet</a> and a full band in attendance. The next year Turner contracted with <a href="Decca%20Records">Decca</a> and recorded "Piney Brown Blues", with Johnson on piano.
In 1941, he went to Los Angeles and performed in <a href="Duke%20Ellington">Duke Ellington</a>'s revue "Jump for Joy" in Hollywood. He appeared as a singing policeman in a comedy sketch called "He's on the Beat". Los Angeles was his home for a time, and during 1944 he worked in <a href="Meade%20Lux%20Lewis">Meade Lux Lewis</a>'s <a href="Soundies">Soundies</a> musical movies. Although he sang on the soundtrack recordings, he was not present for filming, and his vocals were mouthed by comedian <a href="Dudley%20Dickerson">Dudley Dickerson</a> for the camera. In 1945 Turner and Pete Johnson established their bar in Los Angeles, The Blue Moon Club.
That same year he contracted with <a href="National%20Records">National Records</a> company, and recorded under <a href="Herb%20Abramson">Herb Abramson</a>'s supervision. His first hit single was a cover of <a href="Saunders%20King">Saunders King</a>'s "S.K. Blues" (1945). He recorded the songs "My Gal's A Jockey" and the risqué "Around The Clock" the same year, and the <a href="Aladdin%20Records">Aladdin</a> company released "Battle of the Blues", a duet with <a href="Wynonie%20Harris">Wynonie Harris</a>. Turner stayed with National until 1947, but none of his recordings were great sellers. In 1950, he released the song "Still in the Dark" on <a href="Freedom%20Records%20%28jazz%20label%29">Freedom Records</a>.
Turner made many albums with Johnson, <a href="Art%20Tatum">Art Tatum</a>, <a href="Sammy%20Price">Sammy Price</a>, and other jazz groups. He recorded with several recording companies and also performed with the <a href="Count%20Basie%20Orchestra">Count Basie Orchestra</a>. During his career, Turner was part of the transition from <a href="big%20band">big band</a>s to <a href="jump%20blues">jump blues</a> to <a href="rhythm%20and%20blues">rhythm and blues</a>, and finally to <a href="rock%20and%20roll">rock and roll</a>. Turner was a master of <a href="traditional%20blues%20verses">traditional blues verses</a> and at Kansas City <a href="jam%20session">jam session</a>s he could swap choruses with instrumental soloists for hours.
In 1951, while performing with the Count Basie Orchestra at Harlem's <a href="Apollo%20Theater">Apollo Theater</a> as a replacement for <a href="Jimmy%20Rushing">Jimmy Rushing</a>, he was spotted by <a href="Ahmet%20Erteg%C3%BCn">Ahmet</a> and <a href="Nesuhi%20Erteg%C3%BCn">Nesuhi Ertegün</a>, who contracted him to their new recording company, <a href="Atlantic%20Records">Atlantic Records</a>. Turner recorded a number of successes for them, including the <a href="List%20of%20blues%20standards">blues standard</a>s, "<a href="Chains%20of%20Love%20%28Ahmet%20Ertegun%20song%29">Chains of Love</a>" and "Sweet Sixteen". Many of his vocals are punctuated with shouts to the band members, as for the songs "Boogie Woogie Country Girl" ("That's a good rockin' band!", "Go ahead, man! Ow! That's just what I need!" ) and "<a href="Honey%20Hush">Honey Hush</a>" (he repeatedly sings "Hi-yo, Silver!", probably in reference to <a href="The%20Treniers">The Treniers</a> singing the phrase for their <a href="Lone%20Ranger">Lone Ranger</a> parody "Ride, Red, Ride"). Turner's records scored at the top of the rhythm-and-blues charts; although they were sometimes so risqué that some radio stations would not play them, the songs received much play on jukeboxes and records.
Turner had a great success during 1954 with "<a href="Shake%2C%20Rattle%20and%20Roll">Shake, Rattle and Roll</a>", which seriously enhanced his career, turning him into a teenage favorite, and also helped to transform popular music. During the song, Turner yells at his woman to "get outa that bed, wash yo' face an' hands" and comments that she's "wearin' those dresses, the sun comes shinin' through!, I can't believe my eyes, all that mess belongs to you." He sang the number on film for the 1955 theatrical feature "Rhythm and Blues Revue".
Although the cover version of the song by <a href="Bill%20Haley%20%26amp%3B%20His%20Comets">Bill Haley & His Comets</a>, with the risqué lyrics partially omitted, was a greater sales success, many listeners sought out Turner's version and were introduced thereby to rhythm and blues. <a href="Elvis%20Presley">Elvis Presley</a>'s version of "Shake, Rattle and Roll" combined Turner's lyrics with Haley's arrangement, but was not a successful single.
"The Chicken and the Hawk", "<a href="Flip%2C%20Flop%20and%20Fly">Flip, Flop and Fly</a>", "Hide and Seek", "Morning, Noon and Night", and "Well All Right" were successful recordings from this period. He performed on the <a href="television%20program">television program</a> "<a href="Showtime%20at%20the%20Apollo">Showtime at the Apollo</a>" and in the movie "<a href="Shake%2C%20Rattle%20%26amp%3B%20Rock%21%20%281956%20film%29">Shake Rattle & Rock!</a>" (1956).
The song "<a href="Corrine%2C%20Corrina">Corrine, Corrina</a>" was another great seller during 1956. In addition to the rock music songs, he released "Boss of the Blues" album in 1956. "(I’m Gonna) Jump for Joy", his last hit, reached the US R&B record chart on May 26, 1958.
After a number of successes in this vein, Turner quit popular music and resumed singing with small jazz combos, recording numerous albums in that style during the 1960s and 1970s. During 1966, <a href="Bill%20Haley">Bill Haley</a> helped revive Turner's career by lending the Comets for a series of popular recordings in Mexico. In 1977 he recorded a cover version of <a href="Guitar%20Slim">Guitar Slim</a>'s song, "<a href="The%20Things%20That%20I%20Used%20to%20Do">The Things That I Used to Do</a>".
During the 1960s and 1970s he resumed performing jazz and blues music, performing at many music festivals and recording for <a href="Norman%20Granz">Norman Granz</a>'s company <a href="Pablo%20Records">Pablo Records</a>. He also worked with <a href="Axel%20Zwingenberger">Axel Zwingenberger</a>. Turner also participated in a 'Battle of the Blues' with <a href="Wynonie%20Harris">Wynonie Harris</a> and <a href="T-Bone%20Walker">T-Bone Walker</a>.
During 1965 he toured in England with trumpeter <a href="Buck%20Clayton">Buck Clayton</a> and trombonist <a href="Vic%20Dickenson">Vic Dickenson</a>, accompanied by <a href="Humphrey%20Lyttelton">Humphrey Lyttelton</a> and his Band. Part of a studio concert was televised by the BBC and later issued on DVD. A sound recording of a club appearance made during this tour is not thought of sufficient sound quality to justify commercial issue. He also toured Europe with <a href="Count%20Basie">Count Basie</a> and his Orchestra.
He won the "<a href="Esquire%20%28magazine%29">Esquire</a>" magazine award for male vocalist in 1945, the "<a href="Melody%20Maker">Melody Maker</a>" award for best 'new' vocalist during 1956, and the British "Jazz Journal" award as top male singer during 1965. In 1977, Turner recorded "<a href="I%27m%20Gonna%20Sit%20Right%20Down%20and%20Write%20Myself%20a%20Letter">I'm Gonna Sit Right Down and Write Myself a Letter</a>" for <a href="Spivey%20Records">Spivey Records</a>, featuring <a href="Lloyd%20Glenn">Lloyd Glenn</a> on piano. Turner's career endured from the bar rooms of Kansas City in the 1920s (when at the age of twelve he performed with a pencilled moustache and his father's hat), to European jazz music festivals of the 1980s.
In 1983, only two years before his death, Turner was inducted into the <a href="Blues%20Hall%20of%20Fame">Blues Hall of Fame</a>. That same year, the album "Blues Train" was released by <a href="Mute%20Records">Mute Records</a> company; the album had Turner paired with the team <a href="Roomful%20of%20Blues">Roomful of Blues</a>. Turner received top billing with <a href="Count%20Basie">Count Basie</a> in the <a href="Kansas%20City%20jazz">Kansas City jazz</a> reunion movie "<a href="The%20Last%20of%20the%20Blue%20Devils">The Last of the Blue Devils</a>" (1979) featuring <a href="Jay%20McShann">Jay McShann</a>, <a href="Jimmy%20Forrest">Jimmy Forrest</a>, and other players from the city.
Big Joe Turner died in <a href="Inglewood%2C%20California">Inglewood, California</a>, in November 1985, at the age of 74 of heart failure, having suffered the earlier effects of arthritis, a stroke and diabetes. He was buried at Roosevelt Memorial Park, in <a href="Gardena%2C%20California">Gardena, California</a>.
Big Joe Turner was posthumously inducted into the <a href="Rock%20and%20Roll%20Hall%20of%20Fame">Rock and Roll Hall of Fame</a> in 1987. He is buried at Roosevelt Memorial Park in Gardena, California.
"<a href="The%20New%20York%20Times">The New York Times</a>" music critic <a href="Robert%20Palmer%20%28writer%29">Robert Palmer</a> said: "...his voice, pushing like a Count Basie solo, rich and grainy as a section of saxophones, which dominated the room with the sheer sumptuousness of its sound."
In announcing Turner's death in their December 1985 edition, the British music magazine, "<a href="NME">NME</a>", described Turner as "the grandfather of rock and roll."
<a href="Bob%20Dylan">Bob Dylan</a> referenced Turner in the song "<a href="High%20Water%20%28For%20Charley%20Patton%29">High Water (For Charley Patton)</a>", from his 2001 album "<a href="Love%20and%20Theft%20%28Bob%20Dylan%20album%29">Love and Theft</a>". Songwriter <a href="Dave%20Alvin">Dave Alvin</a> wrote a song about an evening he spent with Turner titled "Boss Of The Blues". It was on his 2009 release, "Dave Alvin & The Guilty Women". Alvin discussed the song in Issue 59 of The Blasters Newsletter.
<a href="Dave%20Alvin">Dave Alvin</a> would later collaborate on a second reunion album released in 2015 with his former Blaster's brother <a href="Phil%20Alvin">Phil Alvin</a> featuring four Big Joe covers. "Lost Time" covers songs such as "Cherry Red", "Wee Baby Blues" and "Hide and Seek". The brothers met Big Joe Turner in Los Angeles while he was playing the clubs on Central Ave. and living in the Adams district between tours in the 1960s. <a href="Phil%20Alvin">Phil Alvin</a> even opened for Turner a few times with his first band, Delta Pacific and Turner continued mentoring the Alvin brothers till his death in 1985. Big Joe Turner is pictured on the back cover of "Lost Time".
The biographical film "<a href="The%20Buddy%20Holly%20Story">The Buddy Holly Story</a>" refers to Turner as well as contemporaries <a href="Little%20Richard">Little Richard</a> and <a href="Fats%20Domino">Fats Domino</a> as major influences on <a href="Buddy%20Holly">Buddy Holly</a>, with Holly collecting their <a href="Vinyl%20record">vinyls</a>.
Tracks marked as * were million selling <a href="gramophone%20record">discs</a>.

</doc>
<doc id="90428" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90428" title="Social Democratic Party">
Social Democratic Party

The name Social Democratic Party or Social Democrats has been used by a large number of <a href="Political%20party">political parties</a> in various countries around the world. Such parties are most commonly aligned to <a href="social%20democracy">social democracy</a> as their <a href="Ideologies%20of%20parties">political ideology</a>.

</doc>
<doc id="90435" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90435" title="Champagne-Ardenne">
Champagne-Ardenne

Champagne-Ardenne () is a former <a href="regions%20of%20France">administrative region</a> of France, located in the northeast of the country, bordering <a href="Belgium">Belgium</a>. Mostly corresponding to the historic province of <a href="Champagne%20%28historical%20province%29">Champagne</a>, the region is famous for its sparkling white wine, named <a href="Champagne%20%28wine%29">champagne</a> after the eponymous <a href="Champagne%20%28wine%20region%29">wine region</a>.
The administrative region was formed in 1956, consisting of the four <a href="departments%20of%20France">departments</a> <a href="Aube">Aube</a>, <a href="Ardennes%20%28department%29">Ardennes</a>, <a href="Haute-Marne">Haute-Marne</a>, and <a href="Marne">Marne</a>. On 1 January 2016, it merged with neighboring regions of <a href="Alsace">Alsace</a> and <a href="Lorraine%20%28region%29">Lorraine</a> to form the new region <a href="Alsace-Champagne-Ardenne-Lorraine">Alsace-Champagne-Ardenne-Lorraine</a>, thereby ceasing to exist as an independent <a href="Territorial%20collectivity">entity</a>.
Its rivers, most of which flow west, include the <a href="Seine">Seine</a>, the <a href="Marne%20%28river%29">Marne</a>, and the <a href="Aisne%20%28river%29">Aisne</a>. The <a href="Meuse%20River">Meuse</a> flows north. 
The rail network includes the Paris–Strasbourg line, which follows the <a href="Marne%20Valley">Marne Valley</a> and serves <a href="%C3%89pernay">Épernay</a>, <a href="Ch%C3%A2lons-en-Champagne">Châlons-en-Champagne</a>, and <a href="Vitry-le-Fran%C3%A7ois">Vitry-le-François</a>. The <a href="LGV%20Est">LGV Est</a> <a href="TGV">TGV</a> line also connecting Paris and Strasbourg opened in 2007 and serves Reims with <a href="Gare%20de%20Champagne-Ardenne%20TGV">a train station</a> in the commune of <a href="Bezannes">Bezannes</a>.
The region's <a href="canal">canal</a>s include the <a href="Canal%20lat%C3%A9ral%20%C3%A0%20la%20Marne">Canal latéral à la Marne</a> and <a href="Marne-Rhine%20Canal">Marne-Rhine Canal</a>, the latter connecting to the <a href="Marne%20%28river%29">Marne</a> at Vitry-le-François. These are "petit gabarit" canals.
The <a href="Vatry%20International%20Airport">Vatry International Airport</a>, primarily dedicated to air freight, has a runway long. The airport is in a sparsely populated area just from Paris.
The population of Champagne-Ardenne has been in steady decrease since 1982 due to a <a href="rural%20exodus">rural exodus</a>. With 1.3 million people and a density of 52/km², it is one of France's least populated regions. After a brief period of stabilization in the 1990s, the region's population is now among the fastest "dying" in Europe, with several municipalities losing people at a faster rate than a lot of Eastern European areas, especially in the Haute-Marne department. The region is among the oldest in France, has a weak fertility rate, and its immigrant population, while growing, is still minimal compared to the national average.

</doc>
<doc id="90437" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90437" title="Zea (genus)">
Zea (genus)

Zea is a genus of plants in the <a href="Poaceae">grass family</a>. The best-known species is "Z. mays", variously called maize, corn, or Indian corn, one of the most important crops for human societies over much of the world. Several wild species are commonly known as teosintes and are native to <a href="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>.
The five recognized species in the genus are: "<a href="Zea%20diploperennis">Zea diploperennis</a>", "<a href="Zea%20perennis">Zea perennis</a>", "<a href="Zea%20luxurians">Zea luxurians</a>", "<a href="Zea%20nicaraguensis">Zea nicaraguensis</a>", and "<a href="Maize">Zea mays</a>". The last species is further divided into four subspecies: "Z. m. huehuetenangensis", "Z. m. mexicana", "Z. m. parviglumis", and "Z. m. mays". The first three subspecies are teosintes; the last is <a href="maize">maize</a>, or corn, the only domesticated <a href="taxon">taxon</a> in the genus "Zea". The species are grouped into two <a href="section%20%28botany%29">sections</a>, section "Luxuriantes", with the first four species, and section "Zea" with "Zea mays". The former section is typified by dark-staining knobs made up of <a href="heterochromatin">heterochromatin</a> that are terminal on most <a href="chromosome">chromosome</a> arms, while most subspecies of section "Zea" may have none to three knobs between each chromosome end and the <a href="centromere">centromere</a> and very few terminal knobs (except "Z. m. huehuetenangensis", which has many large terminal knobs). The two perennials are thought to be one species by some.
Both <a href="Annual%20plant">annual</a> and <a href="perennial%20plant">perennial</a> teosinte species occur. "<a href="Zea%20diploperennis">Zea diploperennis</a>" and "Z. perennis" are perennial, while all other species are annual. All species are <a href="diploid">diploid</a> (n=10) with the exception of "Z. perennis", which is <a href="tetraploid">tetraploid</a> (n=20). The different species and subspecies of teosinte can be readily distinguished based on morphological, cytogenetic, protein, and DNA differences and on geographic origin, although the two perennials are <a href="sympatric">sympatric</a> and very similar. What many consider to be the most puzzling teosinte is "Z. m. huehuetenangensis", which combines a morphology rather like "Z. m. parviglumis" with many terminal chromosome knobs and an isozyme position between the two sections. Considered to be phenotypically the most distinctive, as well as the most threatened, teosinte is "Zea nicaraguensis". This teosinte thrives in flooded conditions along 200 m of a coastal estuarine river in northwest Nicaragua.
Teosintes strongly resemble maize in many ways, notably their tassel (male inflorescence) morphology. Teosintes are distinguished from maize most obviously by their numerous branches each bearing bunches of distinctive, small female <a href="inflorescences">inflorescences</a>. These spikes mature to form a two-ranked 'ear' of five to 10 triangular or trapezoidal, black or brown disarticulating segments, each with one seed. Each seed is enclosed by a very hard fruitcase, consisting of a cupule or depression in the rachis and a tough lower glume. This protects them from the digestive processes of <a href="ruminants">ruminants</a> that forage on teosinte and aid in seed distribution through their droppings. Teosinte seed exhibits some resistance to germination, but will quickly <a href="germinate">germinate</a> if treated with a dilute solution of hydrogen peroxide.
Teosintes are critical components of maize <a href="Selective%20breeding">evolution</a>, but opinions vary about which taxa were involved. According to the most widely held evolutionary model, the crop was derived directly from "Z. m. parviglumis" by selection of key mutations; but in some varieties up to 20% of its genetic material came from "Z. m. mexicana" through <a href="introgression">introgression</a> 
All but the Nicaraguan species of teosinte may grow in or very near corn fields, providing opportunities for introgression between teosinte and maize. First- and later-generation hybrids are often found in the fields, but the rate of gene exchange is quite low. Some populations of "Z. m. mexicana" display <a href="Vavilovian%20mimicry">Vavilovian mimicry</a> within cultivated maize fields, having evolved a maize-like form as a result of the farmers' selective weeding pressure. In some areas of <a href="Mexico">Mexico</a>, teosintes are regarded by maize farmers as a noxious weed, while in a few areas, farmers regard it as a beneficial companion plant, and encourage its introgression into their maize.
According to Matsuoka et al., the available early maize gene pool can be divided into three clusters:
Also, some other intermediate genomes, or admixtures of these clusters occur.
According to these authors, "The maize of the Andes Mountains with its distinctive hand grenade-shaped ears was derived from the maize of lowland South America, which in turn came from maize of the lowlands of Guatemala and southern Mexico."
"Zea" species are used as food plants by the <a href="larva">larva</a>e (<a href="caterpillar">caterpillar</a>s) of some <a href="Lepidoptera">Lepidoptera</a> species including (in the Americas) the <a href="fall%20armyworm">fall armyworm</a> ("Spodoptera frugiperda"), the <a href="Helicoverpa%20zea">corn earworm</a> ("<a href="Helicoverpa%20zea">Helicoverpa zea</a>"), and the stem borers "<a href="Diatraea">Diatraea</a>" and "<a href="Chilo%20%28moth%29">Chilo</a>"; in the Old World, it is attacked by the <a href="double-striped%20pug">double-striped pug</a>, the <a href="cutworm">cutworm</a>s <a href="heart%20and%20club">heart and club</a> and <a href="heart%20and%20dart">heart and dart</a>, "<a href="Hypercompe">Hypercompe indecisa</a>", the <a href="rustic%20shoulder-knot">rustic shoulder-knot</a>, the <a href="setaceous%20Hebrew%20Character">setaceous Hebrew Character</a> and <a href="turnip%20moth">turnip moth</a>s, and the <a href="European%20corn%20borer">European corn borer</a> ("Ostrinia nubilalis"), among many others.
Virtually all populations of teosintes are either threatened or endangered: "Z. diploperennis" exists in an area of only a few square miles; "Z. nicaraguensis" survives as about 6000 plants in an area of 200 x 150 m. The Mexican and Nicaraguan governments have taken action in recent years to protect wild teosinte populations, using both "in situ" and "ex situ" conservation methods. Currently, a large amount of scientific interest exists in conferring beneficial teosinte traits, such as insect resistance, perennialism, and flood tolerance, to cultivated maize lines, although this is very difficult due to linked deleterious teosinte traits.
Species

</doc>
<doc id="90439" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90439" title="Pyrénées-Atlantiques">
Pyrénées-Atlantiques

Pyrénées-Atlantiques (; <a href="Gascon%20language">Gascon</a>: "Pirenèus-Atlantics"; or ) is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the region <a href="Aquitaine-Limousin-Poitou-Charentes">Aquitaine-Limousin-Poitou-Charentes</a>, southwestern <a href="France">France</a>. It takes its name from the <a href="Pyrenees">Pyrenees</a> mountains and the <a href="Atlantic%20Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>. It covers the <a href="French%20Basque%20Country">French Basque Country</a> and the <a href="B%C3%A9arn">Béarn</a>.
Basses-Pyrénées is one of the original 83 <a href="departments%20of%20France">departments of France</a> created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a>, on 4 March 1790. It was created out of parts belonging to the former greater province of <a href="Guyenne">Guyenne</a> and <a href="Gascony">Gascony</a>, as well as the <a href="Viscounty%20of%20B%C3%A9arn">Béarn</a>-<a href="Basse-Navarre">Navarre</a> (still, at least nominally, Kingdom of Navarre), i.e. the <a href="French%20Basque%20Country">Basques provinces</a> of <a href="Basse-Navarre">Basse-Navarre</a>, <a href="Labourd">Labourd</a>, <a href="Bayonne">Bayonne</a> (detached a few years before from Labourd), and <a href="Soule">Soule</a>, and <a href="B%C3%A9arn">Béarn</a>.
The 1790 administrative design brought about <a href="End%20of%20Basque%20home%20rule%20in%20France">the end of native institutions and laws</a>. The Basque third-estate representatives overtly opposed the new administrative layout since it suppressed their institutions and laws. The representatives of Lower Navarre refused to vote arguing that they were not part of the Kingdom of France, those of Soule voted against, while the brothers <a href="Dominique%20Joseph%20Garat">Garat</a>, representing Labourd, eventually voted yes, thinking that would give them a say in upcoming political decisions.
On 10 October 1969, Basses-Pyrénées was renamed "Pyrénées-Atlantiques".
Pyrénées-Atlantiques is part of the <a href="Aquitaine-Limousin-Poitou-Charentes">Aquitaine-Limousin-Poitou-Charentes</a> <a href="Regions%20of%20France">region</a> of Southwest France. It is bordered by the <a href="Landes%20%28department%29">Landes</a>, <a href="Hautes-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es">Hautes-Pyrénées</a>, <a href="Gers">Gers</a> departments and the <a href="Bay%20of%20Biscay">Bay of Biscay</a>. Principal settlements include <a href="Pau%2C%20Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es-Atlantiques">Pau</a>, <a href="Oloron-Sainte-Marie">Oloron-Sainte-Marie</a>, <a href="Orthez">Orthez</a>, <a href="Biarritz">Biarritz</a>, <a href="Bayonne">Bayonne</a>, <a href="Anglet">Anglet</a>, <a href="Urrugne">Urrugne</a>, <a href="Saint-Jean-de-Luz">Saint-Jean-de-Luz</a> and <a href="Hendaye">Hendaye</a>. <a href="Lac%20Gentau">Lac Gentau</a> is located here, as are the <a href="Lacs%20de%20Carnau">Lacs de Carnau</a>.
Pyrénées-Atlantiques, a border province, has cultivated a number of economic and cultural links with Spain.
Two urban concentrations exist in the east and west of the département: Pau, which has 145,000 inhabitants, and 344,000 workers in the local area; and Bayonne - Anglet - Biarritz which has 166,400 inhabitants and 235 000 workers in the local area
These parts of the department that were part of Guyenne and Gascony, and Béarn have a culture heavily influenced by the <a href="Basques">Basques</a>, but clearly different identities.
Both the Gascon <a href="Bearnese%20dialect">Bearnese</a> variant and <a href="Basque%20language">Basque</a> language are indigenous to the region in their respective districts. Gascon in turn is a dialect of <a href="Occitan%20language">Occitan</a>, formerly the main language of southern France. It is more closely related to <a href="Catalan%20language">Catalan</a> than it is to <a href="French%20language">French</a>. Basque is a <a href="language%20isolate">language isolate</a>, not related to any known language. Today, <a href="French%20language">French</a>, the sole official language of the French Republic, is the predominant native language and is spoken by virtually all inhabitants.
Pyrénées-Atlantiques is also home to a number of professional sports teams, including <a href="Aviron%20Bayonnais">Aviron Bayonnais</a>, <a href="Biarritz%20Olympique">Biarritz Olympique</a>, <a href="Section%20Paloise">Section Paloise</a> (rugby), <a href="%C3%89lan%20B%C3%A9arnais%20Pau-Orthez">Élan Béarnais Pau-Orthez</a> (basketball) and <a href="Pau%20FC">Pau FC</a> (association football). The <a href="Pau%20Grand%20Prix">Pau Grand Prix</a>, an auto race first held in 1901, has hosted the <a href="World%20Touring%20Car%20Championship">World Touring Car Championship</a>, <a href="British%20Formula%20Three">British Formula Three</a>, <a href="Formula%203%20Euro%20Series">Formula 3 Euro Series</a> and <a href="FIA%20European%20Formula%203%20Championship">FIA European Formula 3 Championship</a>.
The <a href="coat%20of%20arms">coat of arms</a> of Pyrénées-Atlantiques combines those of four traditional provinces:

</doc>
<doc id="90443" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90443" title="List of companies of Italy">
List of companies of Italy

This is a list of notable <a href="companies">companies</a> from Italy.
These companies specialize in <a href="automobile%20design">automobile design</a>.

</doc>
<doc id="90444" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90444" title="House of York">
House of York

The House of York was a <a href="cadet%20branch">cadet branch</a> of the English royal <a href="House%20of%20Plantagenet">House of Plantagenet</a>. Three of its members became <a href="List%20of%20monarchs%20of%20England">Kings of England</a> in the late 15th century. The House of York was descended in the <a href="patrilineality">male line</a> from <a href="Edmund%20of%20Langley%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20York">Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York</a>, the fourth surviving son of <a href="Edward%20III%20of%20England">Edward III</a>, but also represented Edward's senior line, being <a href="cognatic">cognatic</a> descendants of <a href="Lionel%20of%20Antwerp%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Clarence">Lionel, Duke of Clarence</a>, Edward III's second surviving son. It is based on these descents that they claimed the English crown. Compared with the <a href="House%20of%20Lancaster">House of Lancaster</a>, it had a senior claim to the throne of England according to <a href="Cognatic%20primogeniture%23Male-preference%20primogeniture">cognatic primogeniture</a> but junior claim according to the <a href="agnatic%20primogeniture">agnatic primogeniture</a>. The reign of this dynasty ended with the death of <a href="Richard%20III%20of%20England">Richard III of England</a> in 1485. It became extinct in the male line with the death of <a href="Edward%20Plantagenet%2C%2017th%20Earl%20of%20Warwick">Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick</a> in 1499.
<a href="Edmund%20of%20Langley%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20York">Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York</a>, 1st Earl of Cambridge, KG (5 June 1341 – 1 August 1402) was a younger son of King <a href="Edward%20III%20of%20England">Edward III of England</a> and <a href="Philippa%20of%20Hainault">Philippa of Hainault</a>, the fourth of their five sons who lived to adulthood. He was the founder of the House of York, but it was through the marriage of his younger son, Richard to Anne Mortimer that the Yorkist faction in the Wars of the Roses made its claim on the throne. The other party in the <a href="Wars%20of%20the%20Roses">Wars of the Roses</a>, the <a href="House%20of%20Lancaster">Lancasters</a>, were descendants of Edmund's elder brother, <a href="John%20of%20Gaunt%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Lancaster">John of Gaunt</a> whose son <a href="Henry%20IV%20of%20England">Henry</a> usurped the throne of <a href="Richard%20II%20of%20England">Richard II</a> in 1399.
Edmund had two sons, <a href="Edward%20of%20Norwich%2C%202nd%20Duke%20of%20York">Edward</a>, and <a href="Richard%20of%20Conisburgh%2C%203rd%20Earl%20of%20Cambridge">Richard of Conisburgh</a>. Edward succeeded to the dukedom in 1402, but was killed at the <a href="battle%20of%20Agincourt">battle of Agincourt</a> in 1415, with no issue. Richard married <a href="Anne%20Mortimer">Anne Mortimer</a>, a great-granddaughter of <a href="Lionel%20of%20Antwerp%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Clarence">Lionel of Antwerp</a>, the second son (cadet line) of Edward III. Furthermore, Anne's son Richard also became <a href="heir%20general">heir general</a> to the <a href="earl%20of%20March">earldom of March</a>, after her only brother, <a href="Edmund%20Mortimer%2C%205th%20Earl%20of%20March">Edmund, 5th Earl</a>, died without issue in 1425. Their father <a href="Roger%20Mortimer%2C%204th%20Earl%20of%20March">Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March</a> had been named <a href="heir%20presumptive">heir presumptive</a> of <a href="Richard%20II%20of%20England">Richard II</a> before <a href="Henry%20IV%20of%20England">Henry IV</a>'s accession; although it had been passed over at the time, Anne's son Richard also inherited this claim to the throne.
Richard of Conisburgh was executed following his involvement in the <a href="Southampton%20Plot">Southampton Plot</a> to depose <a href="Henry%20V%20of%20England">Henry V of England</a> in favour of the Earl of March. The dukedom of York therefore passed to his son, <a href="Richard%20Plantagenet%2C%203rd%20Duke%20of%20York">Richard Plantagenet</a>. Through his mother, Richard Plantagenet also inherited the lands of the earldom of March, as well as the Mortimer claim to the throne.
Despite his elevated status, Richard Plantagenet was denied a position in government by the advisers of the weak <a href="Henry%20VI%20of%20England">Henry VI</a>, particularly <a href="John%20Beaufort%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Somerset">John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset</a>, and the queen consort, <a href="Margaret%20of%20Anjou">Margaret of Anjou</a>. Although he served as Protector of the Realm during Henry VI's period of incapacity in 1453-54, his reforms were reversed by Somerset's party once the king had recovered.
The <a href="Wars%20of%20the%20Roses">Wars of the Roses</a> began the following year, with the <a href="First%20Battle%20of%20St%20Albans">First Battle of St Albans</a>. Initially, Richard aimed only to purge his Lancastrian political opponents from positions of influence over the king. It was not until October 1460 that he claimed the throne for the House of York. In that year the Yorkists had captured the king at the <a href="battle%20of%20Northampton%20%281460%29">battle of Northampton</a>, but victory was short-lived. Richard and his second son <a href="Edmund%2C%20Earl%20of%20Rutland">Edmund</a> were killed at the <a href="battle%20of%20Wakefield">battle of Wakefield</a> on 30 December.
Richard's claim to the throne was inherited by his son <a href="Edward%20IV%20of%20England">Edward</a>. With the support of <a href="Richard%20Neville%2C%2016th%20Earl%20of%20Warwick">Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick</a> ("The Kingmaker"), Edward, already showing great promise as a leader of men, defeated the Lancastrians in a succession of battles. While Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou were campaigning in the north, Warwick gained control of the capital and had Edward declared king in London in 1461. Edward strengthened his claim with a decisive victory at the <a href="Battle%20of%20Towton">Battle of Towton</a> in the same year, in the course of which the Lancastrian army was virtually wiped out.
The early reign of <a href="Edward%20IV%20of%20England">Edward IV</a> was marred by Lancastrian plotting and uprisings in favour of Henry VI. Warwick himself changed sides, and supported Margaret of Anjou and the king's jealous brother <a href="George%20Plantagenet%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Clarence">George, Duke of Clarence</a>, in briefly restoring Henry in 1470-71. However, Edward regained his throne, and the House of Lancaster was wiped out with the death of Henry VI himself, in the <a href="Tower%20of%20London">Tower of London</a> in 1471. In 1478, the continued trouble caused by Clarence led to his execution in the <a href="Tower%20of%20London">Tower of London</a>; popularly he is thought to have been drowned in a butt of <a href="malmsey">malmsey</a> wine.
On Edward's death in 1483, the crown passed to his twelve-year-old son <a href="Edward%20V%20of%20England">Edward</a>. Edward IV's younger brother <a href="Richard%20III%20of%20England">Richard, Duke of Gloucester</a>, was appointed Protector, and escorted the young king, and his brother <a href="Richard%20of%20Shrewsbury%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20York">Richard</a>, to the Tower of London. The famous <a href="Princes%20in%20the%20Tower">Princes in the Tower</a> were never seen again. However it is unknown whether they were killed or who killed them if it happened. Parliament declared, in the document "<a href="Titulus%20Regius">Titulus Regius</a>", that the two boys were illegitimate, on the grounds that Edward IV's marriage was invalid, and as such Richard was heir to the throne. He was crowned Richard III in July 1483.
Richard III had many enemies. Though the House of Lancaster had been extinguished, the Lancastrian sympathisers survived, who now rallied behind <a href="Henry%20VII%20of%20England">Henry Tudor</a>, a descendant of the Beauforts, a legitimized branch of the House of Lancaster. Moreover, the family of Edward IV, and the Edwardian loyalists, were naturally opposed to him, essentially dividing his Yorkist power base. A coup attempt failed in late 1483, but in 1485 Richard met Henry Tudor at the <a href="battle%20of%20Bosworth%20Field">battle of Bosworth Field</a>. During the battle, some of Richard's important supporters switched sides or withheld their retainers from the field. Richard himself was killed. He was the last of the Plantagenet kings, and the last English king to die in battle.
Henry Tudor declared himself king, took <a href="Elizabeth%20of%20York">Elizabeth of York</a>, eldest child of Edward IV, as his wife, symbolically uniting the surviving houses of York and Lancaster, and acceded to the throne as Henry VII, founder of the Tudor dynasty which reigned until 1603.
The <a href="John%20de%20la%20Pole%2C%202nd%20Duke%20of%20Suffolk">de la Pole</a> family were sometimes suggested as heirs to the Yorkist cause, but Henry Tudor and his son <a href="Henry%20VIII%20of%20England">Henry VIII of England</a> efficiently suppressed all such opposition.
Another Yorkist branch descends from <a href="George%20Plantagenet%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Clarence">George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence</a>, and younger brother of Edward IV. The heir to this branch is the <a href="Earl%20of%20Loudoun">Earl of Loudoun</a>, currently <a href="Simon%20Abney-Hastings%2C%2015th%20Earl%20of%20Loudoun">Simon Abney-Hastings</a>. There was in Edward IV's reign a suspicion that <a href="Edward%20IV%20of%20England%23Was%20Edward%20illegitimate.3F">this king was illegitimate</a>. In 2004, the British station Channel 4 revived the George branch's claim as "Britain's Real Monarch". The Earls of Loudoun would then, at least, be the heirs to the Yorkists.
Upon Henry Tudor's uniting the rival houses of Lancaster and York, the title <a href="Duke%20of%20York">Duke of York</a> became a royal prerogative and is traditionally accorded to the second son of the reigning monarch. Beginning with <a href="Richard%20of%20Shrewsbury%2C%20Duke%20of%20York">Richard of Shrewsbury</a> (son of Edward IV, one of the Princes in the Tower), none of its holders were able to transmit it; they either died without a male heir or succeeded to the throne. The title is held today by <a href="Prince%20Andrew%2C%20Duke%20of%20York">Prince Andrew</a>, second son of Queen <a href="Elizabeth%20II">Elizabeth II</a> and her consort <a href="Prince%20Philip%2C%20Duke%20of%20Edinburgh">Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh</a>.
The symbol of the House of York was a <a href="White%20Rose%20of%20York">white rose</a>, still used as the badge of <a href="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a> and <a href="Jacobitism">Jacobitism</a>. <a href="York%2C%20Pennsylvania">York, Pennsylvania</a>, is known as the White Rose City after the symbol of the House of York. The rivalry between York and Lancaster, in the modern form of the counties of Yorkshire and <a href="Lancashire">Lancashire</a>, has continued into the present day on a more friendly basis.
Edward Plantagenet became <a href="Edward%20IV%20of%20England">Edward IV</a> in 1461, thus merging the title of <a href="Duke%20of%20York">Duke of York</a> in crown.

</doc>
<doc id="90446" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90446" title="Equality (mathematics)">
Equality (mathematics)

In <a href="mathematics">mathematics</a>, equality is a relationship between two quantities or, more generally two <a href="mathematical%20expression">mathematical expression</a>s, asserting that the quantities have the same value, or that the expressions represent the same <a href="mathematical%20object">mathematical object</a>. The equality between "A" and "B" is written "A" = "B", and pronounced "A" equals "B". The symbol "=" is called an "<a href="equals%20sign">equals sign</a>". Thus there are three kinds of equality, which are formalized in different ways.
These may be thought of as the logical, set-theoretic and algebraic concepts of equality respectively.
The <a href="etymology">etymology</a> of the word is from the Latin "<a href="wikt%3Aaequalis%23Latin">aequālis</a>" (“equal”, “like”, “comparable”, “similar”) from "<a href="wikt%3Aaequus%23Latin">aequus</a>" (“equal”, “level”, “fair”, “just”).
Equality is defined so that things which have the same properties are equal. If some form of <a href="Identity%20of%20indiscernibles">Leibniz's law</a> is added as an <a href="axiom">axiom</a>, the assertion of this axiom rules out "bare particulars"—things that have all and only the same properties but are not equal to each other—which are possible in some logical formalisms. The axiom states that two things are equal if they have all and only the same <a href="Property%20%28philosophy%29">properties</a>. Formally:
In this law, the connective "if and only if" can be weakened to "if"; the modified law is equivalent to the original.
Instead of considering Leibniz's law as an axiom, it can also be taken as the "definition" of equality. The property of being an equivalence relation, as well as the properties given below, can then be proved: they become <a href="theorem">theorem</a>s.
If a=b, then a can replace b and b can replace a.
The substitution property states:
In <a href="first-order%20logic">first-order logic</a>, this is a <a href="schema%20%28logic%29">schema</a>, since we can't quantify over expressions like "F" (which would be a <a href="functional%20predicate">functional predicate</a>).
Some specific examples of this are:
The reflexive property states:
This property is generally used in <a href="mathematical%20proof">mathematical proof</a>s as an intermediate step.
The symmetric property states:
The transitive property states:
These three properties were originally included among the <a href="Peano%20axioms">Peano axioms</a> for natural numbers. Although the symmetric and transitive properties are often seen as fundamental, they can be proved if the substitution and reflexive properties are assumed instead.
When "A" and "B" are not fully specified or depend on some <a href="Variable%20%28mathematics%29">variables</a>, equality is a <a href="proposition%20%28mathematics%29">proposition</a>, which may be true for some values and false for some other values. Equality is a <a href="binary%20relation">binary relation</a>, or, in other words, a two-arguments <a href="predicate%20%28mathematical%20logic%29">predicate</a>, which may produce a <a href="truth%20value">truth value</a> ("false" or "true") from its arguments. In <a href="computer%20programming">computer programming</a>, its computation from two expressions is known as <a href="relational%20operator">comparison</a>.
Equality of sets is axiomatized in set theory in two different ways, depending on whether the axioms are based on a first-order language with or without equality.
In FOL with equality, the axiom of extensionality states that two sets which "contain" the same elements are the same set.
Incorporating half of the work into the first-order logic may be regarded as a mere matter of convenience, as noted by Lévy.
In FOL without equality, two sets are "defined" to be equal if they contain the same elements. Then the axiom of extensionality states that two equal sets "are contained in" the same sets.
When "A" and "B" may be viewed as <a href="function%20%28mathematics%29">functions</a> of some variables, then "A" = "B" means that "A" and "B" define the same function. Such an equality of functions is sometimes called an <a href="identity%20%28mathematics%29">identity</a>. An example is ("x" + 1) = "x" + 2"x" + 1.
An <a href="equation">equation</a> is the problem of finding values of some variables, called "unknowns", for which the specified equality is true. "Equation" may also refer to an equality relation that is satisfied only for the values of the variables that one is interested on. For example, "x" + "y" = 1 is the "equation" of the <a href="unit%20circle">unit circle</a>.
There is no standard notation that distinguishes an equation from an identity or other use of the equality relation: a reader has to guess an appropriate interpretation from the semantics of expressions and the context. An identity is "asserted" to be true for all values of variables in a given domain. An "equation" may sometimes mean an identity, but more often it "specifies" a subset of the variable space to be the subset where the equation is true.
In some cases, one may consider as equal two mathematical objects that are only equivalent for the properties that are considered. This is, in particular the case in <a href="geometry">geometry</a>, where two <a href="geometric%20shape">geometric shape</a>s are said equal when one may be moved to coincide with the other. The word congruence is also used for this kind of equality.
There are some <a href="mathematical%20logic">logic systems</a> that do not have any notion of equality. This reflects the <a href="undecidable%20problem">undecidability</a> of the equality of two <a href="real%20number">real number</a>s defined by formulas involving the <a href="integer">integer</a>s, the basic <a href="arithmetic%20operation">arithmetic operation</a>s, the <a href="logarithm">logarithm</a> and the <a href="exponential%20function">exponential function</a>. In other words, there cannot exist any <a href="algorithm">algorithm</a> for deciding such an equality.
The <a href="binary%20relation">binary relation</a> "<a href="approximation">is approximately equal</a>" between <a href="real%20number">real number</a>s or other things, even if more precisely defined, is not transitive (it may seem so at first sight, but many small <a href="Difference%20%28mathematics%29">differences</a> can add up to something big). However, equality <a href="almost%20everywhere">almost everywhere</a> "is" transitive.
Viewed as a relation, equality is the archetype of the more general concept of an <a href="equivalence%20relation">equivalence relation</a> on a set: those binary relations that are <a href="reflexive%20relation">reflexive</a>, <a href="symmetric%20relation">symmetric</a>, and <a href="transitive%20relation">transitive</a>.
The identity relation is an equivalence relation. Conversely, let "R" be an equivalence relation, and let us denote by "x" the equivalence class of "x", consisting of all elements "z" such that "x R z". Then the relation "x R y" is equivalent with the equality "x" = "y". It follows that equality is the finest equivalence relation on any set "S", in the sense that it is the relation that has the smallest equivalence classes (every class is reduced to a single element).
In some contexts, equality is sharply distinguished from "<a href="equivalence%20relation">equivalence</a>" or "<a href="isomorphism">isomorphism</a>." For example, one may distinguish "<a href="fraction%20%28mathematics%29">fractions</a>" from "<a href="rational%20number">rational number</a>s," the latter being equivalence classes of fractions: the fractions formula_1 and formula_2 are distinct as fractions, as different strings of symbols, but they "represent" the same rational number, the same point on a number line. This distinction gives rise to the notion of a <a href="quotient%20set">quotient set</a>.
Similarly, the sets
are not equal sets – the first consists of letters, while the second consists of numbers – but they are both sets of three elements, and thus isomorphic, meaning that there is a <a href="bijection">bijection</a> between them, for example
However, there are other choices of isomorphism, such as
and these sets cannot be identified without making such a choice – any statement that identifies them "depends on choice of identification". This distinction, <a href="Isomorphism%23Relation%20with%20equality">between equality and isomorphism</a>, is of fundamental importance in <a href="category%20theory">category theory</a>, and is one motivation for the development of category theory.

</doc>
<doc id="90447" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90447" title="François-André Danican Philidor">
François-André Danican Philidor

François-André Danican Philidor (September 7, 1726 – August 31, 1795), often referred to as André Danican Philidor during his lifetime, was a <a href="France">French</a> <a href="composer">composer</a> and <a href="chess">chess</a> player. He contributed to the early development of the <a href="op%C3%A9ra%20comique">opéra comique</a>. He was also regarded as the best chess player of his age; his book "Analyse du jeu des Échecs" was considered a standard chess manual for at least a century, and a well-known <a href="chess%20opening">chess opening</a> and a <a href="checkmate">checkmate</a> method are both named after him.
François-André Danican Philidor came from a well-known musical family, which included:
François-André Danican Philidor was born to his father’s second wife, Elizabeth Le Roy, whom he wed in 1719 when she was 19 years old and he 72. When François-André was born, his father was 79 years old; he died 4 years later and left his son fatherless.
Philidor joined the royal choir of <a href="Louis%20XV%20of%20France">Louis XV</a> in 1732 at the age of six, and made his first attempt at the composition of a song at the age of 11. It was said that Louis XV wanted to listen to the choir almost every day, and the singers, while waiting for the king to arrive, played chess to relieve their boredom; this may have sparked Philidor's interest in chess.
From around 1740 he lived and worked in Paris as a performer, teacher and music copyist. He was the teacher of the Bohemian composer and pianist <a href="Ludwig%20Wenzel%20Lachnith">Ludwig Wenzel Lachnith</a>. During this time he met <a href="Diderot">Diderot</a>, who calls him 'Philidor le subtil' in "<a href="Le%20neveu%20de%20Rameau">Le neveu de Rameau</a>". He spent much of the period 1745–54 in London after a concert tour of the Netherlands collapsed, and moved in the same circles as <a href="Samuel%20Johnson">Dr Johnson</a> and <a href="Charles%20Burney">Dr Burney</a>. He returned to the French capital in 1754, although his music was found by some to be too Italianate (as a result of his travels). However he scored several triumphs at the fair theatres, starting with "Blaise le savetier" in 1759. His three most successful works were "Le sorcier" (1764), "<a href="Tom%20Jones%20%28Philidor%29">Tom Jones</a>" (after <a href="Henry%20Fielding">Henry Fielding</a>, 1765), and "Ernelinde" (1767).
For a time Philidor was among the leading opera composers in France, and during his musical career produced over 20 <a href="op%C3%A9ra%20comique">opéras comiques</a> and two tragédies-lyriques. He also wrote secular cantatas and motets.
Philidor also wrote music for <a href="Freemasonry">masonic</a> rituals.
Philidor started playing regularly around 1740 at the chess Mecca of France, the <a href="Caf%C3%A9%20de%20la%20R%C3%A9gence">Café de la Régence</a>. It was also there that he famously played with a friend from '<a href="New%20England">New England</a>', Mr. <a href="Benjamin%20Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a>. The best player in France at the time, <a href="Legall%20de%20Kermeur">Legall de Kermeur</a>, taught him. At first, Legall could give Philidor <a href="Chess%20handicap">rook odds</a>, a handicap in which the stronger player starts without one of his rooks, but in only three years, Philidor was his equal, and then surpassed him. Philidor visited England in 1747 and decisively beat the <a href="Syria">Syria</a>n <a href="Phillip%20Stamma">Phillip Stamma</a> in a match +8−1=1, even though Philidor let Stamma have the first move in every game, and scored all draws as wins for Stamma.
The same year, Philidor played many games with another strong player, Sir Abraham Janssen, who was then the best player in England, and with the exception of M. de Legalle, probably the best player Philidor ever encountered. He could win on an average one game in four off Philidor, at even terms; and Philidor himself declared that he could only give to Janssen the pawn for the move.
In 1754, Philidor returned to France, after nine years of absence spent mostly in Holland and England. He was now a much stronger player, having successfully played with opponents of the calibre of Philip Stamma and Abraham Janssen, but, as G. Allen reports in "The life of Philidor", it was not until his match with de Legal in 1755 that he can be considered the strongest player in the world.
When Philidor left Paris, in 1745, although he had for some time been playing even games with M. de Legal... he had not ceased to recognize his old master as still his master and superior. But nine years of practice, with a great variety of players, had authorized him to look for neither superior nor equal; and when, in 1755, a match was arranged between the pupil and his master, who was still at the height of his strength, the result placed the crown firmly and indisputably upon the head of Philidor.
In 1771 and 1773 Philidor made brief stays in London to play at the Salopian coffee-house, Charing Cross and at the St James Chess Club. In 1774 the Parloe's chess club, on St James street, in London, was created and Philidor obtained a remuneration as a chess master every year, for a regular season from February to June. Philidor stayed faithful to this agreement until the end of his life and he was replaced by <a href="Verdoni%20%28chess%20player%29">Verdoni</a> only after his death. It is rightly in this place Philidor encountered Mr. <a href="George%20Atwood">George Atwood</a>, famous mathematician and physician, lecturer at Cambridge University. In an article of J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson, devoted to George Atwood, there is the following passage:
Atwood was a renowned amateur chess-player and among other opponents played games against the famous French player Philidor, who was regarded as the unofficial world champion.
H E Bird records:
Of the players who encountered Philidor, Sir Abraham Janssens, who died in 1775, seems to have been the best, Mr. George Atwood, a mathematician, one of Pitt's secretaries came next, he was of a class which we should call third or two grades of odds below Philidor, a high standard of excellence to which but few amateurs attain. One of most interesting features of Atwood as a chess player is that he recorded and preserved some of his games, an unusual practice at that time. These records have survived, among them the last games that Philidor played which were against Atwood at Parsloe's Club in London on 20 June 1795.
In England, Philidor astounded his peers by playing three <a href="blindfold%20chess">blindfold chess</a> games simultaneously in the chess club of St. James Street in <a href="London">London</a> on 9 May 1783. Philidor let all three opponents play white, and gave up a pawn for the third player. Some <a href="affidavit">affidavit</a>s were signed, because those persons who were involved doubted that future generations would believe that such a feat was possible. Today, three simultaneous blindfold games would be fairly unremarkable among many chess <a href="chess%20master">masters</a>. Even when he was in his late years, when he was 67 years old (1793), he played and won two blindfold games simultaneously in London.
Philidor, both in England and France, was largely recognized in each of his fields and got a lot of admirers, protectors and also friends, like were the French philosophers <a href="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, <a href="Jean-Jacques%20Rousseau">Rousseau</a> and the famous English actor <a href="David%20Garrick">David Garrick</a> (1717–1779).
In December 1792, however, when he was age 65, Philidor had to definitively leave France for England. He was fleeing the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> (1789–1799), because his name figured on the Revolutionary banishment list, established by the "Convention nationale". This was not probably due to his ideas (indeed it seems Philidor was rather reserved about his opinions apart from music and chess), but very likely in view of the traditional attachment of his family to the King's family service.
<a href="Andrew%20Soltis">Andrew Soltis</a> writes that Philidor "was the best player in the world for 50 years. In fact, he was probably about 200 <a href="Elo%20rating">rating points</a> better than anyone else yet alive—set apart by the mysteries of the game he had solved."
Also interesting is GM <a href="Boris%20Alterman">Boris Alterman</a>'s opinion on Philidor play:
500 years ago chess was different from today. Pawns didn't cost as much as they do today. The best players started games with the gambits. Pawns were only a small price to: Open a file or diagonal; Create an immediate attack on an opponent's king. It was the Italian style of chess. All positions of the King's Gambit were very popular... The best chess player of his day was Francois Andre Danican-Philidor... His published chess strategy stood for a hundred years without significant addition or modification. He preached the value of a strong pawn center, an understanding of the relative value of the pieces, and correct pawn formations...
In the same web-article, Alterman also noticed, analyzing the game Count Bruehl–Philidor, F, 0–1, London 1783, that Philidor understood very well modern concepts like: power of passed pawns; bad and good pieces; space advantage; open files; pawn structure; importance of center.
<a href="Jacques%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Mouret">Jacques François Mouret</a>, one of the best French players of the early 19th century, was Philidor's great-nephew.
In 1749, Philidor published his famous book "Analyse du jeu des Échecs". He printed a second edition in 1777, and a third edition in 1790. The book was such an advance in chess knowledge that by 1871, it had gone through about 70 editions, and had been translated into English, German, Russian and Italian. In it, Philidor analyzed nine different types of game openings. Most of the openings of Philidor are designed to strengthen and establish a strong defensive center using pawns. He is the first one to realize the new role of the <a href="pawn%20%28chess%29">pawn</a> in the chess game; and his most famous advice was the saying "The pawns are the soul of chess."
More precisely Philidor said:
Mon but principal est de me rendre recommandable par une nouveauté dont personne ne s'est avisé, ou peut-être n'a été capable ; c'est celle de bien jouer les pions ; ils sont l'âme des Echecs : ce sont eux-mêmes qui forment uniquement l'attaque et la défense et de leur bon ou mauvais arrangement dépend entièrement le gain ou la perte de la partie.
Translation: My main purpose is to make myself commendable by a novelty of which no one was aware or perhaps was capable [of discovering]; this is to play the pawns well; they are the soul of chess: it is they which uniquely determine the attack and the defence, and on their good or bad arrangement depends entirely the winning or losing of the game.
It was said that the reason why Philidor emphasized the pawns in the chess game was related to the political background during the eighteenth century of France, and that he regarded pawns as the "Third rank" on the chess board (citizens were regarded as the third rank of the society before the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> started in 1789). He also included analysis of certain positions of <a href="Philidor%20position%23Rook%20and%20bishop%20versus%20rook">rook and bishop versus rook</a>, such analysis being still current theory even today. He is most famous for showing an important drawing technique with a <a href="rook%20and%20pawn%20versus%20rook%20endgame">rook and pawn versus rook endgame</a>, in a position known as the <a href="Philidor%20position">Philidor position</a>. The <a href="Philidor%20Defence">Philidor Defense</a> (1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 d6) is <a href="List%20of%20chess%20openings%20named%20after%20people">named</a> for him. Philidor’s book was the very first (1) that gave detailed annotations on how to play the middlegame, (2) that presented chess strategy as a whole, and (3) that presented the concepts of the blockade, prophylaxis, positional sacrifice, and mobility of the pawn formation.
Early critics of the "Analyse du jeu des Échecs" include those of the Modenese School (<a href="Ercole%20del%20Rio">Ercole del Rio</a>, <a href="Giambattista%20Lolli">Lolli</a> or <a href="Domenico%20Lorenzo%20Ponziani">Ponziani</a>), who in contrast to the French, advocated a free piece play, <a href="gambit">gambit</a> openings and tactical complications; they also found some of the variations reported in the "Analyse" to be unsound (in particular those related with f7–f5 push in the <a href="Philidor%20Defence">Philidor Defence</a> 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 f5). Some of Philidor's disciples -- <a href="Bernard%20%28chess%20player%29">Bernard</a>, <a href="Carlier%20%28chess%20player%29">Carlier</a>, <a href="Leger%20%28chess%20player%29">Leger</a>, and <a href="Verdoni%20%28chess%20player%29">Verdoni</a>, who met at the <a href="Caf%C3%A9%20de%20la%20R%C3%A9gence">Café de la Régence</a> under the name of "Société des Amateurs"—also criticized his work. In their book, "<a href="Trait%C3%A9%20des%20Amateurs">Traité des Amateurs</a>", they expressed many criticisms and comments on his earlier printed book, arguing that the variations reported in Philidor's "Analyse" are more instructive than correct. Nevertheless, the games of the "<a href="Trait%C3%A9%20des%20Amateurs">Traité</a>" can be regarded, together of those of Philidor, as typical examples of the understanding of chess during the <a href="Age%20of%20Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, and the "Société des Amateurs" was much closer to Philidor than to the Modenese school.
Philidor was stranded in England when the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> occurred. Because of many of his social connections mentioned above, the Revolutionary Government put him on the banned list. He died on August 31, 1795, in London and was buried in St James, <a href="Piccadilly">Piccadilly</a>. A few days later, his relatives succeeded in getting his name removed from the list.
Philidor's name is used for three well-known chess topics:
A one-act <a href="op%C3%A9ra-comique">opéra-comique</a> with music by Amédée Dutacq and libretto by Abraham Dreyfus entitled "Battez Philidor !" ("Beat Philidor!") was premiered on 13 November 1882 at the <a href="Op%C3%A9ra-Comique">Opéra-Comique</a>. Set in 1777, a poor musician is required to beat Philidor at chess before he can win the hand of his sweetheart. Although Philidor agrees to lose the match to help out, by distraction he nonetheless wins the game, although all turns out well for the lovers in the end. "Battez Philidor !" also features Philidor's sometime collaborator A A H Poinsinet.

</doc>
<doc id="90448" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90448" title="Fifth column">
Fifth column

A fifth column is any group of people who undermine a larger group—such as a nation or a <a href="siege%20warfare">besieged city</a>—from within, usually in favor of an enemy group or nation. The activities of a fifth column can be overt or clandestine. Forces gathered in secret can mobilize openly to assist an external attack. This term is also extended to organized actions by military personnel. Clandestine fifth column activities can involve acts of sabotage, disinformation, or espionage executed within defense lines by secret sympathizers with an external force.
<a href="Emilio%20Mola">Emilio Mola</a>, a <a href="National%20faction%20%28Spanish%20Civil%20War%29">Nationalist General</a> during the <a href="Spanish%20Civil%20War">Spanish Civil War</a>, told a journalist in 1936 that as his four <a href="Column%20%28formation%29">columns</a> of troops approached <a href="Siege%20of%20Madrid">Madrid</a>, a "fifth column" () of supporters inside the city would support him and undermine the <a href="Second%20Spanish%20Republic">Republican government</a> from within. The term was then widely used in Spain. <a href="Ernest%20Hemingway">Ernest Hemingway</a> used it as the title of his only play, which he wrote in Madrid while the city was being bombarded, and published in 1938 in his book "<a href="The%20Fifth%20Column%20and%20the%20First%20Forty-Nine%20Stories">The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories</a>".
Some writers, mindful of the origin of the phrase, use it only in reference to military operations rather than the broader and less well defined range of activities that sympathizers might engage in to support an anticipated attack.
In the United States at the end of the 1930s, as involvement in the European war seemed ever more likely, those who feared the possibility of betrayal from within used the newly coined term "fifth column" as a shorthand for sedition and disloyalty. The rapid <a href="Battle%20of%20France">fall of France</a> in 1940 led many to blame a "fifth column" rather than German military superiority. Political factions in France blamed one another for the nation's defeat and military officials blamed the civilian leadership, all helping feed American anxieties. In June 1940, <a href="Life%20magazine">"Life" magazine</a> ran a series of photos under the heading "Signs of Nazi Fifth Column Everywhere". In July 1940, <a href="Time%20magazine">"Time" magazine</a> called fifth column talk a "national phenomenon". In August 1940 the "<a href="New%20York%20Times">New York Times</a>" mentioned "the first spasm of fear engendered by the success of fifth columns in less fortunate countries". One report identified participants in Nazi "fifth columns" as "partisans of authoritarian government everywhere", citing <a href="Poland">Poland</a>, <a href="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, <a href="Norway">Norway</a>, and the <a href="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>. <a href="Vidkun%20Quisling">Vidkun Quisling</a> aided the Nazis during the <a href="Norwegian%20Campaign">campaign in Norway</a> by proclaiming a Nazi government on the day of the German invasion in 1940, and his name of "quisling" is associated with Nazi collaborators.
<a href="John%20Langdon-Davies">John Langdon-Davies</a>, a British journalist who covered the Spanish Civil War, popularized the term "fifth column" by publishing an account called "The Fifth Column" in 1940. The "New York Times" published three editorial cartoons that used the term on August 11, 1940. In November 1940, Ralph Thomson, reviewing Harold Lavine's "Fifth Column in America", a study of Communist and fascist groups in the U.S., in the "New York Times", questioned his choice of that title: "the phrase has been worked so hard that it no longer means much of anything". In the US an Australian radio play, The Enemy Within, proved be to very popular, however, this popularity was due to the belief that the stories of fifth column activities were based on real events. In December 1940 the Australian censors had the series banned.
British reviewers of <a href="Agatha%20Christie">Agatha Christie</a>'s novel "<a href="N%20or%20M%3F">N or M?</a>" in 1941 used the term to describe the struggle of two British partisans of the Nazi regime working on its behalf in England during World War II.
In <a href="Frank%20Capra">Frank Capra</a>'s 1941 film "<a href="Meet%20John%20Doe">Meet John Doe</a>", newspaper editor Henry Connell warns political ingenue John Doe about a businessman's plans to promote his own political ambitions using the apolitical John Doe Clubs. Connell says to John: "Listen, pal, this fifth-column stuff is pretty rotten, isn't it?", identifying the businessman with anti-democratic interests in the United States. When Doe agrees, he adds: "And you'd feel like an awful sucker if you found yourself marching right in the middle of it, wouldn't you?"
Immediately following the Japanese <a href="attack%20on%20Pearl%20Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a>, U.S. Secretary of the Navy <a href="Frank%20Knox">Frank Knox</a> issued a statement that "the most effective Fifth Column work of the entire war was done in Hawaii with the exception of Norway." The widely-read columnist <a href="Walter%20Lippmann">Walter Lippmann</a> publicized similar accusations of sabotage on the part of <a href="Japanese%20American">Japanese American</a>s in his syndicated column on February 12, 1942, titled "The Fifth Column on the Coast."
During the <a href="Philippines%20Campaign%20%281941%E2%80%9342%29">Japanese invasion of the Philippines</a>, an article in the "<a href="Pittsburgh%20Post-Gazette">Pittsburgh Post-Gazette</a>" in December 1941 said the indigenous <a href="Moro%20people">Moro Muslims</a> were "capable of dealing with Japanese fifth columnists and invaders alike". Another in the "<a href="Vancouver%20Sun">Vancouver Sun</a>" the next month described how the large population of Japanese immigrants in <a href="Davao%20Region">Davao</a> in the Philippines welcomed the invasion: "the first assault on Davao was aided by numbers of Fifth Columnists–residents of the town".
The term was soon so widely known that it very quickly appeared in popular U.S. entertainment. Introducing a 1941 newsreel, "Meet John Doughboy", the animated character <a href="Porky%20Pig">Porky Pig</a> asked any "fifth columnists" in the audience leave the theater immediately. In <a href="Alfred%20Hitchcock">Alfred Hitchcock</a>'s "<a href="Saboteur%20%28film%29">Saboteur</a>" (1942), <a href="Robert%20Cummings">Robert Cummings</a> asks for help against "fifth columnists" who are conspiring to sabotage the American war effort. The next year in <a href="Looney%20Tunes">Looney Tunes</a>' "Foney Fables", the narrator of a comic fairy tale described a wolf in sheep's clothing as a "fifth columnist". In 1943, an animated cartoon in the <a href="Merrie%20Melodies">Merrie Melodies</a> series was called "<a href="The%20Fifth-Column%20Mouse">The Fifth-Column Mouse</a>".

</doc>
<doc id="90449" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90449" title="Seminole Wars">
Seminole Wars

The Seminole Wars, also known as the Florida Wars, were three conflicts in <a href="Florida">Florida</a> between the <a href="Seminole">Seminole</a>—the collective name given to the amalgamation of various groups of <a href="Native%20Americans%20in%20the%20United%20States">Native Americans</a> and <a href="African%20Americans">African Americans</a> who settled in Florida in the early 18th century—and the <a href="United%20States">United States</a> <a href="US%20Army">Army</a>. The First Seminole War was from 1816 to 1819 (although sources differ), the Second Seminole War from <a href="Timeline%20of%20Florida%20History">1835 to 1842</a> and the Third Seminole War from 1855 to 1858. They were the largest conflicts in the United States between the <a href="War%20of%201812">War of 1812</a> and the <a href="American%20Civil%20War">American Civil War</a>. Taken together, the Seminole Wars were the longest and most expensive (both in human and monetary terms) Indian Wars in United States history and one of the most expensive of all wars ever fought by the U.S. as a percentage of <a href="gross%20national%20product">gross national product</a>.
The <a href="indigenous%20peoples">indigenous peoples</a> of Florida declined significantly in number after the arrival of <a href="Europe">Europe</a>ans in the region. The <a href="Native%20Americans%20in%20the%20United%20States">Native Americans</a> had little resistance to diseases newly introduced from Europe. <a href="Kingdom%20of%20Spain">Spanish</a> suppression of native revolts further reduced the population in northern Florida. By 1707, colonial soldiers from the <a href="Province%20of%20Carolina">Province of Carolina</a> and their <a href="Yamasee">Yamasee Indian</a> allies had killed or carried off nearly all the remaining native inhabitants, having conducted a series of raids extending the full length of the peninsula. In the first decade of the 18th century, 10,000 – 12,000 Indians were taken as slaves according to the governor of La Florida and by 1710, observers noted that north Florida was virtually depopulated. The few remaining natives fled west to <a href="Pensacola%2C%20Florida">Pensacola</a> and beyond or east to the vicinity of <a href="St.%20Augustine%2C%20Florida">St. Augustine</a>; in 1763, when Spain ceded Florida to <a href="Kingdom%20of%20Britain">Great Britain</a> as part of the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Paris%20%281763%29">Treaty of Paris</a>, the Spanish took the few surviving Florida Indians with them to <a href="Cuba">Cuba</a> and <a href="New%20Spain">New Spain</a>.
Bands from various Native American tribes from the <a href="southeastern%20United%20States">southeastern United States</a> began moving into the unoccupied lands of Florida. In 1715, the <a href="Yamasee">Yamasee</a> moved into Florida as allies of the Spanish, after conflicts with the English colonies. <a href="Creek%20people">Creek people</a>, at first primarily the <a href="Lower%20Creek">Lower Creek</a> but later including <a href="Upper%20Creek">Upper Creek</a>, also started moving into Florida from the area of Georgia. The <a href="Mikasuki">Mikasuki</a>, "<a href="Hitchiti">Hitchiti</a>"-speakers, settled around what is now <a href="Lake%20Miccosukee">Lake Miccosukee</a> near <a href="Tallahassee%2C%20Florida">Tallahassee</a>. (Descendants of this group have maintained a separate tribal identity as today's <a href="Miccosukee">Miccosukee</a>.)
Another group of Hitchiti speakers, led by <a href="Cowkeeper">Cowkeeper</a>, settled in what is now <a href="Alachua%20County%2C%20Florida">Alachua County</a>, an area where the Spanish had maintained cattle ranches in the 17th century. One of the best-known ranches was "Rancho de la Chua". The region became known as the "<a href="Paynes%20Prairie">Alachua Prairie</a>". The Spanish in Saint Augustine began calling the Alachua Creek "Cimarrones", which roughly meant "wild ones" or "runaways". This was the probable origin of the term "Seminole". This name was eventually applied to the other groups in Florida, although the Indians still regarded themselves as members of different tribes. Other Native American groups in Florida during the Seminole Wars included the <a href="Choctaw">Choctaw</a>, <a href="Yuchi">Yuchi</a> or Spanish Indians, so called because it was believed that they were descended from <a href="Calusa">Calusa</a>s; and "rancho Indians", who lived at Spanish/Cuban fishing camps on the Florida coast.
Escaped African and African-American slaves who could reach the fort were essentially free. Many were from Pensacola; some were free citizens though others had escaped from United States territory. The Spanish offered the slaves freedom and land in Florida; they recruited former slaves as militia to help defend Pensacola and <a href="Fort%20Mose">Fort Mose</a>. Other escaped slaves joined various Seminole bands as free members of the tribe.
While most of the former slaves at Fort Mose went to Cuba with the Spanish when they left Florida in 1763, others lived with or near various bands of Indians. Slaves continued to escape from the Carolinas and Georgia and make their way to Florida. The blacks who stayed with or later joined the Seminoles became integrated into the tribes, learning the languages, adopting the dress, and inter-marrying. Some of the <a href="Black%20Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a>, as they were called, became important tribal leaders.
During the <a href="American%20Revolution">American Revolution</a>, the British—who controlled Florida—recruited Seminoles to raid frontier settlements in Georgia. The confusion of war allowed more slaves to escape to Florida. The British promised slaves freedom for fighting with them. These events made the Seminoles enemies of the new United States. In 1783, as part of the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Paris%20%281783%29">treaty</a> ending the <a href="American%20Revolutionary%20War">Revolutionary War</a>, Florida was returned to Spain. Spain's grip on Florida was light, as it maintained only small <a href="garrison">garrison</a>s at St. Augustine, <a href="St.%20Marks%2C%20Florida">St. Marks</a> and <a href="Pensacola%2C%20Florida">Pensacola</a>. They did not control the border between Florida and the United States. Mikasukis and other Seminole groups still occupied towns on the United States side of the border, while American <a href="squatter">squatter</a>s moved into Spanish Florida.
The British had divided Florida into <a href="East%20Florida">East Florida</a> and <a href="West%20Florida">West Florida</a> in 1763, a division retained by the Spanish when they regained Florida in 1783. West Florida extended from the <a href="Apalachicola%20River">Apalachicola River</a> to the <a href="Mississippi%20River">Mississippi River</a>. Together with their possession of <a href="Louisiana%20%28New%20France%29">Louisiana</a>, the Spanish controlled the lower reaches of all of the rivers draining the United States west of the <a href="Appalachian%20Mountains">Appalachian Mountains</a>. It prohibited the US from transport and trade on the lower Mississippi. In addition to its desire to expand west of the mountains, the United States wanted to acquire Florida. It wanted to gain free commerce on western rivers, and to prevent Florida from being used a base for possible invasion of the U.S. by a European country.
The <a href="Louisiana%20Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> in 1803 put the mouth of the Mississippi River in US hands. But, much of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Tennessee were drained by rivers that passed through East or West Florida to reach the Gulf of Mexico. The U.S. claimed that the Louisiana Purchase had included West Florida west of the <a href="Perdido%20River">Perdido River</a>, while Spain claimed that West Florida extended to the Mississippi River.
In 1810, American residents of West Florida's <a href="Baton%20Rouge%20District">Baton Rouge District</a> (the same region as today's <a href="Florida%20Parishes">Florida Parishes</a>) overthrew the local Spanish authorities, seized the corresponding fort, and requested protection from the <a href="United%20States">United States</a>. President <a href="James%20Madison">James Madison</a> authorized <a href="William%20C.%20C.%20Claiborne">William C. C. Claiborne</a>, governor of the <a href="Territory%20of%20Orleans">Territory of Orleans</a>, to seize <a href="West%20Florida">West Florida</a> from the Mississippi River to as far east as the <a href="Perdido%20River">Perdido River</a>. Claiborne only occupied the area west of the <a href="Pearl%20River%20%28Mississippi-Louisiana%29">Pearl River</a> (the current eastern boundary of Louisiana), aka the Baton Rouge District.
Madison sent <a href="George%20Mathews%20%28Georgia%29">George Mathews</a> to deal with the disputes over West Florida. When an offer to turn the remainder of <a href="Spanish%20West%20Florida">"Florida Occidental"</a> over to the U.S. was rescinded by the governor, Mathews traveled to "<a href="East%20Florida">Florida Oriental</a>" to incite a rebellion similar to that in the Baton Rouge District.
The residents of East Florida were happy with the status quo, so the U.S. raised a force of <a href="Military%20volunteer">volunteers</a> in <a href="Georgia%20%28U.S.%20state%29">Georgia</a> with a promise of free land. On 13 March 1812, this force of "Patriots," with the aid of some <a href="U.S.%20Navy">U.S. Navy</a> <a href="gunboat">gunboat</a>s, seized <a href="Fernandina%20Beach%2C%20Florida">Fernandina</a>. Although the seizure of Fernandina was initially authorized by President Madison, he later disavowed it. The Patriots were, however, unable to take the <a href="Castillo%20de%20San%20Marcos">Castillo de San Marcos</a> in <a href="St.%20Augustine%2C%20Florida">St. Augustine</a>. The increasing tensions and the approach of war with <a href="United%20Kingdom%20of%20Great%20Britain%20and%20Ireland">Great Britain</a> led to an end of the American incursion into <a href="East%20Florida">East Florida</a>. In 1813 an American force succeeded in seizing the <a href="Mobile%20District">Mobile District</a> (today's coastal <a href="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> and <a href="Alabama">Alabama</a>), from the Spanish.
Before the Patriot army withdrew from Florida, the <a href="Seminole">Seminole</a>, as allies of the Spanish, began to attack them.
The beginning and ending dates for the First Seminole War are not firmly established. The U.S. Army Infantry indicates that it lasted from 1814 until 1819. The U.S. Navy Naval Historical Center gives dates of 1816-1818. Another Army site dates the war as 1817-1818. Finally, the unit history of the 1st Battalion, 5th Field Artillery describes the war as occurring solely in 1818.
During the <a href="Creek%20War">Creek War</a> (1813-1814), Colonel <a href="Andrew%20Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> became a national hero after his victory over the Creek <a href="Red%20Sticks">Red Sticks</a> at the <a href="Battle%20of%20Horseshoe%20Bend%20%281814%29">Battle of Horseshoe Bend</a>. After his victory, Jackson forced the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Fort%20Jackson">Treaty of Fort Jackson</a> on the Creek, resulting in the loss of much Creek territory in southern Georgia and central and southern Alabama. As a result, many Creek left Alabama and Georgia, and moved to Spanish West Florida. The Creek refugees joined the Seminole of Florida.
In 1814, Britain was still at <a href="War%20of%201812">war with the United States</a>, and saw merit in recruiting Indian allies. In May 1814, a British force entered the mouth of the Apalachicola River, and distributed arms to the Seminole and Creek warriors, and fugitive slaves. The British moved upriver and began building a fort at <a href="Fort%20Gadsden">Prospect Bluff</a>. A company of <a href="Royal%20Marines">Royal Marines</a>, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel <a href="Edward%20Nicolls">Edward Nicolls</a>, were to subsequently arrive, but were invited to relocate to Pensacola in late August 1814. It was estimated, by Captain Lockyer of , that in August 1814 there were 1,000 Indians at Pensacola, of whom 700 were warriors. Two months after the British and their Indian allies were beaten back from an attack on <a href="Fort%20Bowyer">Fort Bowyer</a> near <a href="Mobile%2C%20Alabama">Mobile</a>, a US force led by General Jackson drove the British out of <a href="Battle%20of%20Pensacola%20%281814%29">Pensacola</a>, and back to the Apalachicola River. They managed to continue work on the fort at Prospect Bluff.
When the War of 1812 ended, all the British forces left the Gulf of Mexico except for Lieutenant Colonel Nicolls and his force in (neutral) Spanish West Florida. He directed the provisioning of the fort at Prospect Bluff with cannon, muskets and ammunition. He told the Indians that the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Ghent">Treaty of Ghent</a> guaranteed the return of all Indian lands lost during the War of 1812, including the Creek lands in Georgia and Alabama. As the Seminole were not interested in holding a fort, they returned to their villages. Before Nicolls left in the spring of 1815, he turned the fort over to the fugitive slaves and Seminoles whom he had originally recruited for possible incursions into U.S. territory during the war. As word spread in the <a href="American%20Southeast">American Southeast</a> about the fort, whites called it the "<a href="Negro%20Fort">Negro Fort</a>." The Americans worried that it would inspire their slaves to escape to Florida or revolt.
After a garrison of the Negro Fort killed a group of American sailors, General Jackson decided to destroy it. Acknowledging that it was in Spanish territory, in April 1816, he informed Governor <a href="Jos%C3%A9%20Masot">José Masot</a> of West Florida that if the Spanish did not eliminate the fort, he would. The governor replied that he did not have the forces to take the fort.
Jackson assigned Brigadier General <a href="Edmund%20P.%20Gaines">Edmund Pendleton Gaines</a> to take control of the fort. Gaines directed Colonel <a href="Duncan%20Lamont%20Clinch">Duncan Lamont Clinch</a> to build Fort Scott on the <a href="Flint%20River%20%28Georgia%29">Flint River</a> just north of the Florida border. Gaines said he intended to supply Fort Scott from New Orleans via the Apalachicola River. As this would mean passing through Spanish territory and past the Negro Fort, it would allow the U.S. Army to keep an eye on the Seminole and the Negro Fort. If the fort fired on the supply boats, the Americans would have an excuse to destroy it.
In July 1816, a supply fleet for Fort Scott reached the Apalachicola River. Clinch took a force of more than 100 American soldiers and about 150 Lower Creek warriors, including the chief "<a href="William%20McIntosh">Tustunnugee Hutkee</a>" (White Warrior), to protect their passage. The supply fleet met Clinch at the Negro Fort, and its two gunboats took positions across the river from the fort. The blacks in the fort fired their cannon at the U.S. soldiers and the Creek, but had no training in aiming the weapon. The Americans fired back. The gunboats' ninth shot, a "hot shot" (a cannonball heated to a red glow), landed in the fort's powder <a href="Magazine%20%28artillery%29">magazine</a>. The explosion leveled the fort and was heard more than 100 miles (160 km) away in Pensacola. Of the 320 people known to be in the fort, including women and children, more than 250 died instantly, and many more died from their injuries soon after. Once the US Army destroyed the fort, it withdrew from Spanish Florida.
American squatters and outlaws raided the Seminole, killing villagers and stealing their cattle. Seminole resentment grew and they retaliated by stealing back the cattle. On February 24, 1817, a raiding party killed Mrs. Garrett, a woman living in <a href="Camden%20County%2C%20Georgia">Camden County, Georgia</a>, and her two young children.
Fowltown was a <a href="Miccosukee">Mikasuki</a> village in southwestern Georgia, about 15 miles (24 km) east of <a href="Fort%20Scott%20%28Flint%20River%2C%20Georgia%29">Fort Scott</a>. Chief Neamathla of Fowltown got into a dispute with the commander of Fort Scott over the use of land on the eastern side of the Flint River, essentially claiming Mikasuki sovereignty over the area. The land in southern Georgia had been ceded by the Creeks in the Treaty of Fort Jackson, but the Mikasukis did not consider themselves Creek, did not feel bound by the treaty, and did not accept that the Creeks had any right to cede Mikasuki land. In November 1817, General Gaines sent a force of 250 men to seize Fowltown. The first attempt was beaten off by the Mikasukis. The next day, November 22, 1817, the Mikasukis were driven from their village. Some historians date the start of the war to this attack on Fowltown. <a href="David%20Brydie%20Mitchell">David Brydie Mitchell</a>, former governor of Georgia and Creek <a href="Indian%20agent">Indian agent</a> at the time, stated in a report to <a href="United%20States%20Congress">Congress</a> that the attack on Fowltown was the start of the First Seminole War.
A week later a boat carrying supplies for Fort Scott, under the command of Lt. Richard W. Scott, was attacked on the <a href="Apalachicola%20River">Apalachicola River</a>. There were forty to fifty people on the boat, including twenty sick soldiers, seven wives of soldiers, and possibly some children. (While there are reports of four children being killed by the Seminoles, they were not mentioned in early reports of the massacre, and their presence has not been confirmed.) Most of the boat's passengers were killed by the Indians. One woman was taken prisoner, and six survivors made it to the fort.
While General Gaines had been under orders not to invade Florida, he later decided to allow short intrusions into Florida. When news of the Scott Massacre on the Apalachicola reached <a href="Washington%2C%20D.C.">Washington</a>, Gaines was ordered to invade Florida and pursue the Indians but not to attack any Spanish installations. However, Gaines had left for East Florida to deal with pirates who had occupied <a href="Fernandina%20Beach%2C%20Florida">Fernandina</a>. <a href="United%20States%20Secretary%20of%20War">Secretary of War</a> <a href="John%20C.%20Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a> then ordered Andrew Jackson to lead the invasion of Florida.
Jackson gathered his forces at <a href="Fort%20Scott%20%28Flint%20River%2C%20Georgia%29">Fort Scott</a> in March 1818, including 800 U.S. Army <a href="Regular%20Army">regulars</a>, 1,000 <a href="Tennessee">Tennessee</a> volunteers, 1,000 Georgia <a href="militia">militia</a>, and about 1,400 friendly Lower Creek warriors (under command of Brigadier General <a href="William%20McIntosh">William McIntosh</a>, a Creek chief). On March 15, Jackson's army entered Florida, marching down the <a href="Apalachicola%20River">Apalachicola River</a>. When they reached the site of the Negro Fort, Jackson had his men construct a new fort, <a href="Fort%20Gadsden">Fort Gadsden</a>. The army then set out for the Mikasuki villages around Lake Miccosukee. The Indian town of <a href="Tallahassee%2C%20Florida">Tallahassee</a> was burned on March 31, and the town of <a href="Miccosukee%2C%20Florida">Miccosukee</a> was taken the next day. More than 300 Indian homes were destroyed. Jackson then turned south, reaching <a href="San%20Marcos%20de%20Apalache%20Historic%20State%20Park">Fort St. Marks</a> ("San Marcos") on April 6.
At St. Marks Jackson seized the Spanish fort. There he found <a href="Alexander%20George%20Arbuthnot">Alexander George Arbuthnot</a>, a <a href="Scottish%20people">Scottish</a> trader working out of the <a href="Bahamas">Bahamas</a>. He traded with the Indians in Florida and had written letters to British and American officials on behalf of the Indians. He was rumored to be selling guns to the Indians and to be preparing them for war. He probably was selling guns, since the main trade item of the Indians was deer skins, and they needed guns to hunt the deer. Two Indian leaders, Josiah Francis, a <a href="Red%20Sticks">Red Stick Creek</a>, also known as the "Prophet" (not to be confused with <a href="Tenskwatawa">Tenskwatawa</a>), and Homathlemico, had been captured when they had gone out to an American ship flying the British <a href="Union%20Flag">Union Flag</a> that had anchored off of St. Marks. As soon as Jackson arrived at St. Marks, the two Indians were brought ashore and hanged without trial.
Jackson left St. Marks to attack villages along the <a href="Suwannee%20River">Suwannee River</a>, which were occupied primarily by fugitive slaves. On April 12, the army found a Red Stick village on the <a href="Econfina%20River">Econfina River</a>, and attacked it. Close to 40 <a href="Red%20Sticks">Red Sticks</a> were killed, and about 100 women and children were captured. In the village, they found Elizabeth Stewart, the woman who had been captured in the attack on the supply boat on the <a href="Apalachicola%20River">Apalachicola River</a> the previous November. The army found the villages on the Suwannee empty, many of the <a href="Black%20Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a> having escaped to Tampa Bay to the maroon community of Angola. Having destroyed the major Seminole and black villages, Jackson declared victory and sent the Georgia militiamen and the Lower Creeks home. The remaining army then returned to Fort St. Marks.
About this time, <a href="Arbuthnot%20and%20Ambrister%20incident">Robert Ambrister</a>, a former <a href="Royal%20Marine">Royal Marine</a> and self-appointed British "agent", was captured by Jackson's army. At St. Marks a <a href="military%20tribunal">military tribunal</a> was convened, and Ambrister and Arbuthnot were charged with aiding the Seminoles and the <a href="Spain">Spanish</a>, inciting them to war and leading them against the United States. Ambrister threw himself on the mercy of the court, while Arbuthnot maintained his innocence, saying that he had only been engaged in legal trade. The tribunal sentenced both men to death but then relented and changed Ambrister's sentence to fifty lashes and a year at hard labor. Jackson, however, reinstated Ambrister's death penalty. Ambrister was executed by a <a href="firing%20squad">firing squad</a> on April 29, 1818. Arbuthnot was hanged from the <a href="Yard%20%28sailing%29">yardarm</a> of his own ship.
Jackson left a garrison at Fort St. Marks and returned to <a href="Fort%20Gadsden">Fort Gadsden</a>. Jackson had first reported that all was peaceful and that he would be returning to <a href="Nashville%2C%20Tennessee">Nashville, Tennessee</a>.
General Jackson later reported that Indians were gathering and being supplied by the Spanish, and he left Fort Gadsden with 1,000 men on May 7, headed for Pensacola. The governor of West Florida protested that most of the Indians at Pensacola were women and children and that the men were unarmed, but Jackson did not stop. When he reached Pensacola on May 23, the governor and the 175-man Spanish garrison retreated to <a href="Fort%20Barrancas">Fort Barrancas</a>, leaving the city of Pensacola to Jackson. The two sides exchanged cannon fire for a couple of days, and then the Spanish surrendered Fort Barrancas on May 28. Jackson left Colonel <a href="William%20King%20%28Governor%20of%20West%20Florida%29">William King</a> as military governor of West Florida and went home.
There were international repercussions to Jackson's actions. <a href="United%20States%20Department%20of%20State">Secretary of State</a> <a href="John%20Quincy%20Adams">John Quincy Adams</a> had just started negotiations with Spain for the purchase of Florida. Spain protested the invasion and seizure of West Florida and suspended the negotiations. Spain did not have the means to retaliate against the United States or regain West Florida by force; so Adams let the Spanish officials protest, then issued a letter (with 72 supporting documents) blaming the war on the British, Spanish, and Indians. In the letter he also apologized for the seizure of West Florida, said that it had not been American policy to seize Spanish territory, and offered to give St. Marks and Pensacola back to Spain.
Spain accepted and eventually resumed negotiations for the sale of Florida. Defending Jackson's actions as necessary, and sensing that they strengthened his diplomatic standing, Adams demanded Spain either control the inhabitants of East Florida or cede it to the United States. An agreement was then reached whereby <a href="Adams-On%C3%ADs%20Treaty">Spain ceded East Florida to the United States and renounced all claim to West.</a>
Britain protested the execution of two of its subjects who had never entered United States territory. There was talk in Britain of demanding reparations and taking reprisals. Americans worried about another war with Britain. In the end Britain, realizing how important the United States was to its economy, opted for maintaining good relations.
There were also repercussions in America. Congressional committees held hearings into the irregularities of the Ambrister and Arbuthnot trials. While most Americans supported Jackson, some worried that Jackson could become a "man on horseback," a <a href="Napoleon%20I%20of%20France">Napoleon</a>, and transform the United States into a military dictatorship. When Congress reconvened in December 1818, resolutions were introduced condemning Jackson's actions. Jackson was too popular, and the resolutions failed; but the Ambrister and Arbuthnot executions left a stain on his reputation for the rest of his life, although it was not enough to keep him from becoming President.
Spain did <a href="Adams-On%C3%ADs%20Treaty">cede Florida</a>, and the United States took possession in 1821. Effective government was slow in coming to Florida. General Andrew Jackson was appointed military governor of Florida in March 1821, but he did not arrive in Pensacola until July 1821. He resigned the post in September 1821 and returned home in October, having spent just three months in Florida. His successor, <a href="William%20Pope%20Duval">William P. Duval</a>, was not appointed until April 1822, and he left for an extended visit to his home in <a href="Kentucky">Kentucky</a> before the end of the year. Other official positions in the territory had similar turn-over and absences.
The Seminoles were still a problem for the new government. In early 1822, Capt. John R. Bell, provisional secretary of the Florida territory and temporary agent to the Seminoles, prepared an estimate of the number of Indians in Florida. He reported about 22,000 Indians, and 5,000 slaves held by Indians. He estimated that two-thirds of them were refugees from the <a href="Creek%20War">Creek War</a>, with no valid claim (in the U.S. view) to Florida. Indian settlements were located in the areas around the Apalachicola River, along the <a href="Suwannee%20River">Suwannee River</a>, from there south-eastwards to the Alachua Prairie, and then south-westward to a little north of <a href="Tampa%20Bay">Tampa Bay</a>.
Officials in Florida were concerned from the beginning about the situation with the Seminoles. Until a treaty was signed establishing a reservation, the Indians were not sure of where they could plant crops and expect to be able to harvest them, and they had to contend with white squatters moving into land they occupied. There was no system for licensing traders, and unlicensed traders were supplying the Seminoles with <a href="Distilled%20beverage">liquor</a>. However, because of the part-time presence and frequent turnover of territorial officials, meetings with the Seminoles were canceled, postponed, or sometimes held merely to set a time and place for a new meeting.
In 1823, the government decided to settle the Seminole on a reservation in the central part of the territory. A meeting to negotiate a treaty was scheduled for early September 1823 at Moultrie Creek, south of St. Augustine. About 425 Seminole attended the meeting, choosing "Neamathla" to be their chief representative or Speaker. Under the terms of the treaty negotiated there, the Seminole were forced to go under the protection of the United States and give up all claim to lands in Florida, in exchange for a reservation of about four million <a href="acre">acre</a>s (16,000 km²). The reservation would run down the middle of the Florida peninsula from just north of present-day <a href="Ocala%2C%20Florida">Ocala</a> to a line even with the southern end of Tampa Bay. The boundaries were well inland from both coasts, to prevent contact with traders from <a href="Cuba">Cuba</a> and the <a href="Bahamas">Bahamas</a>. Neamathla and five other chiefs were allowed to keep their villages along the <a href="Apalachicola%20River">Apalachicola River</a>.
Under the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Moultrie%20Creek">Treaty of Moultrie Creek</a>, the US was obligated to protect the Seminole as long as they remained law-abiding. The government was supposed to distribute farm implements, cattle and hogs to the Seminole, compensate them for travel and losses involved in relocating to the reservation, and provide rations for a year, until the Seminoles could plant and harvest new crops. The government was also supposed to pay the tribe US$5,000 per year for twenty years and provide an interpreter, a school and a blacksmith for twenty years. In turn, the Seminole had to allow roads to be built across the reservation and had to apprehend and return to US jurisdiction any runaway slaves or other fugitives.
Implementation of the treaty stalled. <a href="Fort%20Brooke">Fort Brooke</a>, with four companies of infantry, was established on the site of present-day <a href="Tampa%2C%20Florida">Tampa</a> in early 1824, to show the Seminole that the government was serious about moving them onto the reservation. However, by June <a href="James%20Gadsden">James Gadsden</a>, who was the principal author of the treaty and charged with implementing it, was reporting that the Seminole were unhappy with the treaty and were hoping to renegotiate it. Fear of a new war crept in. In July, Governor DuVal mobilized the militia and ordered the <a href="Tallahassee">Tallahassee</a> and <a href="Miccosukee">Miccosukee</a> chiefs to meet him in St. Marks. At that meeting, he ordered the Seminole to move to the reservation by October 1, 1824.
The move had not begun, but DuVal began paying the Seminole compensation for the improvements they were having to leave as an incentive to move. He also had the promised rations sent to Fort Brooke on Tampa Bay for distribution. The Seminole finally began moving onto the reservation, but within a year some returned to their former homes between the Suwannee and Apalachicola rivers. By 1826, most of the Seminole had gone to the reservation, but were not thriving. They had to clear and plant new fields, and cultivated fields suffered in a long drought. Some of the tribe were reported to have starved to death. Both Col. George M. Brooke, commander of Fort Brooke, and Governor DuVal wrote to <a href="Washington%2C%20D.C.">Washington</a> seeking help for the starving Seminole, but the requests got caught up in a debate over whether the people should be moved to west of the Mississippi River. For five months, no additional relief reached the Seminole.
The Seminoles slowly settled into the reservation, although they had isolated clashes with whites. <a href="Fort%20King">Fort King</a> was built near the reservation agency, at the site of present-day Ocala, and by early 1827 the Army could report that the Seminoles were on the reservation and Florida was peaceful. During the five-year peace, some settlers continued to call for removal. The Seminole were opposed to any such move, and especially to the suggestion that they join their <a href="Muscogee%20%28Creek%29">Creek</a> relations. Most whites regarded the Seminole as simply Creeks who had recently moved to Florida, while the Seminole claimed Florida as their home and denied that they had any connection with the Creeks.
The Seminole and slave catchers argued over the ownership of slaves. New plantations in Florida increased the pool of slaves who could escape to Seminole territory. Worried about the possibility of an Indian uprising and/or a slave rebellion, Governor DuVal requested additional Federal troops for Florida, but in 1828 the US closed Fort King. Short of food and finding the hunting declining on the reservation, the Seminole wandered off to get food. In 1828, Andrew Jackson, the old enemy of the Seminoles, was elected <a href="President%20of%20the%20United%20States">President of the United States</a>. In 1830, Congress passed the <a href="Indian%20Removal%20Act">Indian Removal Act</a> he promoted, which was to resolve the problems by moving the Seminole and other tribes west of the Mississippi.
In the spring of 1832, the Seminoles on the reservation were called to a meeting at Payne's Landing on the <a href="Oklawaha%20River">Oklawaha River</a>. The treaty negotiated there called for the Seminoles to move west, if the land were found to be suitable. They were to settle on the Creek reservation and become part of the Creek tribe. The delegation of seven chiefs who were to inspect the new reservation did not leave Florida until October 1832. After touring the area for several months and conferring with the Creeks who had already been settled there, the seven chiefs signed a statement on March 28, 1833, that the new land was acceptable. Upon their return to Florida, however, most of the chiefs renounced the statement, claiming that they had not signed it, or that they had been forced to sign it, and in any case, that they did not have the power to decide for all the tribes and bands that resided on the reservation. The villages in the area of the Apalachicola River were more easily persuaded, however, and went west in 1834.
The <a href="United%20States%20Senate">United States Senate</a> finally ratified the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Payne%27s%20Landing">Treaty of Payne's Landing</a> in April 1834. The treaty had given the Seminoles three years to move west of the Mississippi. The government interpreted the three years as starting 1832 and expected the Seminoles to move in 1835. Fort King was reopened in 1834. A new Seminole agent, Wiley Thompson, had been appointed in 1834, and the task of persuading the Seminoles to move fell to him. He called the chiefs together at Fort King in October 1834 to talk to them about the removal to the west. The Seminoles informed Thompson that they had no intention of moving and that they did not feel bound by the Treaty of Payne's Landing. Thompson then requested reinforcements for Fort King and Fort Brooke, reporting that, "the Indians after they had received the Annuity, purchased an unusually large quantity of Powder & Lead." General Clinch also warned Washington that the Seminoles did not intend to move and that more troops would be needed to force them to move. In March 1835, Thompson called the chiefs together to read a letter from Andrew Jackson to them. In his letter, Jackson said, "Should you ... refuse to move, I have then directed the Commanding officer to remove you by force." The chiefs asked for thirty days to respond. A month later, the Seminole chiefs told Thompson that they would not move west. Thompson and the chiefs began arguing, and General Clinch had to intervene to prevent bloodshed. Eventually, eight of the chiefs agreed to move west but asked to delay the move until the end of the year, and Thompson and Clinch agreed.
Five of the most important of the Seminole chiefs, including <a href="Micanopy">Micanopy</a> of the Alachua Seminoles, had not agreed to the move. In retaliation, Thompson declared that those chiefs were removed from their positions. As relations with the Seminoles deteriorated, Thompson forbade the sale of guns and ammunition to the Seminoles. <a href="Osceola">Osceola</a>, a young warrior beginning to be noticed by the whites, was particularly upset by the ban, feeling that it equated Seminoles with slaves and said, "The white man shall not make me black. I will make the white man red with blood; and then blacken him in the sun and rain ... and the buzzard live upon his flesh." In spite of this, Thompson considered Osceola to be a friend and gave him a rifle. Later, though, when Osceola was causing trouble, Thompson had him locked up at Fort King for a night. The next day, in order to secure his release, Osceola agreed to abide by the Treaty of Payne's Landing and to bring his followers in.
The situation grew worse. On June 19, 1835, a group of whites searching for lost cattle found a group of Indians sitting around a campfire cooking the remains of what they claimed was one of their herd. The whites disarmed and proceeded to whip the Indians, when two more arrived and opened fire on the whites. Three whites were wounded and one Indian was killed and one wounded, at what became known as the skirmish at Hickory Sink. After complaining to Indian Agent Thompson and not receiving a satisfactory response, the Seminoles became further convinced that they would not receive fair compensations for their complaints of hostile treatment by the settlers. Believed to be in response for the incident at Hickory Sink, in August 1835, Private Kinsley Dalton (for whom <a href="Dalton%2C%20Georgia">Dalton, Georgia</a>, is named) was killed by Seminoles as he was carrying the mail from Fort Brooke to Fort King.
In November 1835 Chief Charley Emathla, wanting no part of a war, agreed to removal and sold his cattle at Fort King in preparation for moving his people to Fort Brooke to emigrate to the west. This act was considered a betrayal by other Seminoles who months earlier declared in council that any Seminole chief who sold his cattle would be sentenced to death. Osceola met Charley Emathla on the trail back to his village and killed him, scattering the money from the cattle purchase across his body.
As Florida officials realized the Seminole would resist relocation, preparations for war began. Settlers fled to safety as Seminole attacked plantations and a militia wagon train. Two companies, totaling 110 men under the command of Major <a href="Francis%20L.%20Dade">Francis L. Dade</a>, were sent from Fort Brooke to reinforce Fort King. On December 28, 1835, Seminoles ambushed the soldiers and destroyed the command. Only two soldiers survived to return to Fort Brooke, and one died of his wounds a few days later. Over the next few months Generals <a href="Duncan%20Lamont%20Clinch">Clinch</a>, <a href="Edmund%20P.%20Gaines">Gaines</a> and <a href="Winfield%20Scott">Winfield Scott</a>, as well as territorial governor <a href="Richard%20Keith%20Call">Richard Keith Call</a>, led large numbers of troops in futile pursuits of the Seminoles. In the meantime the Seminoles struck throughout the state, attacking isolated farms, settlements, plantations and Army forts, even burning the <a href="Cape%20Florida%20Light">Cape Florida lighthouse</a>. Supply problems and a high rate of illness during the summer caused the Army to abandon several forts.
Major <a href="Ethan%20A.%20Hitchcock%20%28general%29">Ethan Allen Hitchcock</a> was among those who found the remains of the Dade party in February. In his journal he wrote of the discovery and expressed his discontent:
"The government is in the wrong, and this is the chief cause of the persevering opposition of the Indians, who have nobly defended their country against our attempt to enforce a fraudulent treaty. The natives used every means to avoid a war, but were forced into it by the tyranny of our government."
On November 21, 1836 at the <a href="Battle%20of%20Wahoo%20Swamp">Battle of Wahoo Swamp</a>, the Seminole fought against American allied forces numbering 2500, successfully driving them back.; among the American dead was <a href="David%20Moniac">David Moniac</a>, the first Native American graduate of <a href="West%20Point">West Point</a>. The skirmish restored Seminole confidence, showing their ability to hold their ground against their old enemies the Creek and white settlers.
Late in 1836, Major General <a href="Thomas%20Jesup">Thomas Jesup</a>, US Quartermaster, was placed in command of the war. Jesup brought a new approach to the war. He concentrated on wearing the Seminoles down rather than sending out large groups who were more easily ambushed. He needed a large military presence in the state to control it, and he eventually brought a force of more than 9,000 men into the state under his command. About half of the force were volunteers and militia. It also included a brigade of marines, and Navy and <a href="United%20States%20Revenue%20Cutter%20Service">Revenue-Marine</a> personnel patrolling the coast and inland rivers and streams.
In January 1837, the Army began to achieve more tangible successes, capturing or killing numerous Indians and blacks. At the end of January, some Seminole chiefs sent messengers to Jesup, and arranged a truce. In March a "Capitulation" was signed by several chiefs, including Micanopy, stipulating that the Seminole could be accompanied by their allies and "their negroes, their "bona fide" property," in their removal to the West. By the end of May, many chiefs, including Micanopy, had surrendered. Two important leaders, Osceola and <a href="Ar-pi-uck-i%20%28Sam%20Jones%29">Sam Jones</a> (a.k.a. Abiaca, Ar-pi-uck-i, Opoica, Arpeika, Aripeka, Aripeika), had not surrendered, however, and were known to be vehemently opposed to relocation. On June 2 these two leaders with about 200 followers entered the poorly guarded holding camp at Fort Brooke and led away the 700 Seminoles who had surrendered. The war was on again, and Jesup decided against trusting the word of an Indian again. On Jesup's orders, Brigadier General <a href="Joseph%20Marion%20Hern%C3%A1ndez">Joseph Marion Hernández</a> commanded an expedition that captured several Indian leaders, including <a href="Wild%20Cat%20%28Seminole%29">Coacoochee</a> (Wild Cat), <a href="John%20Horse">John Horse</a>, Osceola and Micanopy when they appeared for conferences under a <a href="white%20flag">white flag</a> of truce. Coacoochee and other captives, including John Horse, escaped from their cell at <a href="Fort%20Marion">Fort Marion</a> in St. Augustine, but Osceola did not go with them. He died in prison, probably of <a href="malaria">malaria</a>.
Jesup organized a sweep down the peninsula with multiple columns, pushing the Seminoles further south. On Christmas Day 1837, Colonel <a href="Zachary%20Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a>'s column of 800 men encountered a body of about 400 warriors on the north shore of <a href="Lake%20Okeechobee">Lake Okeechobee</a>. The Seminole were led by Sam Jones, Alligator and the recently escaped Coacoochee; they were well positioned in a <a href="Hammock%20%28ecology%29">hammock</a> surrounded by <a href="Cladium">sawgrass</a> with half a mile of swamp in front of it. On the far side of the hammock was Lake Okeechobee. Here the saw grass stood five feet high. The mud and water were three feet deep. Horses would be of no use. The Seminole had chosen their battleground. They had sliced the grass to provide an open field of fire and had notched the trees to steady their rifles. Their scouts were perched in the treetops to follow every movement of the troops coming up. As Taylor's army came up to this position, he decided to attack.
At about half past noon, with the sun shining directly overhead and the air still and quiet, Taylor moved his troops squarely into the center of the swamp. His plan was to attack directly rather than try to encircle the Indians. All his men were on foot. In the first line were the Missouri volunteers. As soon as they came within range, the Seminoles opened fire. The volunteers broke, and their commander Colonel Gentry, fatally wounded, was unable to rally them. They fled back across the swamp. The fighting in the saw grass was deadliest for five companies of the Sixth Infantry; every officer but one, and most of their noncoms, were killed or wounded. When those units retired a short distance to re-form, they found only four men of these companies unharmed. The US eventually drove the Seminoles from the hammock, but they escaped across the lake. Taylor lost 26 killed and 112 wounded, while the Seminoles casualties were eleven dead and fourteen wounded. The US claimed the <a href="Battle%20of%20Lake%20Okeechobee">Battle of Lake Okeechobee</a> as a great victory.
At the end of January, Jesup's troops caught up with a large body of Seminoles to the east of Lake Okeechobee. Originally positioned in a hammock, the Seminoles were driven across a wide stream by cannon and rocket fire, and made another stand. They faded away, having inflicted more casualties than they suffered, and the <a href="Battle%20of%20Loxahatchee">Battle of Loxahatchee</a> was over. In February 1838, the Seminole chiefs Tuskegee and Halleck Hadjo approached Jesup with the proposal to stop fighting if they could stay in the area south of Lake Okeechobee, rather than relocating west. Jesup favored the idea but had to gain approval from officials in Washington for approval. The chiefs and their followers camped near the Army while awaiting the reply. When the secretary of war rejected the idea, Jesup seized the 500 Indians in the camp, and had them transported to the Indian Territory.
In May, Jesup's request to be relieved of command was granted, and <a href="Zachary%20Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a> assumed command of the Army in Florida. With reduced forces, Taylor concentrated on keeping the Seminole out of northern Florida by building many small posts at twenty-mile (30 km) intervals across the peninsula, connected by a grid of roads. The winter season was fairly quiet, without major actions. In Washington and around the country, support for the war was eroding. Many people began to think the Seminoles had earned the right to stay in Florida. Far from being over, the war had become very costly. President <a href="Martin%20Van%20Buren">Martin Van Buren</a> sent the Commanding General of the Army, <a href="Alexander%20Macomb%20%28general%29">Alexander Macomb</a>, to negotiate a new treaty with the Seminoles. On May 19, 1839, Macomb announced an agreement. In exchange for a reservation in southern Florida, the Seminoles would stop fighting.
As the summer passed, the agreement seemed to be holding. However, on July 23, some 150 Indians attacked a trading post on the <a href="Caloosahatchee%20River">Caloosahatchee River</a>; it was guarded by a detachment of 23 soldiers under the command of Colonel <a href="William%20S.%20Harney">William S. Harney</a>. He and some soldiers escaped by the river, but the Seminoles killed most of the garrison, as well as several civilians at the post. Many blamed the "Spanish" Indians, led by Chakaika, for the attack, but others suspected Sam Jones, whose band of Mikasuki had agreed to the treaty with Macomb. Jones, when questioned, promised to turn the men responsible for the attack over to Harney in 33 days. Before that time was up, two soldiers visiting Jones' camp were killed.
The Army turned to <a href="bloodhound">bloodhound</a>s to track the Indians, with poor results. Taylor's blockhouse and patrol system in northern Florida kept the Seminoles on the move but could not clear them out. In May 1839, Taylor, having served longer than any preceding commander in the Florida war, was granted his request for a transfer and replaced by Brig. Gen. <a href="Walker%20Keith%20Armistead">Walker Keith Armistead</a>. Armistead immediately went on the offensive, actively campaigning during the summer. Seeking hidden camps, the Army also burned fields and drove off livestock: horses, cattle and pigs. By the middle of the summer, the Army had destroyed of Seminole crops.
The Navy sent its sailors and marines up rivers and streams, and into the <a href="Everglades">Everglades</a>. In late 1839 Navy Lt. John T. McLaughlin was given command of a joint Army-Navy amphibious force to operate in Florida. McLaughlin established his base at <a href="Tea%20Table%20Key">Tea Table Key</a> in the upper <a href="Florida%20Keys">Florida Keys</a>. Traveling from December 1840 to the middle of January 1841, McLaughlin's force crossed the Everglades from east to west in dugout canoes, the first group of whites to complete a crossing. The Seminoles kept out of their way.
<a href="Indian%20Key%20State%20Historic%20Site">Indian Key</a> is a small island in the upper <a href="Florida%20Keys">Florida Keys</a>. In 1840, it was the <a href="county%20seat">county seat</a> of the newly created <a href="Miami-Dade%20County%2C%20Florida">Dade County</a>, and a <a href="Wrecking%20%28shipwreck%29">wrecking</a> port. Early in the morning of August 7, 1840, a large party of "Spanish" Indians sneaked onto Indian Key. By chance, one man was up and raised the alarm after spotting the Indians. Of about fifty people living on the island, forty were able to escape. The dead included Dr. <a href="Henry%20Perrine">Henry Perrine</a>, former <a href="United%20States">United States</a> <a href="Consul%20%28representative%29">Consul</a> in <a href="Campeche%2C%20Campeche">Campeche</a>, <a href="Mexico">Mexico</a>, who was waiting at Indian Key until it was safe to take up a 36-square mile (93 km²) grant on the mainland that Congress had awarded to him.
The naval base on the Key was manned by a doctor, his patients, and five sailors under a midshipman. They mounted a couple of cannon on barges to attack the Indians. The Indians fired back at the sailors with musket balls loaded in cannon on the shore. The recoil of the cannon broke them loose from the barges, sending them into the water, and the sailors had to retreat. The Indians looted and burned the buildings on Indian Key. In December 1840, Col. Harney at the head of ninety men found Chakaika's camp deep in the Everglades. His force killed the chief and hanged some of the men in his band.
Armistead received US$55,000 to use for bribing chiefs to surrender. Echo Emathla, a Tallahassee chief, surrendered, but most of the Tallahassee, under Tiger Tail, did not. Coosa Tustenuggee finally accepted US$5,000 for bringing in his 60 people. Lesser chiefs received US$200, and every warrior got US$30 and a rifle. By the spring of 1841, Armistead had sent 450 Seminoles west. Another 236 were at Fort Brooke awaiting transportation. Armistead estimated that 120 warriors had been shipped west during his tenure and that no more than 300 warriors remained in Florida.
In May 1841, Armistead was replaced by Col. <a href="William%20Jenkins%20Worth">William Jenkins Worth</a> as commander of Army forces in Florida. Worth had to cut back on the unpopular war: he released nearly 1,000 civilian employees and consolidated commands. Worth ordered his men out on "search and destroy" missions during the summer, and drove the Seminoles out of much of northern Florida.
The Army's actions became a war of attrition; some Seminole surrendered to avoid starvation. Others were seized when they came in to negotiate surrender, including, for the second time, Coacoochee. A large bribe secured Coacoochee's cooperation in persuading others to surrender.
In the last action of the war, General William Bailey and prominent planter Jack Bellamy led a posse of 52 men on a three-day pursuit of a small band of Tiger Tail's braves who had been attacking settlers, surprising their swampy encampment and killing all 24. William Wesley Hankins, at sixteen the youngest of the posse, accounted for the last of the kills and was acknowledged as having fired the last shot of the Second Seminole War.
After Colonel Worth recommended early in 1842 that the remaining Seminoles be left in peace, he received authorization to leave the remaining Seminoles on an informal reservation in southwestern Florida and to declare an end to the war., He announced it on August 14, 1842. In the same month, Congress passed the Armed Occupation Act, which provided free land to settlers who improved the land and were prepared to defend themselves from Indians. At the end of 1842, the remaining Indians in Florida living outside the reservation in southwest Florida were rounded up and shipped west. By April 1843, the Army presence in Florida had been reduced to one regiment. By November 1843, Worth reported that only about 95 Seminole men and some 200 women and children living on the reservation were left, and that they were no longer a threat.
The Second Seminole War may have cost as much as $40,000,000. More than 40,000 regular U.S. military, militiamen and volunteers served in the war. This Indian war cost the lives of 1,500 soldiers, mostly from disease. It is estimated that more than 300 regular U.S. Army, Navy and Marine Corps personnel were killed in action, along with 55 volunteers. There is no record of the number of Seminole killed in action, but many homes and Indian lives were lost. A great many Seminole died of disease or starvation in Florida, on the journey west, and after they reached <a href="Indian%20Territory">Indian Territory</a>. An unknown but apparently substantial number of white civilians were killed by Seminole during the war.
Peace had come to Florida. The Indians were mostly staying on the reservation. Groups of ten or so men would visit Tampa to trade. Squatters were moving closer to the reservation, however, and in 1845 President <a href="James%20Polk">James Polk</a> established a 20-mile (30 km) wide buffer zone around the reservation. No land could be claimed within the buffer zone, no title would be issued for land there, and the <a href="United%20States%20Marshals%20Service">U.S. Marshal</a> would remove squatters from the buffer zone upon request. In 1845, Thomas P. Kennedy, who operated a store at Fort Brooke, converted his fishing station on <a href="Pine%20Island%20%28Lee%20County%2C%20Florida%29">Pine Island</a> into a trading post for the Indians. The post did not do well, however, because whites who sold whiskey to the Indians told them that they would be seized and sent west if they went to Kennedy's store.
The Florida authorities continued to press for removal of all Indians from Florida. The Indians for their part tried to limit their contacts with whites as much as possible. In 1846, Captain John T. Sprague was placed in charge of Indian affairs in Florida. He had great difficulty in getting the chiefs to meet with him. They were very distrustful of the Army since it had often seized chiefs while under a flag of truce. He did manage to meet with all of the chiefs in 1847, while investigating a report of a raid on a farm. He reported that the Indians in Florida then consisted of 120 warriors, including seventy Seminoles in <a href="Billy%20Bowlegs">Billy Bowlegs</a>' band, thirty Mikasukis in Sam Jones' band, twelve Creeks (Muscogee speakers) in Chipco's band, 4 Yuchis and 4 Choctaws. He also estimated that there were 100 women and 140 children.
The trading post on Pine Island had burned down in 1848, and in 1849 Thomas Kennedy and his new partner, John Darling, were given permission to open a trading post on what is now <a href="Paynes%20Creek%20Historic%20State%20Park">Paynes Creek</a>, a tributary of the <a href="Peace%20River%20%28Florida%29">Peace River</a>. One band of Indians was living outside the reservation at this time. Called "outsiders", it consisted of twenty warriors under the leadership of Chipco, and included five Muscogees, seven Mikasukis, six Seminoles, one Creek and one Yuchi. On July 12, 1849 four members of this band attacked a farm on the <a href="Indian%20River%20%28Florida%29">Indian River</a> just north of Fort Pierce, killing one man and wounding another man and a woman. The news of this raid caused much of the population of the east coast of Florida to flee to St. Augustine. On July 17, four of the "outsiders" who had attacked the farm on the Indian River, plus a fifth man who had not been at Indian River, attacked the Kennedy and Darling store. Two workers at the store, including a Captain Payne, were killed, and another worker and his wife were wounded as they escorted their child into hiding.
The U.S. Army was not prepared to engage the Indians. It had few men stationed in Florida and no means to move them quickly to where they could protect the white settlers and capture the Indians. The War Department began a new buildup in Florida, placing Major General <a href="David%20E.%20Twiggs">David E. Twiggs</a> in command, and the state called up two companies of mounted volunteers to guard settlements. Captain John Casey, who was in charge of the effort to move the Indians west, was able to arrange a meeting between General Twiggs and several of the Indian leaders at Charlotte Harbor. At that meeting, Billy Bowlegs promised, with the approval of other leaders, to deliver the five men responsible for the attacks to the Army within thirty days. On October 18, Bowlegs delivered three of the men to Twiggs, along with the severed hand of another who had been killed while trying to escape. The fifth man had been captured but had escaped.
After Bowlegs had delivered the three murderers, General Twiggs told the Indians, much to their dismay, that he had been ordered to remove them from Florida. The government would apply three tactics to carry out the removal. The Army in Florida was increased to 1,500 men. One hundred thousand dollars was appropriated for bribing Indians to move. Finally, a delegation of Seminole chiefs was brought from the Indian Territory to negotiate with their counterparts in Florida. Eventually a Mikasuki sub-chief, Kapiktoosootse, agreed to lead his people west. In February 1850, 74 Indians boarded ship for <a href="New%20Orleans%2C%20Louisiana">New Orleans</a>. They were paid a total of US$15,953 in bribes and compensation for property left behind in Florida. There were a couple of incidents that soured relations after that. A Muskogee and a Mikasuki who had gone in to trade at the same time as Kapiktoosootse and his band were surrendering were involuntarily shipped off to New Orleans with them. Then, in March a mounted detachment of the Seventh Infantry penetrated far in the reservation. As a result, the other Indians broke off contact with the negotiators. By April, Twiggs was reporting to Washington that there was no hope of convincing any more Indians to move.
In August 1850, an orphan boy living on a farm in north central Florida was apparently killed by Indians. Eventually enough complaints about the incident had reached Washington to cause the secretary of war to order the surrender of the Indians responsible, or the president would hold the whole tribe responsible. Captain Casey was able to get word to Bowlegs and arrange a meeting in April. Bowlegs promised to deliver the men responsible, although they apparently were members of Chipco's band, over whom Bowlegs had no authority. Chipco decided to surrender three men as the possible killers, and they were arrested when they showed up to trade in Fort Myers. Once in custody, the three protested their innocence, saying that Chipco did not like them and that other men in Chipco's band were the actual killers, and Captain Casey believed them. The three men tried to escape from the jail in Tampa but were caught and chained up in their cell. They were later found hanging from the bars in their cell. One was still alive when found but was not cut down until the next day, after he had died. It was noted in the community that the constable who had chained the three men in their cell was the father-in-law of a brother of one of the men killed at the Kennedy and Darling store in 1849 (the Paynes Creek Massacre).
In 1851, General Luther Blake was appointed by the secretary of the interior to move the Indians west. He had successfully removed the <a href="Cherokee">Cherokee</a> from Georgia and was presumably up to the job of removing the Seminole. He had funding to pay every adult male $800 and every woman and child $450. He went to the Indian Territory to find interpreters and returned to Florida in March 1852. Traveling into the field to meet with all of the Indian leaders, by July he had found sixteen Seminole to send west. Finding <a href="Billy%20Bowlegs">Billy Bowlegs</a> insistent on staying in Florida, Blake took Bowlegs and several other chiefs to Washington. President <a href="Millard%20Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</a> presented Bowlegs with a medal, and he and three other chiefs were persuaded to sign an agreement promising to leave Florida. The chiefs were taken on a tour that included <a href="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, <a href="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> and <a href="New%20York%20City">New York City</a>. Upon returning to Florida, the chiefs repudiated the agreement they had signed in Washington. Blake was fired in 1853, and Captain Casey was put back in charge of Indian removal.
In January 1851, the Florida Legislature had created the position of commander of the Florida Militia, and Governor <a href="Thomas%20Brown%20%28Florida%20politician%29">Thomas Brown</a> appointed <a href="Benjamin%20Hopkins">Benjamin Hopkins</a> to it. Over the next two years, the Florida Militia pursued Seminole who were outside the reservation boundaries. During this period the militia captured one man and a few women, and 140 hogs. One Seminole woman elder committed suicide while being held by the militia, after the rest of her family had escaped. The whole operation cost the state US$40,000.
Pressure from Florida officials pushed the federal government to take action. Captain Casey continued to try to persuade the Seminole to move west without success. He sent Billy Bowlegs and others to Washington again, but the chiefs refused to agree to move. In August 1854, Secretary of War <a href="Jefferson%20Davis">Jefferson Davis</a> initiated a program to force the Seminole into a final conflict. The plan included a trade embargo against them, the survey and sale of land in southern Florida to European-American settlers, and a stronger Army presence to protect the new settlers. Davis said that if the Seminole did not agree to leave, the Army would use force.
By late 1855, there were more than 700 Army troops stationed on the Florida peninsula. Around that time the Seminoles decided that they would strike back at the increasing pressure being put on them and attack when an opportunity presented itself. Sam Jones may have been the instigator of this decision; Chipco was said to have been against it. On December 7, 1855, First Lieutenant George Hartsuff, who had led previous patrols into the reservation, left Fort Myers with ten men and two wagons. They found no Seminoles but did pass corn fields and three deserted villages, including Billy Bowlegs' village. On the evening of December 19, Hartsuff told his men that they would be returning to Fort Myers the next day. As the men were loading the wagons and saddling their horses the next morning (December 20, 1855), forty Seminoles led by Billy Bowlegs attacked the camp. Several soldiers were shot, including Lieutenant Hartsuff, who managed to hide himself. The Seminoles killed and scalped four men in the camp, killed the wagon mules, looted and burned the wagons and took several horses. Seven men, four of them wounded, made it back to Fort Myers.
When the news of the attack reached Tampa, the men of the city elected militia officers and organized companies. The newly formed militia marched to the Peace River valley, recruited more men, and manned some forts along the river. Governor <a href="James%20Broome">James Broome</a> started organizing as many volunteer companies as he could. Because the state had limited funds, he tried to have the Army accept the volunteers. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis accepted two infantry companies and three mounted companies, about 260 men. Governor Broome kept another 400 men mobilized under state control. The state troops, both those accepted by the Army and those remaining under state control, had been partly armed and supplied by private donations. General Jesse Carter was appointed by Governor Broome as "special agent ... without military rank" to lead the state troops. Carter set half of the state troops to growing crops, and so only 200 of his men were available for patrols. A Tampa newspaper noted that the mounted patrols preferred to patrol in open country, which was easier for the horses, but it allowed the Seminoles to see them coming.
On January 6, 1856, two men gathering <a href="Zamia%20integrifolia">coontie</a> south of the <a href="Miami%20River%20%28Florida%29">Miami River</a> were killed. The settlers in the area promptly fled to Fort Dallas and <a href="Key%20Biscayne">Key Biscayne</a>. A party of some twenty Seminoles under Ocsen Tustenuggee attacked a wood-cutting patrol outside of Fort Denaud, killing five of the six men. Despite the positioning of militia units to defend the area, the Seminoles also raided along the coast south of Tampa Bay. They killed one man and burned a house in what is now <a href="Sarasota%2C%20Florida">Sarasota</a>, and on March 31, 1856, they tried to attack the "Braden Castle", the plantation home of Dr. Joseph Braden, in what is now <a href="Bradenton%2C%20Florida">Bradenton</a>. The "Castle" was too strong for them, but they led away seven slaves and three mules. Burdened with prisoners and loot, the Seminoles did not move fast. While they were stopped at <a href="Big%20Charley%20Apopka%20Creek">Big Charley Apopka Creek</a> eating barbecued beef from a cow they had found and slaughtered, the militia caught up with them. The militiamen killed two of the Seminoles and recaptured the slaves and mules taken from Dr. Braden's plantation. The scalp of one of the dead Seminoles was displayed in Tampa, the other in Manatee.
During April, regular Army and militiamen patrolled around and into the reservation but made little contact with the Seminoles. One six-hour battle was fought near Bowlegs Town in April, with four regulars killed and three wounded before the Seminoles withdrew. The Seminoles continued to carry out small raids around the state. On May 14, 1856, fifteen Seminoles attacked the farm house of Captain Robert Bradley north of Tampa, killing two of his young children. One Seminole was killed by Bradley. Bradley may have been targeted because he had killed Tiger Tail's brother during the Second Seminole War. On May 17, Seminoles attacked a wagon train in central Florida, killing three men. Mail and stagecoach service in and out of Tampa was suspended until the military could provide protection.
On June 14, 1856, Seminoles attacked a farm two miles (3 km) from Fort Meade. All of the household made it safely into the house, and they were able to hold the Seminoles at bay. The gunfire was heard at Fort Meade, and seven mounted militiamen responded. Three of the militiamen were killed and two others wounded. More militiamen pursued the Seminoles but had to retreat when a sudden rain wet their powder. On June 16, twenty militiamen from <a href="Fort%20Fraser%20%28Florida%29">Fort Fraser</a> surprised a group of Seminoles along the Peace River, killing some of the Seminoles. The militiamen withdrew after losing two dead and three wounded. They claimed to have killed as many as twenty Seminoles, but the Indians admitted to only four dead and two wounded. However, one of the dead was Ocsen Tustenuggee, who seems to have been the only chief who would actively lead attacks against settlements.
The citizens of Florida were becoming disenchanted with the militia. There were complaints that the militiamen would pretend to patrol for a day or two and then go home to work their fields, and that they were given to idleness, drunkenness, and thievery. The officers were reported to be unwilling to submit required paperwork. Most importantly, the militia had failed to prevent attacks against settlers.
In September 1856, Brigadier General <a href="William%20S.%20Harney">William S. Harney</a> returned to Florida as commander of the federal troops. Remembering the lessons he had learned in the Second Seminole War, he set up a system of forts in a line across Florida, and patrols moved deep into Seminole territory. He planned to confine the Seminoles to the Big Cypress Swamp and the Everglades, because he believed they would be unable to live there during the wet season. He anticipated being able to catch the Indians when they left their flooded sanctuaries seeking dry land for raising their crops. Part of Harney's plan involved using boats to reach islands and other dry spots in the swamps. He first made one more attempt to negotiate with the Seminoles but was unable to make contact with them. In early January 1857, he ordered his troops to actively pursue the Indians. Harney's plan, however, had shown few results by the time he and the Fifth Infantry were transferred to <a href="Kansas">Kansas</a> to aid in the <a href="Bleeding%20Kansas">uprisings</a> there in April.
Colonel <a href="Gustavus%20Loomis">Gustavus Loomis</a> replaced General Harney as commander in Florida, but the withdrawal of the Fifth Infantry left him with only ten companies of the Fourth Artillery, which was later reduced to just four companies. Loomis organized volunteers into boat companies, which were given metal "alligator boats" that had been built earlier specifically for use in the Big Cypress Swamp and Everglades. Thirty feet (9 m) long, pointed at both ends, and drawing two to three feet (0.7 m) of water, the boats could carry up to sixteen men into the swamps. These boat companies were able to capture many Indians, primarily women and children. The regulars did not do as well. Some officers, including Captain <a href="Abner%20Doubleday">Abner Doubleday</a>, observed that the Seminoles easily avoided the Army patrols. Doubleday attributed this to the fact that most of the enlisted men were recent immigrants who had no skills in <a href="wikt%3Awoodcraft">woodcraft</a>.
In 1857, ten companies of Florida militia were taken into federal service, totaling almost 800 men by September. In November these troops captured eighteen women and children from Billy Bowlegs' band. The troops also found and destroyed several towns and fields of crops. The troops moved into the Big Cypress Swamp starting on <a href="New%20Year%27s%20Day">New Year's Day</a> 1858, again destroying the towns and cultivated fields they found. Another delegation from the Indian Territory arrived in Florida in January and attempted to contact Bowlegs. The troops stood down while the attempt was made, and Bowlegs was contacted. The previous year the Seminoles had finally been given their own reservation in Indian Territory separate from the Creeks. Cash payments of US$500 to each warrior (more to the chiefs) and $100 to each woman were promised. On March 15, Bowlegs' and Assinwar's bands accepted the offer and agreed to go west. On May 4, a total of 163 Seminoles (including some captured earlier) were shipped to New Orleans. On May 8, 1858, Colonel Loomis declared the war to be over.
When Colonel Loomis declared an end to the Third Seminole War, the government believed that only about 100 Seminole were left in Florida. In December 1858, the US recruited two bands totaling 75 people, who agreed to removal to the West; they were shipped out on February 15, 1859.
Seminoles remained in Florida, however. Sam Jones' band was living in southeast Florida, inland from Miami and Fort Lauderdale. Chipco's band was living north of Lake Okeechobee, although the Army and militia had failed to locate it. Individual families were scattered across the wetlands of southern Florida. Since the war was officially over and the remaining Seminole stayed quiet, the government sent the militia home and reassigned the regular Army troops.
All of the forts built for the Seminole wars were decommissioned and soon stripped by settlers of any usable material. In 1862, the state contacted Sam Jones with promises of aid in an attempt to keep the Seminole neutral in the <a href="American%20Civil%20War">Civil War</a>. Although the state did not follow through on its promises, the Seminole were not interested in fighting another war.
The <a href="Florida%20Constitution%23The%201868%20Florida%20Constitution">1868 Florida Constitution</a>, developed by the <a href="Republican%20Party%20%28US%29">Republican</a>-dominated <a href="Reconstruction%20era%20of%20the%20United%20States">Reconstruction</a> legislature, gave the Seminole one seat in the house and one seat in the senate of the state legislature. The Seminole never filled the positions. In 1885, after southern white <a href="Democratic%20Party%20%28US%29">Democrats</a> had regained political power in the state, they passed a new constitution in 1885. It removed the seats for Seminole and established barriers to voter registration and electoral practices that essentially <a href="Disfranchisement%20after%20Reconstruction%20era">disfranchised</a> most blacks and minorities. This situation lasted until the passage of federal civil rights and voting legislation in the mid-1960s, which provided for the enforcement of citizens' constitutional rights.
A small number of Seminoles continued to live in relative isolation in the Lake Okeechobee and Everglades region into the 20th Century. Flood control and drainage projects beginning in the late 1800s opened up more land for development and significantly altered the natural environment, inundating some areas while leaving former swamps dry and arable. These projects, along with the completion of the <a href="Tamiami%20Trail">Tamiami Trail</a> which bisected the Everglades in 1928, simultaneously ended old ways of life and introduced new opportunities. A steady stream of white developers and tourists came to the area, and the Seminoles began to work in local farms, ranches, and souvenir stands.
In the 1940s, Seminoles living across the state began moving to reservations and establishing official tribal governments to form ties with the <a href="Bureau%20of%20Indian%20Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a>. In 1957, most Seminoles established formal relations with the US government as the <a href="Seminole%20Tribe%20of%20Florida">Seminole Tribe of Florida</a>, which is headquartered in <a href="Hollywood%2C%20Florida">Hollywood, Florida</a> and control the <a href="Big%20Cypress%20Indian%20Reservation">Big Cypress Indian Reservation</a>, <a href="Brighton%20Reservation">Brighton Reservation</a>, Fort Pierce Reservation, <a href="Hollywood%20Reservation">Hollywood Reservation</a>, Immokalee Reservation, and <a href="Tampa%20Reservation">Tampa Reservation</a>.
The <a href="Miccosukee">Miccosukee</a> branch of the Seminoles held to a more traditional lifestyle in the Everglades region, simultaneously seeking privacy and serving as a tourist attraction, wrestling alligators, selling crafts, and giving <a href="Ecotourism">eco-tours</a> of their land. They received federal recognition as a separate nation in 1962 and received their own reservation lands, collectively known as the <a href="Miccosukee%20Indian%20Reservation">Miccosukee Indian Reservation</a>, including a reservation on the northern border of Everglades National Park, about west of Miami.

</doc>
<doc id="90451" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90451" title="Amazon.com">
Amazon.com

Amazon.com, Inc. ( or ), often referred to as simply Amazon, is an American <a href="e-commerce">electronic commerce</a> and <a href="cloud%20computing">cloud computing</a> company with headquarters in <a href="Seattle">Seattle</a>, <a href="Washington%20%28state%29">Washington</a>. It is the largest Internet-based retailer in the United States. Amazon.com started as an online <a href="bookstore">bookstore</a>, later diversifying to sell <a href="DVD">DVD</a>s, <a href="Blu-ray">Blu-ray</a>s, <a href="compact%20Disc">CDs</a>, <a href="Amazon%20Video">video</a> downloads/streaming, <a href="MP3">MP3</a> downloads/streaming, <a href="Audible.com">audiobook</a> downloads/streaming, <a href="software">software</a>, <a href="video%20game">video game</a>s, <a href="consumer%20electronics">electronics</a>, apparel, furniture, food, toys and jewelry. The company also produces <a href="consumer%20electronics">consumer electronics</a>—notably, <a href="Amazon%20Kindle">Amazon Kindle</a> <a href="e-book%20reader">e-book reader</a>s, <a href="Kindle%20Fire">Fire</a> <a href="tablet%20computer">tablet</a>s, <a href="Fire%20TV">Fire TV</a> and <a href="Fire%20Phone">Fire Phone</a>—and is the world's largest provider of <a href="cloud%20infrastructure">cloud infrastructure</a> services (IaaS). Amazon also sells certain low-end products like USB cables under its in-house brand AmazonBasics.
Amazon has separate retail websites for <a href="United%20States">United States</a>, <a href="United%20Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and <a href="Ireland">Ireland</a>, <a href="France">France</a>, <a href="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, <a href="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="Brazil">Brazil</a>, <a href="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="China">China</a>, <a href="India">India</a> and <a href="Mexico">Mexico</a>. Amazon also offers international shipping to certain other countries for some of its products. In 2011, it professed an intention to launch its websites in <a href="Poland">Poland</a> and <a href="Sweden">Sweden</a>.
In 2015, Amazon surpassed <a href="Walmart">Walmart</a> as the most valuable retailer in the United States by <a href="market%20capitalization">market capitalization</a>.
The company was founded in 1994, spurred by what Bezos called his "regret minimization framework," which described his efforts to fend off any regrets for not participating sooner in the <a href="Dot-com%20bubble">Internet business boom</a> during that time. In 1994, Bezos left his employment as vice-president of <a href="D.%20E.%20Shaw%20%26amp%3B%20Co.">D. E. Shaw & Co.</a>, a Wall Street firm, and moved to Seattle. He began to work on a business plan for what would eventually become Amazon.com.
<a href="Jeff%20Bezos">Jeff Bezos</a> incorporated the company as "Cadabra" on July 5, 1994. Bezos changed the name to Amazon a year later after a lawyer misheard its original name as "cadaver". The company went online as Amazon.com in 1995.
Bezos selected the name Amazon by looking through the dictionary, and settled on "Amazon" because it was a place that was "exotic and different" just as he planned for his store to be; the <a href="Amazon%20river">Amazon river</a>, he noted was by far the "biggest" river in the world, and he planned to make his store the biggest in the world. Bezos placed a premium on his head start in building a brand, telling a reporter, "There's nothing about our model that can't be copied over time. But you know, <a href="McDonald%27s">McDonald's</a> got copied. And it still built a huge, multibillion-dollar company. A lot of it comes down to the brand name. Brand names are more important online than they are in the physical world." Additionally, a name beginning with "A" was preferential due to the probability it would occur at the top of any list that was alphabetized.
Since June 19, 2000, Amazon's logotype has featured a curved arrow leading from A to Z, representing that the company carries every product from A to Z, with the arrow shaped like a smile.
After reading a report about the future of the Internet that projected annual Web commerce growth at 2,300%, Bezos created a list of 20 products that could be marketed online. He narrowed the list to what he felt were the five most promising products which included: compact discs, computer hardware, computer software, videos, and books. Bezos finally decided that his new business would sell books online, due to the large world-wide demand for literature, the low price points for books, along with the huge number of titles available in print. Amazon was originally founded in Bezos' garage in Bellevue, Washington.
The company began as an online <a href="bookstore">bookstore</a>, an idea spurred off with discussion with <a href="John%20R.%20Ingram%20%28businessman%29">John Ingram</a> of Ingram Book (now called <a href="Ingram%20Content%20Group">Ingram Content Group</a>), along with Keyur Patel who still holds a stake in Amazon. Amazon was able to access books at wholesale from Ingram. In the first two months of business, Amazon sold to all 50 states and over 45 countries. Within two months, Amazon's sales were up to $20,000/week. While the largest <a href="brick%20and%20mortar">brick and mortar</a> bookstores and <a href="mail%20order">mail order</a> catalogs might offer 200,000 titles, an online bookstore could "carry" several times more, since it would have a practically unlimited virtual (not actual) warehouse: those of the actual product makers/suppliers.
Amazon was incorporated in 1994, in the state of <a href="Washington%20%28state%29">Washington</a>. In July 1995, the company began service and sold its first book on Amazon.com: <a href="Douglas%20Hofstadter">Douglas Hofstadter</a>'s "<a href="Fluid%20Concepts%20and%20Creative%20Analogies">Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models of the Fundamental Mechanisms of Thought</a>". In October 1995, the company announced itself to the public. In 1996, it was reincorporated in <a href="Delaware">Delaware</a>. Amazon issued its <a href="initial%20public%20offering">initial public offering</a> of <a href="stock">stock</a> on May 15, 1997, trading under the <a href="NASDAQ">NASDAQ</a> stock exchange symbol AMZN, at a price of <a href="United%20States%20dollar">US$</a>18.00 per share ($1.50 after three <a href="stock%20split">stock split</a>s in the late 1990s).
Amazon's initial <a href="business%20plan">business plan</a> was unusual; it did not expect to make a profit for four to five years. This "slow" growth caused stockholders to complain about the company not reaching profitability fast enough to justify investing in, or to even survive in the long-term. When the <a href="dot-com%20bubble">dot-com bubble</a> burst at the start of the 21st century, destroying many e-companies in the process, Amazon survived, and grew on past the bubble burst to become a huge player in online sales. It finally turned its first profit in the fourth quarter of 2001: $5 million (i.e., 1¢ per share), on revenues of more than $1 billion. This profit margin, though extremely modest, proved to skeptics that Bezos' unconventional <a href="business%20model">business model</a> could succeed. In 1999, "<a href="Time%20%28magazine%29">Time</a>" magazine named Bezos the <a href="Time%20Person%20of%20the%20Year">Person of the Year</a>, recognizing the company's success in popularizing <a href="online%20shopping">online shopping</a>.
<a href="Barnes%20%26amp%3B%20Noble">Barnes & Noble</a> sued Amazon on May 12, 1997, alleging that Amazon's claim to be "the world's largest bookstore" was false. Barnes and Noble asserted, "[It] isn't a bookstore at all. It's a book broker." The suit was later settled out of court, and Amazon continued to make the same claim." <a href="Walmart">Walmart</a> sued Amazon on October 16, 1998, alleging that Amazon had stolen Walmart's trade secrets by hiring former Walmart executives. Although this suit was also settled out of court, it caused Amazon to implement internal restrictions and the reassignment of the former Walmart executives.
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Amazon owns over 40 subsidiaries, including Zappos, Diapers.com, Kiva Systems, Goodreads, Teachstreet, and IMDb.
As of February 2016, the board of directors is:
Until June 30, 2006, typing <a href="Toys%20R%20Us">ToysRUs.com</a> into a browser would bring up Amazon.com's "Toys & Games" tab; however, this relationship was terminated due to a lawsuit. Amazon also hosted and managed the website for <a href="Borders%20Group">Borders bookstores</a> but this ceased in 2008. From 2001 until August 2011, Amazon hosted the retail website for <a href="Target%20Corporation">Target</a>.
Amazon.com operates retail websites for <a href="Sears%20Canada">Sears Canada</a>, <a href="bebe%20Stores">bebe Stores</a>, <a href="Marks%20%26amp%3B%20Spencer">Marks & Spencer</a>, <a href="Mothercare">Mothercare</a>, and <a href="Lacoste">Lacoste</a>. For a growing number of <a href="Business">enterprise</a> clients, currently including the UK merchants Marks & Spencer, Benefit Cosmetics' UK entity, edeals.com, and Mothercare, Amazon provides a unified multichannel platform where a customer can interact with the retail website, standalone in-store terminals, or phone-based customer service agents. <a href="Amazon%20Web%20Services">Amazon Web Services</a> also powers <a href="AOL">AOL</a>'s Shop@AOL.
On October 18, 2011, Amazon.com announced a partnership with <a href="DC%20Comics">DC Comics</a> for the exclusive digital rights to many popular comics, including "<a href="Superman">Superman</a>", "<a href="Batman">Batman</a>", "<a href="Green%20Lantern">Green Lantern</a>", "<a href="The%20Sandman">The Sandman</a>", and "<a href="Watchmen">Watchmen</a>". The partnership has caused well-known bookstores like Barnes & Noble to remove these titles from their shelves.
In November 2013, Amazon.com announced a partnership with the <a href="United%20States%20Postal%20Service">United States Postal Service</a> to begin delivering orders on Sundays. The service, included with Amazon’s standard shipping rates, initiated in metropolitan areas of <a href="Los%20Angeles">Los Angeles</a> and <a href="New%20York%2C%20New%20York">New York</a> due to the high-volume and inability to deliver timely, with plans to expand into <a href="Dallas%2C%20Texas">Dallas</a>, <a href="Houston">Houston</a>, <a href="New%20Orleans">New Orleans</a>, and <a href="Phoenix%2C%20Arizona">Phoenix</a> by 2014.
Amazon's global headquarters are in 14 buildings in Seattle's <a href="South%20Lake%20Union%2C%20Seattle">South Lake Union</a> neighborhood, developed primarily by <a href="Vulcan%2C%20Inc.">Vulcan, Inc.</a> from 2008 onward. The first 11 buildings were acquired from Vulcan in 2012 at a cost of $1.16 billion. The company was previously headquartered in rented space within the <a href="Pacific%20Medical%20Center">Pacific Medical Center</a>, located in the city's <a href="Beacon%20Hill%2C%20Seattle">Beacon Hill</a> neighborhood, from 1998 to 2011.
Amazon is currently building a new <a href="Amazon.com%20headquarters">three-tower complex</a> in Seattle's <a href="Denny%20Triangle%2C%20Seattle">Denny Triangle</a> neighborhood to serve as its new headquarters. The plan, designed by <a href="NBBJ">NBBJ</a> and named "Rufus 2.0" after a dog who was part of the company in its early days, was approved by the city of Seattle in 2012 and construction began the year after. The first of the towers, <a href="Amazon%20Tower%20I">Amazon Tower I</a> (nicknamed Doppler), opened on December 14, 2015.
The European headquarters are in Luxembourg's capital, <a href="Luxembourg%20%28city%29">Luxembourg City</a>.
While much of Amazon's software development occurs in Seattle, the company employs software developers in centers across the globe. Some of these sites are run by an Amazon subsidiary called A2Z Development.
Fulfillment centers are located in the following cities, often near airports. These centers also provide warehousing and order-fulfillment for third-party sellers. Amazon Fulfillment centers can also provide warehousing and order-fulfillment for third-party sellers for an extra fee. Third-party sellers can use Fulfillment by Amazon, or FBA, to sell on other platforms as well, such as <a href="eBay">eBay</a> or their own websites.
Warehouses are large and each has hundreds of employees. Employees are responsible for four basic tasks: unpacking and inspecting incoming goods; placing goods in storage and recording their location; picking goods from their computer recorded locations to make up an individual shipment; and shipping. A computer that records the location of goods and maps out routes for pickers plays a key role: employees carry hand-held computers which communicate with the central computer and monitor their rate of progress. A picker may walk 10 or more miles a day. In the United Kingdom initial staffing was provided by <a href="Randstad%20Holding">Randstad Holding</a> and other temporary employment agencies. Some workers are accepted as Amazon employees and granted pension and shares of stock; others are dismissed. "When we have permanent positions available, we look to the top performing temporary associates to fill them." Development of a high level of <a href="automation">automation</a> is anticipated in the future following Amazon's 2012 acquisition of <a href="Kiva%20Systems">Kiva Systems</a>, a warehouse automation company.
These US distribution centers have been closed: SDC Seattle Distribution Center, located in Georgetown, just south of downtown Seattle; Red Rock, Nevada; <a href="Chambersburg%2C%20Pennsylvania">Chambersburg, Pennsylvania</a>; <a href="Munster%2C%20Indiana">Munster, Indiana</a>; and <a href="McDonough%2C%20Georgia">McDonough, Georgia</a>.
From 2000 until February 2001, there was an Amazon customer service based in <a href="The%20Hague">The Hague</a>, Netherlands.
Amazon product lines include several media (<a href="book">book</a>s, DVDs, music CDs, <a href="VHS">videotapes</a>, and software), apparel, baby products, <a href="consumer%20electronics">consumer electronics</a>, <a href="cosmetics">beauty products</a>, gourmet food, groceries, health and personal-care items, industrial & scientific supplies, kitchen items, <a href="jewelry">jewelry</a> and watches, lawn and garden items, musical instruments, <a href="sports%20equipment">sporting goods</a>, tools, automotive items and toys & games.
The company launched amazon.com Auctions, a web auctions service, in March 1999. However, it failed to chip away at the large market share of the industry pioneer, <a href="eBay">eBay</a>. Later, the company launched a fixed-price <a href="marketplace">marketplace</a> business, zShops, in September 1999, and the now defunct partnership with <a href="Sotheby%27s">Sotheby's</a>, called "Sothebys.amazon.com", in November. Auctions and zShops evolved into <a href="Amazon%20Marketplace">Amazon Marketplace</a>, a service launched in November 2000 that let customers sell used books, CDs, DVDs, and other products alongside new items. As of October 2014, Amazon Marketplace is the largest of its kind, followed by similar marketplaces from Sears, Rakuten and Newegg.
In August 2007, Amazon announced <a href="AmazonFresh">AmazonFresh</a>, a grocery service offering <a href="perishable%20food">perishable</a> and <a href="nonperishable%20food">nonperishable food</a>s. Customers could have orders delivered to their homes at dawn or during a specified daytime window. Delivery was initially restricted to residents of <a href="Mercer%20Island%2C%20Washington">Mercer Island, Washington</a>, and was later expanded to several <a href="ZIP%20code">ZIP code</a>s in Seattle proper. AmazonFresh also operated pick-up locations in the suburbs of <a href="Bellevue%2C%20Washington">Bellevue</a> and <a href="Kirkland%2C%20Washington">Kirkland</a> from summer 2007 through early 2008.
In 2012, Amazon announced the launch of Vine.com for buying green products, including groceries, household items, and apparel. It is part of <a href="Quidsi">Quidsi</a>, the company that Amazon bought in 2010 that also runs the sites <a href="Diapers.com">Diapers.com</a> (baby), Wag.com (pets), and YoYo.com (toys). Amazon also owns other e-commerce sites like Shopbop.com, <a href="Woot.com">Woot.com</a>, and <a href="Zappos.com">Zappos.com</a>.
Amazon's Subscribe & Save program offers a discounted price on an item (usually sold in bulk), free shipping on every Subscribe & Save shipment, and automatic shipment of the item every one, two, three, or six months.
In 2013, Amazon launched its site in India, amazon.in. It has started with electronic goods and plans to expand into fashion apparel, beauty, home essentials, and healthcare categories by the end of 2013. In July 2014, Amazon had said it will invest $2 billion (Rs 12,000 crore) in India to expand business, after its largest Indian rival Flipkart announced $1 billion in funding.
In 2014, Amazon sold 63% of all books bought online and 40% of all books sold overall.
Fulfillment by Amazon Small and Light is a service introduced in 2015 that will provide fulfillment for small, light items from a center in <a href="Florence%2C%20Kentucky">Florence, Kentucky</a>. The service will offer free standard shipping for small, light, low-value items offered on the site by 3rd party sellers.
In 2015, a study by <a href="Survata">Survata</a> found that 44% of respondents searching for products went directly to Amazon.com.
In 2005, Amazon announced the creation of Amazon Prime, a membership offering free two-day shipping within the contiguous United States on all eligible purchases for a flat annual fee of $79 (), as well as discounted one-day shipping rates. Amazon launched the program in Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom in 2007; in France (as "Amazon Premium") in 2008, in Italy in 2011, and in Canada in 2013.
Amazon Prime membership in Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States also provides <a href="Amazon%20Video">Amazon Video</a>, the instant streaming of selected movies and TV shows at no additional cost. In November 2011, it was announced that Prime members have access to the Kindle Owners’ Lending Library, which allows users to borrow certain popular Kindle e-books for free reading on Kindle hardware, up to one book a month, with no due date.
In March 2014, Amazon announced an increase in the annual membership fee for Amazon Prime, from $79 to $99. Shortly after this change, Amazon announced Prime Music, a service whose members can get unlimited, ad-free streaming of over a million songs and access to curated playlists. In November 2014, Amazon added Prime Photos, which allows unlimited photo storage in the users' Amazon cloud drive. In March 2015, Amazon is expanding that service as a paid offering to cover other kinds of content, and to users outside of its loyalty program. Unlimited Cloud Storage will let users get either unlimited photo storage or “unlimited everything” — covering all kinds of media from videos and music through to PDF documents — respectively for $11.99 or $59.99 per year. Amazon also began offering free same-day delivery to Prime members in 14 U.S. metropolitan areas in May 2015.
In April 2015, Amazon started a trial partnership with <a href="Audi">Audi</a> and <a href="DHL%20Express">DHL</a> in order to get deliveries directly into the trunks of Audi cars. This project is only available on the <a href="Munich">Munich (Germany)</a> area to some Audi connected car users.
On July 15, 2015 to commemorate its 20th birthday, Amazon celebrated "Amazon Prime Day," which Amazon announced would feature deals for prime members that rivaled those on <a href="Black%20Friday%20%28shopping%29">Black Friday</a>. Also that month Amazon Prime announced that it would be signing <a href="Jeremy%20Clarkson">Jeremy Clarkson</a>, <a href="Richard%20Hammond">Richard Hammond</a>, and <a href="James%20May">James May</a> of formerly of BBC <a href="Top%20Gear%20%282002%20TV%20series%29">"Top Gear"</a> to begin working on an "<a href="Untitled%20Amazon%20motoring%20show">Untitled Amazon motoring show</a>" series due to be released in 2016.
In December 2015, Amazon released that "tens of millions" of people are Amazon Prime members. Amazon Prime added 3 million members during the third week of December 2015. It was also during December that Amazon announced the creation of the Streaming Partners Program, an over-the-top subscription service that enables Amazon Prime subscribers to add additional streaming video services to their accounts. Among the programming providers involved in the program, they include <a href="Showtime%20%28TV%20network%29">Showtime</a>, <a href="Starz">Starz</a> (with additional content from sister network <a href="Encore%20%28TV%20network%29">Encore</a>), Lifetime Movie Club (containing recent original movie titles from <a href="Lifetime%20Television">Lifetime Television</a> and <a href="Lifetime%20Movie%20Network">Lifetime Movie Network</a>), <a href="Smithsonian%20Institution">Smithsonian Earth</a>, and <a href="Qello">Qello Concerts</a> among others.
In January 2016, Amazon Prime reaches 54 million members according to an report from Consumer Intelligence Research Partners.
In November 2007, Amazon launched <a href="Amazon%20Kindle">Amazon Kindle</a>, an <a href="e-book">e-book</a> reader which downloads content over "<a href="Whispernet">Whispernet</a>", via <a href="Sprint%20Corporation">Sprint's</a> <a href="EV-DO">EV-DO</a> wireless network. The screen uses <a href="E%20Ink">E Ink</a> technology to reduce <a href="battery%20%28electricity%29">battery</a> consumption and to provide a more legible display. As of July 2014, there are over 2.7 million e-books available for purchase at the <a href="Kindle%20Store">Kindle Store</a>.
In September 2011, Amazon announced its entry into the <a href="tablet%20computer">tablet computer</a> market by introducing the <a href="Kindle%20Fire">Kindle Fire</a>, which runs a customized version of the operating system <a href="Android%20%28operating%20system%29">Android</a>. The low pricing of Fire ($199 USD) was widely perceived as a strategy backed by Amazon's revenue from its content sales, to be stimulated by sales of the Fire.
In September 2012, Amazon unveiled the second generation tablet, called the <a href="Kindle%20Fire%20HD">Kindle Fire HD</a>. On September 25, 2013, Amazon.com unveiled its third generation tablet, called the <a href="Kindle%20Fire%20HDX">Kindle Fire HDX</a>. In October 2013, the sixth generation <a href="Amazon%20Kindle%23Sixth%20generation">Kindle</a> was released.
In April 2014, Amazon announced its <a href="Amazon%20Fire%20TV">Amazon Fire TV</a> set-top box system, a device targeted to compete with such systems like <a href="Apple%20TV">Apple TV</a> or <a href="Google">Google</a>'s <a href="Chromecast">Chromecast</a> device. The Amazon set-top box allows for streaming videos from sites like Amazon's own streaming service as well as others such as <a href="Netflix">Netflix</a> or <a href="Hulu">Hulu</a>. The device also supports voice search for movies, as well as gaming, which includes special versions of "<a href="Minecraft">Minecraft</a>", "<a href="Asphalt%208">Asphalt 8</a>", and "<a href="The%20Walking%20Dead%20%28video%20game%29">The Walking Dead</a>". Amazon announced the <a href="Fire%20TV%20Stick">Fire TV Stick</a> in October 2014. The device replicates much of the functionality of the Fire TV.
The company entered the <a href="smartphone">smartphone</a> market in July 2014 with the release of the <a href="Fire%20Phone">Fire Phone</a>.
Amazon's Honor System was launched in 2001 to allow customers to make donations or buy digital content, with Amazon collecting a percentage of the payment plus a fee; however, the service was discontinued in 2008 and replaced by <a href="Amazon%20Payments">Amazon Payments</a>.
<a href="Amazon%20Music">Amazon Music</a>, its own online music store, launched as Amazon MP3 in the US on September 25, 2007, selling downloads exclusively in MP3 format without <a href="digital%20rights%20management">digital rights management</a>. (In addition to copyright law, Amazon's <a href="terms%20of%20service">terms of use</a> agreements restrict use of the MP3s, but Amazon does not use <a href="Digital%20rights%20management">digital rights management (DRM)</a> to enforce those terms.) In addition to independent music labels, Amazon MP3 primarily sells music from the "<a href="music%20industry">Big 4</a>" record labels: <a href="EMI">EMI</a>, <a href="Universal%20Music%20Group">Universal</a>, <a href="Warner%20Bros.%20Records">Warner Bros. Records</a>, and <a href="Sony%20Music">Sony Music</a>. Prior to the launch of this service, Amazon made an investment in <a href="Amie%20Street">Amie Street</a>, a music store with a variable pricing model based on <a href="demand">demand</a>. Amazon MP3 was the first online offering of DRM-free music from all four major record companies.
In January 2008, Amazon began distributing its MP3 service to subsidiary websites worldwide and, in December 2008, Amazon MP3 was made available in the UK. At the launch of Amazon MP3 in the UK, over 3 million Digital Rights Management (DRM)-free songs were made available to consumers, with prices that started at 59p, compared to Apple's 79p starting price.
In July 2010, Amazon announced that <a href="e-book">e-book</a> sales for its Kindle reader outnumbered sales of <a href="hardcover">hardcover</a> books for the first time ever during the second <a href="Fiscal%20year">quarter</a> of 2010. Amazon claims that, during that period, 143 e-books were sold for every 100 hardcover books, including hardcovers for which there is no digital edition; and during late June and early July, sales rose to 180 digital books for every 100 hardcovers.
On March 22, 2011, Amazon launched the <a href="Amazon%20Appstore">Amazon Appstore</a> for <a href="Android%20%28operating%20system%29">Android</a> devices and the service was made available in over 200 countries. Also in 2011, Amazon announced that it was releasing a Mac download store to offer dozens of games and hundreds of pieces of software for Apple computers.
In January 2013, Amazon launched AutoRip, a digital music service. The service allows customers to receive a free MP3 copy of select CDs purchased through Amazon. Amazon announced in September 2013 that it would launch Kindle MatchBook in October 2013, a similar service for books allowing customers who buy books from Amazon to acquire an e-book copy for free, or at a discounted price of US$3 or less. MatchBook was launched on the company's site on October 29, 2013.
In October 2008, Amazon acquired game developer and distributor Reflexive Entertainment. This studio continued to develop games for PC, Mac and Kindle eReaders under the brands Reflexive and Amazon Digital Services. Notable titles include Every Word for Kindle Paperwhite and Airport Mania for Kindle Fire, Android, iOS Windows and Mac.
In August 2012, Amazon announced it would be adding a gaming department to its company titled Amazon Game Studios. Amazon stated that it would introduce "innovative, fun and well-crafted games" to consumers. According to the Amazon Game Studios website, the last game that was launched by the department was Amazon's first ever mobile game "Air Patriots", released on November 1, 2012.
On February 6, 2014, Amazon confirmed the acquisition of the gaming company Double Helix Games without any indication of the financial terms. The 75 Double Helix employees were to become Amazon employees and their <a href="Orange%20County%2C%20California">Orange County, California</a>, headquarters was to remain their operating base. Amazon informed the "TechCrunch" media company that it "acquired Double Helix as part of our [Amazon's] ongoing commitment to build innovative games for customers" and confirmed that Double Helix's current game roster and other future developments will receive support following the acquisition.
On August 25, 2014, Amazon announced its intent to acquire the video game streaming website <a href="Twitch%20%28website%29">Twitch</a> for $970 million. The acquisition of Twitch is expected to help Amazon drive Internet traffic and potentially boost its Prime membership program, and promote its video ad and Fire TV set top box business.
In August 2013 Amazon launched Amazon Art as an online marketplace selling original and limited edition fine art from selected galleries. The initial 40000 items listed for sale included <a href="Norman%20Rockwell">Norman Rockwell</a>'s painting <a href="Willie%20Gillis%23Willie%20Gillis%20Series">"Willie Gillis: Package from Home"</a> priced at $4.85 million, "<a href="L%27Enfant%20a%20la%20tasse">L'Enfant a la tasse</a>" by <a href="Claude%20Monet">Claude Monet</a> for $1.45 million and <a href="Andy%20Warhol">Andy Warhol's "Sachiko"</a> for $45 000.
Amazon Video is an Internet video on demand service by Amazon in the United States, United Kingdom, Japan, Austria and Germany. There are plans to offer the video streaming service in India sometime in 2015.
In 2015, the Prime Instant Video exclusive series "<a href="Transparent%20%28TV%20series%29">Transparent</a>" earned two <a href="Golden%20Globe%20Awards">Golden Globe Awards</a>, and "Transparent" is the first series from a streaming service to win a Golden Globe for best series.
In August 2005, Amazon began selling products under its own <a href="private%20label">private label</a>, "Pinzon"; the <a href="trademark">trademark</a> applications indicated that the label would be used for textiles, kitchen utensils, and other household goods. In March 2007, the company applied to expand the trademark to cover a more diverse list of goods and to register a new design consisting of the "word PINZON in stylized letters with a notched letter "O" which appears at the "one o'clock" position". Coverage by the trademark grew to include items such as paints, carpets, wallpaper, hair accessories, clothing, footwear, headgear, cleaning products, and jewelry. In September 2008, Amazon filed to have the name registered. <a href="United%20States%20Patent%20and%20Trademark%20Office">USPTO</a> has finished its review of the application, but Amazon has yet to receive an official registration for the name.
AmazonBasics is a private-label product line, mainly consisting of consumer electronics accessories, but also including home and office accessories. The line was launched in 2009.
An Amazon.com exclusive is a product, usually a DVD, that is available exclusively on Amazon.com. Some DVDs are produced by the owner of the film or product, while others are produced by Amazon.com itself. The DVDs produced by Amazon are made using its "CreateSpace" program, in which DVDs are created, upon ordering, using DVD-R technology. The DVDs are then shipped about two days later. Some DVDs (such as the "<a href="Jersey%20Shore%20%28TV%20series%29">Jersey Shore</a>" Season 1 or "<a href="The%20Unusuals">The Unusuals</a>" Season 1) are released first as an Amazon.com exclusive for a limited time before being released elsewhere. On May 23, 2011, Amazon.com allowed customers to download <a href="Lady%20Gaga">Lady Gaga</a>'s "<a href="Born%20This%20Way%20%28album%29">Born This Way</a>" album for 99 cents, resulting in some downloads being delayed, due to an extremely high volume of downloads.
Amazon self publishing services through one of its companies, <a href="CreateSpace">CreateSpace</a>, a member of the Amazon group of companies.
Amazon launched <a href="Amazon%20Web%20Services">Amazon Web Services</a> (AWS) in 2002, which provides programmatic access to latent features on its website.
In November 2005, Amazon began testing <a href="Amazon%20Mechanical%20Turk">Amazon Mechanical Turk</a>, an <a href="application%20programming%20interface">application programming interface</a> (API) allowing programs to dispatch tasks to human processors.
In March 2006, Amazon launched an online storage service called <a href="Amazon%20S3">Amazon Simple Storage Service</a> (Amazon S3). An unlimited number of data objects, from 1 <a href="byte">byte</a> to 5 <a href="terabyte">terabyte</a>s in size, can be stored in S3 and distributed via <a href="Hypertext%20Transfer%20Protocol">HTTP</a> or <a href="BitTorrent">BitTorrent</a>. The service charges monthly fees for data stored and transferred. In 2006, Amazon introduced <a href="Amazon%20Simple%20Queue%20Service">Amazon Simple Queue Service</a> (Amazon SQS), a distributed queue messaging service, and product <a href="wiki">wiki</a>s (later folded into <a href="%232007">Amapedia</a>) and <a href="Internet%20forum">discussion forums</a> for certain products using guidelines that follow standard <a href="Internet%20forum">message board</a> conventions.
Also in 2006, Amazon introduced <a href="Amazon%20Elastic%20Compute%20Cloud">Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud</a> (Amazon EC2), a virtual site farm, allowing users to use the Amazon infrastructure to run applications ranging from running simulations to web hosting. In 2008, Amazon improved the service by adding Elastic Block Store (EBS), offering persistent storage for Amazon EC2 instances and <a href="Elastic%20IP%20address">Elastic IP address</a>es, and offering static IP addresses designed for dynamic <a href="cloud%20computing">cloud computing</a>.
Amazon introduced <a href="Amazon%20SimpleDB">SimpleDB</a>, a database system, allowing users of its other infrastructure to utilize a high-reliability, high-performance database system. In 2008, Amazon graduated EC2 from beta to "Generally Available" and added support for the <a href="Microsoft%20Windows">Microsoft Windows</a> platform.
Amazon continues to refine and add services to AWS, adding such services as Scalable DNS service (Amazon Route 53), payment handling, and AWS specific APIs for its <a href="Amazon%20Mechanical%20Turk">Mechanical Turk</a> service.
In August 2012, Amazon announced <a href="Amazon%20Glacier">Amazon Glacier</a>, a low-cost <a href="online%20file%20storage">online file storage</a> <a href="web%20service">web service</a> that provides reliable data archiving, storage, and backup.
In November 2012 at AWS' web developer conference in Las Vegas it announced it was targeting large companies as cloud storage clients. It will further cut its S3 prices to customers with long-term contracts in its "Redshift" storage service launching in 2013.
In March 2013 Amazon announced its Mobile Ads API for developers. The new Ads API can be used on apps distributed on any Android platform as long as the app is also available on Amazon’s Appstore.
As of December 2014, <a href="Amazon%20Web%20Services">Amazon Web Services</a> operated 1.4 Million servers across 11 regions and 28 availability zones.
<a href="Amazon%20Publishing">Amazon Publishing</a> is Amazon's publishing unit. It is composed of AmazonEncore, AmazonCrossing, Montlake Romance, Thomas & Mercer, 47 North, and Powered by Amazon. Additional imprints are planned.
Launched in 2005, Amazon Shorts offered exclusive short stories and non-fiction pieces from best-selling authors for immediate download. By June 2007, the program had over 1,700 pieces and was adding about 50 new pieces per week. The program was discontinued on June 1, 2010.
Amazon also created "channels" to benefit certain causes. In 2004, Amazon allowed customers to donate $5 to $200 to the campaigns of <a href="United%20States%20presidential%20election%2C%202004">2004 US presidential hopefuls</a>, providing links that raised $300,000 for the candidates. Amazon has periodically reactivated a <a href="Red%20Cross">Red Cross</a> donation channel after crises such as <a href="Hurricane%20Sandy">Hurricane Sandy</a>, <a href="Hurricane%20Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a>, and the 2004 <a href="2004%20Indian%20Ocean%20earthquake%20and%20tsunami">earthquake and tsunami in the Indian Ocean</a>. By January 2005, nearly 200,000 people had donated over $15.7 million in the US.
Amazon Smile, accessed by going to smile.amazon.com when normally shopping, allows Amazon to donate 0.5% of the sale price to a selected charity as its <a href="Sponsor%20%28commercial%29">sponsor</a>.
Amazon Local is a <a href="Deal%20of%20the%20day">daily deal</a> service launched in June 2011 in <a href="Boise%2C%20Idaho">Boise, Idaho</a>. , Amazon Local offers daily deals to over 100 regions in 36 <a href="U.S.%20state">U.S. state</a>s. Amazon Local also acts as a deal aggregator; some of the deals are actually offered through <a href="LivingSocial">LivingSocial</a>, a firm in which Amazon has heavily invested.
It was launched gradually in the United Kingdom on August 29, 2012, starting in London and expanding to more towns and cities.
On December 18, 2015, Amazon Local will stop selling daily deals however purchased deals will remain valid according to its terms.
In July 2009, Amazon.com launched an AmazonWireless website, which offers cellular devices and service plans for <a href="Verizon%20Wireless">Verizon Wireless</a>, <a href="AT%26amp%3BT%20Mobility">AT&T</a>, <a href="Sprint%20Corporation">Sprint</a> and <a href="T-Mobile%20USA">T-Mobile</a> in the US.
<a href="AmazonFresh">AmazonFresh</a> is a home grocery delivery service first trialed in 2007, and later made available in <a href="Seattle">Seattle</a>, <a href="Los%20Angeles">Los Angeles</a>, <a href="San%20Francisco%2C%20California">San Francisco, California</a>, <a href="San%20Diego">San Diego</a>, <a href="Brooklyn%2C%20New%20York">Brooklyn, New York</a> and <a href="Philadelphia%2C%20PA">Philadelphia, PA</a>.
<a href="Amazon%20Prime%20Pantry">Amazon Prime Pantry</a> is a similar service covering the 48 <a href="contiguous%20United%20States">contiguous United States</a>, allowing the order of up to 45 pounds of dry goods and non-perishable groceries for a flat delivery fee.
On March 31, 2015, Amazon.com announced that it was expanding Amazon Dash to include an Amazon Dash Button and a Dash Replenishment Service.
"<a href="60%20Minutes">60 Minutes</a>" announced on December 1, 2013 that Amazon Prime Air was a possible future <a href="Package%20delivery">delivery</a> service expected to be in development for several more years. In concept, the process would use <a href="unmanned%20aerial%20vehicle">drones</a> to deliver small packages (less than five pounds) within 30 minutes by flying short distances (10–20 km) from local Amazon Fulfillment Centers. In the U.S., the project will require the <a href="Federal%20Aviation%20Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a> to approve commercial use of unmanned drones.
Such approval could be in place as early as 2015, and Amazon expects to be ready at that time. In July 2014, it was revealed the company was developing its 8th and 9th drone prototypes, some that could fly 50 miles an hour and carry 5-pound packages, and had applied to the FAA to test them.
In December 2014, Amazon announced that as a benefit to Prime members, parts of <a href="Manhattan">Manhattan</a>, in <a href="New%20York%20City">New York City</a>, could get products delivered to them within one hour for a fee of $7.99, or within two hours for no additional fee. 25,000 daily essential products are available with this delivery service. In February 2015, the service was extended to include all of Manhattan. It has since been expanded in the United States to include parts of <a href="Chicago">Chicago</a>, <a href="Miami">Miami</a>, <a href="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, <a href="Dallas">Dallas</a>, <a href="Atlanta">Atlanta</a>, <a href="Austin%2C%20TX">Austin</a>, and <a href="San%20Antonio%2C%20TX">San Antonio</a>. Outside of the U.S., it has expanded to <a href="London">London</a>, <a href="Birmingham">Birmingham, UK</a>., <a href="Newcastle%20upon%20Tyne">Newcastle</a>, <a href="Manchester">Manchester</a>, <a href="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>, <a href="Milan">Milan</a> and <a href="Tokyo">Tokyo</a>.
Amazon Supply, launched in 2012, offers industrial and scientific components and <a href="Maintenance%2C%20Repair%20and%20Operations">maintenance, repair and operations</a> (MRO) supplies. Amazon Supply was developed based on experience operating Smallparts.com, acquired in 2005. (The Smallparts.com brand was discontinued with the launch of Amazon Supply.) While Amazon Supply uses the same order fulfillment and distribution system as Amazon.com, its online store provides services to customers in more than 220 countries.
In January 2007, Amazon launched <a href="Amapedia">Amapedia</a>, a now-defunct <a href="wiki">wiki</a> for user-generated content to replace ProductWiki, and the <a href="video%20on%20demand">video on demand</a> service <a href="Amazon%20Unbox">Amazon Unbox</a>. Also in 2007, Amazon launched <a href="Amazon%20Vine">Amazon Vine</a>, which allows reviewers free access to prerelease products from vendors in return for posting a review, as well as a payment service specifically targeted at developers, <a href="Amazon%20Flexible%20Payments%20Service">Amazon FPS</a>.
<a href="Internet%20Movie%20Database">IMDb</a> and Amazon launched a website called SoundUnwound for browsing music metadata with wiki-like user contribution in September 2007; this data was also used for Amazon's Artist Pages. Soundunwound ceased existence on June 18, 2012, and the site redirected to Amazon.
Amazon Connect enables authors to post remarks on their book pages to customers.
Amazon Webstore allowed businesses to create custom e-commerce online stores using Amazon technology. Sellers selected the category for their business, and paid a commission of 1-2%, plus credit-card processing fees and fraud protection, and a subscription fee depending on the bundle option for an unlimited number of listings. Amazon has chosen a limited number of companies to become an implementation solution provider for them. The Amazon Webstore is no longer available to new merchants.
In August 2014, Amazon launched a credit card reader. Merchants can use it to conduct payments through a smartphone or tablet.
In 2014, Amazon launched a feature called "make an offer" that allows customers to place a bid to 3rd party sellers, rather than buy outright. However, unlike eBay, the feature is not an auction but rather a one-to-one bid where the customer haggles privately with the seller.
In January 2015, Amazon announced its own email and scheduling service dubbed WorkMail developed by Amazon Web Services, the cloud computing unit of Amazon Inc. The Amazon email service is expected to bring in $10 billion extra revenue to the company.
In March 2015, Amazon launched a new on-demand service, Amazon Home Services for all sorts of housework.
In April 2015, Amazon rolled out a new travel site called Amazon Destinations, which focuses on helping customers find "getaway destinations" within driving distance of their homes. Currently Amazon Destinations features hotel selections in three U.S. metro areas: L.A., New York and Seattle.
In October 2015, Amazon announced a new handmade marketplace called Handmade By Amazon, already having 5,000 sellers from 60 countries and 80,000 items for sale. The platform is designed for artisans to sell their good directly to the public, similar to the platform <a href="Etsy">Etsy</a>.
On November 2, 2015, Amazon opened its first physical <a href="retail%20store">retail store</a>, a <a href="bookstore">bookstore</a> in the <a href="University%20Village%2C%20Seattle">University Village</a> shopping center in Seattle. The store, known as <a href="Amazon%20Books">Amazon Books</a>, has prices matched to those found on the Amazon website and integrate online reviews into the store's shelves.
Amazon released branded semiconductors to home equipment designers who are working on Internet-of-Things devices, WiFi routers and other smart home appliances. The chips come from <a href="Annapurna%20Labs">Annapurna Labs</a>, which Amazon purchased in 2015 for a rumored $350 million. On January 7, 2016, the company announced that its Alpine chipset was available for a wide range of applications.
<a href="Amazon%20Studios">Amazon Studios</a> is Amazon.com's division that develops television shows, movies and comics from online submissions and crowd-sourced feedback. It was started in late 2010. Content would be distributed through <a href="Amazon%20Video">Amazon Video</a>, Amazon’s digital video streaming service, and a competitor to services like <a href="Netflix">Netflix</a> and <a href="Hulu">Hulu</a>. For film, Warner Bros. is a partner.
Companies owned by Amazon that operate under their own brand.
<a href="Audible.com">Audible.com</a> is a seller and producer of spoken audio entertainment, information, and educational programming on the Internet. Audible sells digital audiobooks, radio, and TV programs, and audio versions of magazines and newspapers. Through its production arm, Audible Studios, Audible has also become the world's largest producer of downloadable audiobooks. On January 31, 2008 Amazon announced it would buy Audible for about $300 million. The deal closed in March 2008, and Audible became a subsidiary of Amazon.
<a href="Brilliance%20Audio">Brilliance Audio</a> is an <a href="audiobook">audiobook</a> publisher founded in 1984 by Michael Snodgrass in <a href="Grand%20Haven%2C%20Michigan">Grand Haven, Michigan</a>. The company produced its first 8 audio titles in 1985. The company was purchased by Amazon in 2007 for an undisclosed amount. At the time of the acquisition Brilliance was producing 12-15 new titles a month. It operates as an independent company within Amazon.
In 1984, Brilliance Audio invented a technique for recording twice as much on the same cassette. The technique involved recording on each of the two channels of each stereo track. It has been credited with revolutionizing the burgeoning audiobook market in the mid-1980s since it made unabridged books affordable.
<a href="ComiXology">ComiXology</a> is a <a href="Cloud%20computing">cloud</a>-based digital comics platform with over 200 million comic downloads as of September 2013. It offers a selection of more than 40,000 comic books and graphic novels across Android, iOS, Kindle Fire, and Windows 8 devices, and over the Internet. Amazon bought the company in April 2014.
<a href="Goodreads">Goodreads</a> is a "<a href="social%20cataloging">social cataloging</a>" website founded in December 2006 and launched in January 2007 by Otis Chandler, a software engineer and entrepreneur, and Elizabeth Chandler. The website allows individuals to freely search Goodreads' extensive user-populated database of books, annotations, and reviews. Users can sign up and register books to generate library catalogs and reading lists. They can also create their own groups of book suggestions and discussions. In December 2007, the site had over 650,000 members and over 10,000,000 books had been added. Amazon bought the company in March 2013.
<a href="Shelfari">Shelfari</a> is a <a href="social%20cataloging">social cataloging</a> website for books. Shelfari users build virtual bookshelves of the titles which they own or have read, and they can rate, review, <a href="Tag%20%28metadata%29">tag</a>, and discuss their books. Users can also create groups that other members may join, create discussions, and talk about books, or other topics. Recommendations can be sent to friends on the site for what books to read. Amazon bought the company in August 2008. Shelfari continued to function as an independent book social network within the Amazon.com family of sites until 2016, when that January, Amazon announced on Shelfari.com that it would be merging Shelfari with <a href="Goodreads">Goodreads</a> and closing down Shelfari.
Beijing Century Joyo Courier Services is a subsidiary of Amazon and it applied for a <a href="Freight%20forwarder">Freight forwarding</a> license with the <a href="Federal%20Maritime%20Commission">US Maritime Commission</a>. Amazon is also building out its logistics in <a href="Trucking%20industry%20in%20the%20United%20States">trucking</a> and <a href="air%20freight">air freight</a> to potentially compete with <a href="United%20Parcel%20Service">UPS</a> and <a href="FedEx">FedEx</a>.
The domain "amazon.com" attracted at least 615 million visitors annually by 2008, twice the number of "<a href="Walmart">Walmart</a>". Amazon attracts approximately 65 million customers to its US website per month. The company has also invested heavily on a massive amount of server capacity for its website, especially to handle the excessive traffic during the December <a href="Christmas%20holiday%20season">Christmas holiday season</a>.
Results generated by Amazon's search engine are partly determined by promotional fees.
Amazon's <a href="Internationalization%20and%20localization">localized</a> storefronts, which differ in selection and prices, are differentiated by <a href="top-level%20domain">top-level domain</a> and <a href="country%20code">country code</a>:
Amazon allows users to submit reviews to the web page of each product. Reviewers must rate the product on a <a href="rating%20scale">rating scale</a> from one to five stars. Amazon provides a badging option for reviewers which indicate the real name of the reviewer (based on confirmation of a credit card account) or which indicate that the reviewer is one of the top reviewers by popularity. Customers may comment or vote on the reviews, indicating whether they found a review helpful to them. If a review is given enough "helpful" hits, it appears on the front page of the product. In 2010, Amazon was reported as being the largest single source of Internet consumer reviews.
When publishers asked Bezos why Amazon would publish negative reviews, he defended the practice by claiming that amazon.com was "taking a different approach ... we want to make every book available—the good, the bad, and the ugly ... to let truth loose".
Although reviews are attributed to the credit-card name of the reviewer, there have been cases of positive reviews being written and posted by a public relations company on behalf of its clients, and instances of writers using pseudonyms to leave negative reviews of their rivals' works.
Following the listing of "Untouchable: The Strange Life and Tragic Death of Michael Jackson," a disparaging biography of <a href="Michael%20Jackson">Michael Jackson</a> by Randall Sullivan, his fans, organized via <a href="social%20media">social media</a> as "Michael Jackson's Rapid Response Team to Media Attacks" bombarded Amazon with negative reviews and negative ratings of positive reviews.
"Search Inside the Book" is a feature which allows customers to search for keywords in the full text of many books in the catalog. The feature started with 120,000 titles (or 33 million pages of text) on October 23, 2003. There are currently about 300,000 books in the program. Amazon has cooperated with around 130 <a href="publisher">publisher</a>s to allow users to perform these searches.
To avoid copyright violations, amazon.com does not return the computer-readable text of the book. Instead, it returns a picture of the matching page, instructs the web browser to disable printing, and puts limits on the number of pages in a book a single user can access. Additionally, customers can purchase online access to some of the same books via the "Amazon Upgrade" program.
Amazon derives many of its sales from third-party sellers who sell products on Amazon (around 40% in 2008). Associates receive a commission for referring customers to Amazon by placing links to Amazon on their websites, if the referral results in a sale. Worldwide, Amazon has "over 900,000 members" in its affiliate programs. According to <a href="W3Techs">W3Techs</a> the Amazon Affiliate Program is used by 1.2% of all websites, and it is the second most popular advertising network after Google Ads. It is frequently used by websites and non-profits to provide a way for supporters to earn them commission. Amazon reported over 1.3 million sellers sold products through Amazon's websites in 2007. Unlike eBay, Amazon sellers do not have to maintain separate payment accounts; all payments are handled by Amazon.
Associates can access the Amazon catalog directly on their websites by using the Amazon Web Services (AWS) <a href="XML">XML</a> service. A new affiliate product, aStore, allows Associates to embed a subset of Amazon products within another website, or linked to another website. In June 2010, Amazon Seller Product Suggestions was launched (rumored to be internally called "Project Genesis") to provide more transparency to sellers by recommending specific products to third-party sellers to sell on Amazon. Products suggested are based on customers' browsing history.
The Amazon sales rank (ASR) provides an indication of the popularity of a product sold on any Amazon locale. It is a relative indicator of popularity that is updated hourly. Effectively, it is a "best sellers list" for the millions of products stocked by Amazon. While the ASR has no direct effect on the sales of a product, it is used by Amazon to determine which products to include in its best-sellers lists. Products that appear in these lists enjoy additional exposure on the Amazon website, and this may lead to an increase in sales. In particular, products that experience large jumps (up or down) in their sales ranks may be included within Amazon's lists of "movers and shakers"; such a listing provides additional exposure that might lead to an increase in sales. For competitive reasons, Amazon does not release actual sales figures to the public. However, Amazon has now begun to release <a href="point%20of%20sale">point of sale</a> data via the <a href="http%3A//en-us.nielsen.com/">Nielsen BookScan</a> service to verified authors. While the ASR has been the source of much speculation by publishers, manufacturers and marketers, Amazon itself does not release the details of its sales rank calculation algorithm. In addition, it states:
Customer Relationship Management (CRM) and Information Management (IM) support Amazon’s business strategy. The core technology that keeps Amazon running is Linux-based. , Amazon had the world’s three largest Linux databases, with capacities of 7.8 TB, 18.5 TB, and 24.7 TB. The central data warehouse of Amazon is made of 28 Hewlett Packard servers with four CPUs per node running Oracle database software. Amazon’s technology architecture handles millions of back-end operations every day, as well as queries from more than half a million third-party sellers. With hundreds of thousands of people sending their credit card numbers to Amazon’s servers every day, security becomes a major concern. Amazon employs Netscape Secure Commerce Server using the Secure Socket Layer protocol which stores all credit card details in a separate database. The company also records data on customer buyer behavior which enables them to offer or recommend to an individual specific item, or bundles of items based upon preferences demonstrated through purchases or items visited.
On January 31, 2013 Amazon experienced an outage that lasted approximately 49 minutes, leaving its site inaccessible to some customers.
On May 5, 2014 Amazon unveiled a partnership with <a href="Twitter">Twitter</a>. Twitter users can link their accounts to an Amazon account and automatically add items to their shopping carts by responding to any tweet with an Amazon product link bearing the hashtag #AmazonCart. Customers never leave the Twitter feed, and the product is waiting for them when they go to the Amazon website.
Amazon employs a multi-level e-commerce strategy. Amazon started off by focusing on Business-to-Consumer relationships between itself and its customers, and Business-to-Business relationships between itself and its suppliers but it then moved to incorporate Customer-to-Business transactions as it realized the value of customer reviews as part of the product descriptions. It now also facilitates customer to customer with the provision of the Amazon marketplace which act as an intermediary to facilitate consumer to consumer transactions. The company lets almost anyone sell almost anything using its platform. In addition to affiliate program that lets anybody post Amazon links and earn a commission on click through sales, there is now a program which let those affiliates build entire websites based on Amazon’s platform.
Some other large e-commerce sellers use Amazon to sell their products in addition to selling them through their own websites. The sales are processed through Amazon.com and end up at individual sellers for processing and order fulfillment and Amazon leases space for these retailers. Small sellers of used and new goods go to Amazon Marketplace to offer goods at a fixed price.
Amazon also employs the use of <a href="drop%20shipping">drop shippers</a> or meta sellers. These are members or entities that advertise goods on Amazon who order these goods direct from other competing websites but usually from other Amazon members. These meta sellers may have millions of products listed, have large transaction numbers and are grouped alongside other less prolific members giving them credibility as just someone who has been in business for a long time. Markup is anywhere from 50% to 100% and sometimes more, these sellers maintain that items are in stock when the opposite is true. As Amazon increases their dominance in the marketplace these drop shippers have become more and more commonplace in recent years.
On 2 February 2016, <a href="General%20Growth%20Properties">General Growth Properties</a>’ CEO, Sandeep Mathrani, during a year-end conference call with investors, analysts and reporters mentioned that Amazon plans to roll out 300 to 400 bookstores around the country. This was an unconfirmed comment, however due to the source, a media frenzy ensued. In November 2015, Amazon opened its first physical bookstore location. It is aptly named, Amazon Books and is located in University Village in Seattle. The store is 5,500 square feet and prices for all products match those on its website.
Over the 2000-2010 decade, Amazon has developed a customer base of around 30 million people. Amazon.com is primarily a retail site with a sales revenue model. Amazon makes its money by taking a small percentage of the sale price of each item that is sold through its website. Amazon also allows companies to advertise their products by paying to be listed as featured products.
Since its founding, the company has attracted criticism and controversy from multiple sources over its actions. These include: luring customers away from the site's brick and mortar competitors, poor warehouse conditions for workers; anti-<a href="unionization">unionization</a> efforts; Amazon Kindle remote content removal; taking public subsidies; its "<a href="1-Click">1-Click</a> patent" claims; anti-competitive actions; <a href="price%20discrimination">price discrimination</a>; various decisions over whether to censor or publish content such as the <a href="WikiLeaks">WikiLeaks</a> website; <a href="LGBT">LGBT</a> book sales rank; and works containing <a href="Defamation">libel</a>, facilitating <a href="Dog%20fighting">dogfight</a>, <a href="cockfight">cockfight</a>, or <a href="pedophilia">pedophile</a> activities. In December 2011, Amazon faced backlash from small businesses for running a one-day deal to promote its new Price Check app. Shoppers who used the app to check prices in a brick-and-mortar store were offered a 5% discount to purchase the same item from Amazon. Companies like Groupon, eBay, and Taap.it countered Amazon's promotion by offering $10 off from their products. The company has also faced accusations of putting undue pressure on suppliers to maintain and extend its profitability. One effort to squeeze the most vulnerable book publishers was known within the company as the Gazelle Project, after Bezos suggested, according to <a href="Brad%20Stone%20%28journalist%29">Brad Stone</a>, "that Amazon should approach these small publishers the way a cheetah would pursue a sickly gazelle." In July 2014 the <a href="Federal%20Trade%20Commission">Federal Trade Commission</a> launched a lawsuit against the company alleging it was promoting in-app purchases to children, which were being transacted without parental consent.
Amazon has attracted widespread criticism by both current employees, which refer to themselves as Amazonians, and former employees, as well as the media and politicians for poor working conditions. In 2011 it was publicized that at the Breinigsville, Pennsylvania warehouse, workers had to carry out work in heat, resulting in employees becoming extremely uncomfortable and suffering from dehydration and collapse. Loading-bay doors were not opened to allow in fresh air as "managers were worried about theft". Amazon's initial response was to pay for an ambulance to sit outside on call to cart away overheated employees.
Some workers, "pickers", who travel the building with a trolley and a handheld scanner "picking" customer orders can walk up to 15 miles during their workday, and if they fall behind on their targets, they can be reprimanded. The handheld scanners feed back to the employee real-time information on how fast or slowly they are doing; the scanners also serve to allow Team Leads and Area Managers to track the specific locations of employees and how much "idle time" they gain when not working.
In a German television report broadcast in February 2013, journalists Diana Löbl and Peter Onneken conducted a covert investigation at the distribution center of Amazon in the town of <a href="Bad%20Hersfeld">Bad Hersfeld</a> in the German state of <a href="Hessen">Hessen</a>. The report highlights the behavior of some of the security guards, themselves being employed by a third party company, who apparently either had a <a href="Neo-Nazism">Neo-nazi</a> background or deliberately dressed in Neo-Nazi apparel, and who were intimidating foreign and temporary female workers at its distribution centres. The third party security company involved was delisted by Amazon as a business contact shortly after that report.
In March 2015, it was reported in "<a href="The%20Verge">The Verge</a>" that Amazon will be removing 18 month long <a href="non-compete%20clause">non-compete clause</a>s from its US employment contracts for hourly-paid workers, after criticism that it was acting unreasonably in preventing such employees from finding other work. Even short-term temporary workers have to sign contracts that prohibit them from working at any company where they would "directly or indirectly" support any good or service that competes with those they helped support at Amazon, for 18 months after leaving Amazon, even if they are fired or made redundant.
A substantial "<a href="New%20York%20Times">New York Times</a>" article published on August 16, 2015 described evidence of an intimidating and confrontational working culture for the company's office workers.
In an effort to boost employee morale, on November 2, 2015 Amazon announced that it would be extending 6 weeks of paid leave for new mothers and fathers. This change includes birth parents and adoptive parents, and can be applied in conjunction with existing maternity leave and medical leave for new mothers.
Amazon.com lobbies the United States federal government and state governments on issues such as the enforcement of sales taxes on online sales, transportation safety, privacy and data protection, and intellectual property. According to regulatory filings, Amazon.com focuses its lobbying on the US Congress, the Federal Communications Commission, and the Federal Reserve. Amazon.com spent $500,000 on lobbying in the second quarter of 2010, $630,000 in the first quarter of 2011, and $450,000 in the second quarter of that year.
Amazon.com was a corporate member of the <a href="American%20Legislative%20Exchange%20Council">American Legislative Exchange Council</a> (ALEC) until it dropped membership following protests at its shareholders' meeting May 24, 2012.
The initiative <a href="Choice%20in%20eCommerce">Choice in eCommerce</a> was founded on May 8, 2013 by several online retailers in Berlin, Germany. The cause was, in the view of the initiative, sales bans and online restrictions by individual manufacturers. The dealers felt cut off from their main sales channel and thus deprived them the opportunity to use online platforms like Amazon, <a href="eBay">eBay</a> or <a href="Rakuten">Rakuten</a> in a competitive market for the benefit of their customers.
In 2014, Amazon expanded its lobbying practices as it prepared to lobby the <a href="Federal%20Aviation%20Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a> to approve its drone delivery program, hiring the Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld lobbying firm in June. Amazon and its lobbyists have visited with Federal Aviation Administration officials and aviation committees in Washington, D.C. to explain its plans to deliver packages.
A number of companies have been started and founded by former Amazon employees.

</doc>
<doc id="90455" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90455" title="Roskilde University">
Roskilde University

Roskilde University (, abbreviated "RUC" or "RU") is a <a href="Denmark">Danish</a> <a href="public%20university">public university</a> founded in 1972 and located in Trekroner in the Eastern part of <a href="Roskilde">Roskilde</a>. The university awards <a href="bachelor%27s%20degrees">bachelor's degrees</a>, <a href="master%27s%20degrees">master's degrees</a>, and <a href="Doctor%20of%20Philosophy">Ph.D. degrees</a> in a wide variety of subjects within social science, the humanities, and natural science.
The university was founded in 1972 and was initially intended as an alternative to the traditional Danish universities which had been the scene of several student uprisings in the late 1960s. The students considered the traditional universities undemocratic and controlled by the professors and wanted more influence as well as more flexible teaching methods.
In the 1970s the university was known for its very liberal education as opposed to the usual lectures provided by the more traditional universities of <a href="University%20of%20Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a> and <a href="Aarhus%20University">Aarhus</a>. The focus was shifted from traditional lectures to group orientated methods and projects rather than traditional exams.
Back in 1972, these educational ideas were both unorthodox and controversial, but the traditional universities in Denmark have now adopted much of the original RU concept themselves, not least the concept of group project work, which is today a recognised academic method. RU can also be said to have brought to Denmark the Anglo-Saxon concepts of interdisciplinarity and less well-defined boundaries between academic fields.
Some notable alumni and professors from RUC include:
The university is governed by a board consisting of 9 members: 5 members recruited outside the university form the majority of the board, 1 member is appointed by the scientific staff, 1 member is appointed by the administrative staff, and 2 members are appointed by the university students. The Rector is appointed by the university board. The rector in turn appoints deans and deans appoint heads of departments. There is no faculty senate and faculty is not involved in the appointment of rector, deans, or department heads. Hence the university has no faculty governance.
Roskilde University offers higher education at bachelor-, master, and <a href="Ph.D.">Ph.D.</a> levels within four main areas: <a href="humanities">humanities</a>, humanistic technologies, <a href="social%20science">social science</a> and <a href="science">science</a>. The traditional educational setup at RU was based on two years of general studies in one of the main scientific areas and four years of specialization. Today, the university follows the general educational structure in Denmark based on three years of bachelor studies qualifying for a two-year master study.
Roskilde University has 4 departments "(institutes)" specializing in very different areas from Mathematics to International Development:
The university offers three international bachelor programmes:

</doc>
<doc id="90456" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90456" title="SS Great Britain">
SS Great Britain

<a href="Steamship">SS</a> "Great Britain" is a <a href="museum%20ship">museum ship</a> and former <a href="ocean%20liner">passenger steamship</a>, which was advanced for her time. She was the longest passenger ship in the world from 1845 to 1854. She was designed by <a href="Isambard%20Kingdom%20Brunel">Isambard Kingdom Brunel</a> for the <a href="Great%20Western%20Steamship%20Company">Great Western Steamship Company</a>'s <a href="transatlantic%20crossing">transatlantic</a> service between <a href="Bristol">Bristol</a> and <a href="New%20York%20City">New York</a>. While other ships had been built of iron or equipped with a <a href="Propeller%20%28marine%29">screw propeller</a>, "Great Britain" was the first to combine these features in a large ocean-going ship. She was the first iron steamer to cross the Atlantic, which she did in 1845, in the time of 14 days.
The ship is in length and has a 3,400-ton displacement. She was powered by two inclined 2 cylinder engines of the <a href="marine%20steam%20engine%23Direct%20acting">direct-acting</a> type, with twin <a href="bore%20%28engine%29">bore</a>, <a href="stroke%20%28engine%29">stroke</a> <a href="cylinder%20%28engine%29">cylinders</a>. She was also provided with secondary sail power. The four decks provided accommodation for a crew of 120, plus 360 passengers who were provided with cabins and dining and promenade saloons.
When launched in 1843, "Great Britain" was by far the largest vessel afloat. However, her protracted construction and high cost had left her owners in a difficult financial position, and they were forced out of business in 1846 having spent all their funds re-floating the ship after she was run aground at <a href="Dundrum%2C%20County%20Down%23History">Dundrum Bay</a> after a <a href="navigation">navigation</a>al error. In 1852 she was sold for <a href="marine%20salvage">salvage</a> and repaired. "Great Britain" carried thousands of <a href="Immigration%20to%20Australia">immigrants</a> to Australia from 1852 until converted to sail in 1881. Three years later, she was retired to the <a href="Falkland%20Islands">Falkland Islands</a> where she was used as a warehouse, quarantine ship and <a href="hulk%20%28ship%29">coal hulk</a> until <a href="scuttling">scuttled</a> in 1937.
In 1970, following a cash donation by Sir <a href="Jack%20Hayward">Jack Hayward</a> that paid for the vessel to be towed back to the UK, "Great Britain" was returned to the Bristol <a href="dry%20dock">dry dock</a> where she was built. Now listed as part of the <a href="National%20Historic%20Fleet">National Historic Fleet</a>, she is an award-winning visitor attraction and museum ship in <a href="Bristol%20Harbour">Bristol Harbour</a>, with between 150,000 and 200,000 visitors annually.
After the initial success of its first liner, of 1838, the <a href="Great%20Western%20Steamship%20Company">Great Western Steamship Company</a> collected materials for a sister ship, tentatively named "City of New York". The same engineering team that had collaborated so successfully on "Great Western"—<a href="Isambard%20Kingdom%20Brunel">Isambard Brunel</a>, Thomas Guppy, Christopher Claxton and <a href="William%20Patterson%20%28engineer%29">William Patterson</a>—was again assembled. This time however, Brunel, whose reputation was at its height, came to assert overall control over design of the ship—a state of affairs that would have far-reaching consequences for the company. Construction was carried out in a specially adapted <a href="dry%20dock">dry dock</a> in <a href="Bristol">Bristol</a>, England.
Two chance encounters were to profoundly affect the design of "Great Britain". In the autumn of 1838, <a href="John%20Laird%20%28shipbuilder%29">John Laird's</a> <a href="English%20Channel">English Channel</a> <a href="packet%20ship">packet ship</a> "Rainbow"—the largest iron-<a href="hull%20%28watercraft%29">hulled</a> ship then in service—made a stop at Bristol. Brunel despatched his associates Christopher Claxton and William Patterson to make a return voyage to <a href="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> on "Rainbow" to assess the utility of the new building material. Both men returned as converts to iron-hulled technology, and Brunel scrapped his plans to build a wooden ship and persuaded the company directors to build an iron-hulled ship.
"Great Britain"s builders recognised a number of advantages of iron over the traditional wooden hull. Wood was becoming more expensive, while iron was getting cheaper. Iron hulls were not subject to <a href="dry%20rot">dry rot</a> or <a href="woodworm">woodworm</a>, and they were also lighter in weight and less bulky. The chief advantage of the iron hull was its much greater structural strength. The practical limit on the length of a wooden-hulled ship is about 300 feet, after which <a href="hogging%20and%20sagging">hogging</a>—the flexing of the hull as waves pass beneath it—becomes too great. Iron hulls are far less subject to hogging, so that the potential size of an iron-hulled ship is much greater. The ship's designers, led by Brunel, were initially cautious in the adaptation of their plans to iron hulled-technology. With each successive draft however, the ship grew ever larger and bolder in conception. By the fifth draft, the vessel had grown to 3,400 tons, over 1,000 tons larger than any ship then in existence.
In the spring of 1840, a second chance encounter occurred, the arrival of the revolutionary at Bristol, the first <a href="propeller">screw-propelled</a> steamship, completed only a few months before by <a href="Francis%20Pettit%20Smith">F. P. Smith's</a> Propeller Steamship Company. Brunel had been looking into methods of improving the performance of "Great Britain"s <a href="paddlewheel">paddlewheel</a>s, and took an immediate interest in the new technology. Smith, sensing a prestigious new customer for his own company, agreed to lend "Archimedes" to Brunel for extended tests. Over several months, Smith and Brunel tested a number of different propellers on "Archimedes" to find the most efficient design, a four-bladed model submitted by Smith.
Having satisfied himself as to the advantages of screw propulsion, Brunel wrote to the company directors to persuade them to embark on a second major design change, abandoning the paddlewheel engines—already half constructed—for completely new engines suitable for powering a propeller.
Brunel listed the advantages of the screw propeller over the paddlewheel as follows:
Brunel's arguments proved persuasive, and in December 1840, the company agreed to adopt the new technology. The decision became a costly one, setting the ship's completion back by nine months.
Reporting on the ship's arrival in New York, in its first issue "<a href="Scientific%20American">Scientific American</a>" opined, "If there is any thing objectionable in the construction or machinery of this noble ship, it is the mode of propelling her by the screw propeller; and we should not be surprised if it should be, ere long, superseded by paddle wheels at the sides."
The launching or, more accurately, the "floating out" took place on 19 July 1843. Conditions were generally favourable and diarists recorded that, after a dull start, the weather brightened with only a few intermittent showers. The atmosphere of the day can best be gauged from a report the following day in "The Bristol Mirror":
Large crowds started to gather early in the day including many people who had travelled to Bristol to see the spectacle. There was a general atmosphere of anticipation as the Royal Emblem was unfurled. The processional route had been cleaned and Temple Street decorated with flags, banners, flowers and ribbons. Boys of the City School and girls of Red Maids were stationed in a neat orderly formation down the entire length of the Exchange. The route was a mass of colour and everybody was out on the streets as it was a public holiday. The atmosphere of gaiety even allowed thoughts to drift away from the problems of political dissension in London.
<a href="Albert%2C%20Prince%20Consort">Prince Albert</a> arrived at 10 a.m. at the Great Western Railway terminus. The <a href="British%20Royal%20Train">royal train</a>, conducted by Brunel himself, had taken two hours and forty minutes from London. There was a <a href="guard%20of%20honour">guard of honour</a> of members of the police force, soldiers and dragoons and, as the Prince stepped from the train, the band of the Life Guards played works by Labitsky and a selection from the "Ballet of Alma". Two sections of the platform were boarded off for the reception and it was noted by "The Bristol Mirror" that parts were covered with carpets from the Council House. The Prince Consort, dressed as a private gentleman, was accompanied by his <a href="equerry">equerry</a>-in-waiting, personal secretary, the Marquis of Exeter, and Lords Warncliffe, Liverpool, Lincoln and Wellesley.
Introductions were made, followed by the "Address to His Royal Highness the Prince Albert", by the town clerk, D. Burgess. Honours were then bestowed on him by the <a href="Society%20of%20Merchant%20Venturers">Society of Merchant Venturers</a>, and there were speeches from members of the Bristol clergy. The royal party then had breakfast and, after 20 minutes, reappeared to board horse-drawn carriages.
At noon, the Prince arrived at the Great Western Steamship yard only to find the ship already "launched" and waiting for royal inspection. He boarded the ship, took refreshments in the elegantly decorated lounge then commenced his tour of inspection. He was received in the ship's banqueting room where all the local dignitaries and their ladies were gathered.
After the banquet and the toasts, he left for the naming ceremony. It had already been decided that the christening would be performed by Clarissa (1790–1868), wife of Philip John Miles (1773–1845) and mother of Bristol's MP, Philip William Skinner Miles (1816–1881), a director of the company. She stepped forward, grasped the champagne bottle and swung it towards the bows. Unfortunately the steam packet "Avon" had started to tow the ship into the harbour and the bottle fell about short of its target and dropped unbroken into the water. A second bottle was rapidly obtained and the Prince hurled it against the iron hull.
In her haste, "Avon" had started her work before the shore warps had been released. The tow rope snapped and, due to the resultant delay, the Prince was obliged to return to the railway station and miss the end of the programme.
Following the launch ceremony, the builders had planned to have "Great Britain" towed to the <a href="Thames">Thames</a> for her final fitting out. Unfortunately, the harbour authorities had failed to carry out the necessary modifications to their facilities in a timely manner. Exacerbating the problem, the ship had been widened beyond the original plans to accommodate the propeller engines, and her designers had made a belated decision to fit the engines prior to launch, which resulted in a deeper <a href="draft%20%28ship%29">draught</a>.
This dilemma was to result in another costly delay for the company, as Brunel's negotiations with the Bristol Dock Board dragged on for months. It was only through the intervention of the Board of Trade that the harbour authorities finally agreed to the lock modifications, begun in autumn 1844.
After being trapped in the harbour for more than a year, "Great Britain" was at last floated out in December 1844, but not before causing more anxiety for her proprietors. After passing successfully through the first set of lock gates, she jammed on her passage through the second, which led to the <a href="River%20Avon%20%28Bristol%29">River Avon</a>. Only the seamanship of Captain Claxton (who after Naval service held the position of Quay Warden (Harbour Master) at Bristol) enabled her to be pulled back and severe structural damage avoided. The following day an army of workmen under the direct control of Brunel, took advantage of the slightly higher tide and removed coping stones and lock gate platforms from the Junction Lock, allowing the <a href="tugboat">tug</a> "Samson," again under Claxton's supervision, to tow the ship safely into the Avon that Midnight.
When completed in 1845, "Great Britain" was a revolutionary vessel—the first ship to combine an iron hull with screw propulsion, and at in length and with a 3,400-ton displacement, more than longer and 1,000 tons larger than any ship previously built. Her <a href="beam%20%28ship%29">beam</a> was and her height from keel to main deck, . She had four decks, including the <a href="spar%20deck">spar (upper) deck</a>, a crew of 120, and was fitted to accommodate a total of 360 passengers, along with 1,200 tons of cargo and 1,200 tons of <a href="coal">coal</a> for fuel.
Like other steamships of the era, "Great Britain" was provided with secondary sail power, consisting of one <a href="square-rig">square-rig</a>ged and five <a href="schooner">schooner</a>-rigged masts—a relatively simple sail plan designed to reduce the number of crew required. The masts were of iron, fastened to the spar deck with iron joints, and with one exception, hinged to allow their lowering to reduce wind resistance in the event of a strong headwind. The rigging was of iron cable instead of the traditional <a href="hemp">hemp</a>, again with a view to reducing wind resistance. Another innovative feature was the lack of traditional heavy bulwarks around the main deck; a light iron railing both reduced weight and allowed water shipped in heavy weather to run unimpeded back to sea.
The hull and single <a href="chimney">funnel</a> amidships were both finished in black paint, with a single white stripe running the length of the hull highlighting a row of false gunports. The hull was flat-bottomed, with no external <a href="keel">keel</a>, and with bulges low on each side amidships which continued toward the <a href="stern">stern</a> in an unusual implementation of <a href="tumblehome">tumblehome</a>—a result of the late decision to install propeller engines, which were wider at the base than the originally planned paddlewheel engines.
Brunel, anxious to ensure the avoidance of <a href="Hogging%20and%20sagging">hogging</a> in a vessel of such unprecedented size, designed the hull to be massively redundant in strength. Ten longitudinal iron girders were installed along the keel, running from beneath the engines and boiler to the forward section. The iron ribs were in size. The iron keel plates were an inch thick, and the hull seams were lapped and double <a href="rivet">rivet</a>ed in many places. Safety features, which also contributed to the structural strength of the vessel, included a <a href="double%20bottom">double bottom</a> and five watertight iron <a href="bulkhead%20%28partition%29">bulkheads</a>. The total amount of iron, including the engines and machinery, was 1,500 tons.
Two giant propeller engines were installed amidships. They had a combined weight of 340 tons. They were built to a modified patent of Brunel's father <a href="Marc%20Isambard%20Brunel">Marc</a>. The engines, which rose from the keel through the three lower decks to a height just below the main deck, were of the <a href="marine%20steam%20engine%23Direct%20acting">direct-acting</a> type, with twin <a href="bore%20%28engine%29">bore</a>, <a href="stroke%20%28engine%29">stroke</a> <a href="cylinder%20%28engine%29">cylinders</a> inclined upward at a 60° angle, capable of developing a total of at 18 <a href="Revolutions%20per%20minute">rpm</a>. Steam power was provided by three long by high by wide, "square" saltwater <a href="boiler">boiler</a>s, forward of the engines, with eight furnaces each – four at each end.
In considering the gearing arrangement, Brunel had no precedent to serve as a guide. The gearing for the "Archimedes", of the spur-and-pinion type, had proven almost unbearably noisy, and would not be suitable for a passenger ship. Brunel's solution was to install a <a href="chain%20drive">chain drive</a>. On the crankshaft between "Great Britain"s two engines, he installed a diameter primary gearwheel, which, by means of a set of four massive inverted-tooth or "silent" chains, operated the smaller secondary gear near the keel, which turned the propeller shaft. This was the first commercial use of silent chain technology, and the individual silent chains installed in "Great Britain" are thought to have been the largest ever constructed.
"Great Britain"s main propeller shaft, built by the Mersey Iron Works, was the largest single piece of machinery. long and in diameter, the shaft was bored with a diameter hole, reducing its weight and allowing cold water to be pumped through to reduce heat. At each end of the main propeller shaft were two secondary coupling shafts: a , diameter shaft beneath the engine, and a screw shaft of in diameter at the stern. Total length of the three shafts was , and the total weight 38 tons. The shaft was geared upward at a ratio of 1 to 3, so that at the engines' normal operating speed of 18 rpm, the propeller turned at a speed of 54 rpm. The initial propeller was a six-bladed "windmill" model of Brunel's own design, in diameter and with pitch of .
The interior was divided into three decks, the upper two for passengers and the lower for cargo. The two passenger decks were divided into forward and aft compartments, separated by the engines and boiler amidships.
In the after section of the ship, the upper passenger deck contained the after or principal saloon, long by wide, which ran from just aft of the engine room to the stern. On each side of the saloon were corridors leading to 22 individual passenger berths, arranged two deep, a total of 44 berths for the saloon as a whole. The forward part of the saloon, nearest the engine room, contained two ladies' boudoirs or private sitting rooms, which could be accessed without entering the saloon from the 12 nearest passenger berths, reserved for females. The opposite end of the saloon opened onto the stern windows. Broad iron staircases at both ends of the saloon ran to the main deck above and the dining saloon below. The saloon was painted in "delicate tints", furnished along its length with fixed chairs of <a href="oak">oak</a>, and supported by 12 decorated pillars.
Beneath the after saloon was the main or dining saloon, long by wide, with dining tables and chairs capable of accommodating up to 360 people at one sitting. On each side of the saloon, seven corridors opened onto four berths each, for a total number of berths per side of 28, 56 altogether. The forward end of the saloon was connected to a stewards' galley, while the opposite end contained several tiers of sofas. This saloon was apparently the ship's most impressive of all the passenger spaces. Columns of white and gold, 24 in number, with "ornamental capitals of great beauty", were arranged down its length and along the walls, while eight <a href="Arabesque%20%28European%20art%29">Arabesque</a> <a href="pilaster">pilaster</a>s, decorated with "beautifully painted" oriental flowers and birds, enhanced the aesthetic effect. The archways of the doors were "tastefully carved and gilded" and surmounted with medallion heads. Mirrors around the walls added an illusion of spaciousness, and the walls themselves were painted in a "delicate lemon-tinted hue" with highlights of blue and gold.
The two forward saloons were arranged in a similar plan to the after saloons, with the upper "promenade" saloon having 36 berths per side and the lower 30, totalling 132. Further forward, separate from the passenger saloons, were the crew quarters. The overall finish of the passenger quarters was unusually restrained for its time, a probable reflection of the proprietors' diminishing capital reserves. Total cost of construction of the ship, not including £53,000 for plant and equipment to build her, was £117,000—£47,000 more than her original projected price tag of £70,000.
On 26 July 1845—seven years after the Great Western Steamship Company had decided to build a second ship, and five years overdue—"Great Britain" embarked on her maiden voyage, from <a href="Liverpool">Liverpool</a> to <a href="New%20York%20City">New York</a> under Captain <a href="James%20Hosken">James Hosken</a>, with 45 passengers. The ship made the passage in 14 days and 21 hours, at an average speed of  – almost slower than the prevailing record. She made the return trip in 13½ days, again an unexceptional time.
Brunel, who prior to commencement of service had substituted a six-bladed "windmill" design of his own for Smith's proven four-bladed propeller design, now decided to try and improve the speed by riveting an extra two inches of iron to each propeller blade. On her next crossing to New York, carrying 104 passengers, the ship ran into heavy weather, losing a mast and three propeller blades. After repairs in New York, she set out for Liverpool with only 28 passengers, and lost four propeller blades during the crossing. By this time, another design flaw had become evident. The ship rolled heavily, especially in calm weather without the steadying influence of sail, causing great discomfort to passengers.
The shareholders of the company again provided further funding to try and solve the problems. The six-bladed propeller was dispensed with and a four-bladed cast iron model, similar to that originally chosen, substituted. The third mast was removed, and the iron rigging, which had proven unsatisfactory, was replaced with conventional rigging. In a major alteration, two <a href="bilge%20keel">bilge keel</a>s were added to each side in an effort to lessen her tendency to roll. These repairs and alterations delayed her return to service until the following year.
In her second season of service in 1846, "Great Britain" successfully completed two round trips to New York at an acceptable speed, but was then laid up for repairs to one of her chain drums, which showed an unexpected degree of wear. Embarking on her third passage of the season to New York, her captain made a series of navigational errors that resulted in her being run hard aground in <a href="Dundrum%2C%20County%20Down%23History">Dundrum Bay</a> on the northeast coast of Ireland. There was no formal inquiry but it has been recently suggested that it was mainly due to the captain not having updated charts, so that he mistook the new St John's light for the Calf light on the Isle of Man.
She remained aground for almost a year, protected by temporary measures organised by Brunel and <a href="James%20Bremner">James Bremner</a>. In August 1847, she was floated free at a cost of £34,000 and taken back to Liverpool, but this expense exhausted the company's remaining reserves. After languishing at the North Dock for some time, she was sold to <a href="Gibbs%2C%20Bright%20%26amp%3B%20Co.">Gibbs, Bright & Co.</a>, former agents of the Great Western Steamship Company, for a mere £25,000.
The new owners decided not merely to give the vessel a total refit. The keel, badly damaged during the grounding, was completely renewed along a length of , and the owners took the opportunity to further strengthen the hull. The old <a href="keelson">keelson</a>s were replaced and ten new ones laid, which ran the entire length of the keel. Both the bow and stern were also strengthened by heavy frames of double <a href="angle%20iron">angle iron</a>.
Reflecting the rapid advances in propeller engine technology, the original engines were removed and replaced with a pair of smaller, lighter and more modern <a href="marine%20steam%20engine">oscillating</a> engines, with cylinders and stroke, built by <a href="John%20Penn%20%28engineer%29">John Penn & Sons</a> of <a href="Greenwich">Greenwich</a>. They were also provided with more support at the base, and supported further by the addition of both iron and wood beams running transversely across the hull, which had the added benefit of reducing engine vibration.
The cumbersome chain-drive gearing was replaced with a simpler and by now proven cog-wheel arrangement, although the gearing of the engines to the propeller shaft remained at a ratio of one to three. The three large boilers were replaced with six smaller ones, operating at or twice the pressure of their predecessors. Along with a new cabin on the main deck, the smaller boilers allowed the cargo capacity to be almost doubled, from 1,200 to 2,200 tons.
The four-bladed propeller was replaced by a slightly smaller three-bladed model, and the bilge keels, previously added to reduce the tendency to roll, were replaced by a heavy external oak keel for the same purpose. The five-masted schooner sail-plan was replaced by four masts, two of which were square-rigged. With the refit complete, "Great Britain" went back into service on the New York run. After only one further round trip she was sold again, to <a href="Antony%20Gibbs%20%26amp%3B%20Sons">Antony Gibbs & Sons</a>, which planned to place her into England-Australia service.
Antony Gibbs & Sons may have intended to employ "Great Britain" only to exploit a temporary demand for passenger service to the Australian gold fields following <a href="Victorian%20gold%20rush">the discovery of gold in Victoria in 1851</a>, but she found long-term employment on this route. For her new role she was given a third refit. Her passenger accommodation was increased from 360 to 730, and her sail-plan altered to a traditional three-masted, square-rigged pattern. She was fitted with a removable propeller, which could be hauled up on deck by chains to reduce drag when under sail power alone.
In 1852, "Great Britain" made her first voyage to <a href="Melbourne">Melbourne</a>, Australia, carrying 630 <a href="Emigration">emigrants</a>. She excited great interest there, with 4,000 people paying a shilling each to inspect her. She operated on the England–Australia route for almost 30 years, interrupted only by two relatively brief sojourns as a <a href="troopship">troopship</a> during the <a href="Crimean%20War">Crimean War</a> and the <a href="Indian%20Mutiny">Indian Mutiny</a>. Gradually, she earned a reputation as the most reliable of the emigrant ships to Australia and carried <a href="English%20cricket%20team%20in%20Australia%20in%201861%E2%80%9362">the first English cricket team to tour Australia</a> in 1861.
Alexander Reid, writing in 1862, recorded some statistics of a typical voyage. The ship put out from Liverpool on 21 October 1861, carrying a crew of 143, 544 passengers (including the English <a href="history%20of%20cricket">cricket</a> team that was the first to visit Australia), a cow, 36 sheep, 140 pigs, 96 goats and 1,114 chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys. The journey to Melbourne (her ninth) occupied 64 days, during which the best day's run was 354 miles and the worst 108. With favourable winds the ship travelled under sail alone, the screw being withdrawn from the water. Three passengers died en route. The captain was John Gray, a Scot, who had held the post since before the Crimean War.
On Thursday 8 October 1868 "The Argus" (Melbourne) reported 'To-day, at daylight, the fine steamship "Great Britain" will leave her anchorage in Hobson's Bay, for Liverpool direct. On this occasion she carries less than her usual complement of passengers, the season not being a favourite one with colonists desiring to visit their native land. The "Great Britain", however, has a full cargo, and carries gold to the value of about £250,000. As she is in fine trim, we shall probably have, in due time, to congratulate Captain Gray on having achieved another successful voyage.'
In 1882 "Great Britain" was converted into a <a href="sailing%20ship">sailing ship</a> to transport bulk coal. She made her final voyage in 1886, after loading up with coal and leaving <a href="Penarth%20Dock">Penarth Dock</a> for <a href="Panama">Panama</a> on 8 February. After a fire on board en-route she was found on arrival at <a href="Port%20Stanley">Port Stanley</a> in the <a href="Falkland%20Islands">Falkland Islands</a> to be damaged beyond economic repair. She was sold to the <a href="Falkland%20Islands%20Company">Falkland Islands Company</a> and used, afloat, as a storage <a href="hulk%20%28ship%29">hulk</a> (coal bunker) until 1937, when she was towed to <a href="Sparrow%20Cove">Sparrow Cove</a>, 3.5 miles from Port Stanley, scuttled and abandoned. As a bunker, she coaled the South Atlantic fleet that defeated Admiral <a href="Graf%20Maximilian%20von%20Spee">Graf Maximilian von Spee</a>'s fleet in the First World War <a href="Battle%20of%20the%20Falkland%20Islands">Battle of the Falkland Islands</a>. In the <a href="Second%20World%20War">Second World War</a>, some of her iron was scavenged to repair , one of the <a href="Royal%20Navy">Royal Navy</a> ships that fought the "<a href="German%20pocket%20battleship%20Admiral%20Graf%20Spee">Graf Spee</a>" and was badly damaged during the <a href="Battle%20of%20the%20River%20Plate">Battle of the River Plate</a>.
The salvage operation, made possible by several large donations, including from <a href="Jack%20Hayward">Sir Jack Hayward</a> and the late <a href="John_Paul_Getty%2C_Jr.">Sir Paul Getty</a>, was organised by 'the SS "Great Britain" Project', chaired by Richard Goold-Adams. Ewan Corlett conducted a naval architect's survey, reporting that she could be refloated. A submersible <a href="Pontoon%20%28boat%29">pontoon</a>, "Mulus III", was chartered in February 1970. A German tug, "Varius II", was chartered, reaching Port Stanley on 25 March. By 13 April, after some concern about a crack in the hull, the ship was mounted successfully on the pontoon and the following day the tug, pontoon and the "Great Britain" sailed to Port Stanley for preparations for the transatlantic voyage. The voyage (code name "Voyage 47") began on 24 April, stopped in <a href="Montevideo">Montevideo</a> from 2 May to 6 May for inspection, then across the Atlantic, arriving at <a href="Barry%20Docks">Barry Docks</a>, west of <a href="Cardiff">Cardiff</a> on 22 June. ("Voyage 47" was chosen as the code name because it was on her 47th voyage from <a href="Penarth">Penarth</a>, in 1886, that during a tempest she had sought shelter in the Falklands.) Bristol-based tugs then took over and towed her, still on her pontoon, to <a href="Avonmouth%20Docks">Avonmouth Docks</a>.
The ship was then taken off the pontoon, in preparation for her re-entry into Bristol, now truly afloat. On Sunday 5 July, amidst considerable media interest, the ship was towed up the <a href="River%20Avon%2C%20Bristol">River Avon</a> to Bristol. Perhaps the most memorable moment for the crowds that lined the final few miles was her passage under the <a href="Clifton%20Suspension%20Bridge">Clifton Suspension Bridge</a>, another Brunel design. She waited for two weeks in the <a href="Cumberland%20Basin%20%28Bristol%29">Cumberland Basin</a> for a tide high enough to get her back through the locks to the Floating Harbour and her birthplace, the dry dock in the Great Western Dockyard (now a grade II* <a href="listed%20building">listed building</a>, disused since bomb damage in the Second World War).
The original intent was to restore her to her 1843 state. However, the philosophy changed and the conservation of all surviving pre-1970 material became the aim. In 1984 the SS Great Britain was designated as a <a href="List%20of%20Historic%20Mechanical%20Engineering%20Landmarks">Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark</a> by the <a href="ASME">American Society of Mechanical Engineers</a>, the fourth such designation outside the USA.
By 1998, an extensive survey discovered that the hull was continuing to corrode in the <a href="humid">humid</a> atmosphere of the dock and estimates gave her 25 years before she corroded away. Extensive conservation work began which culminated in the installation of a glass plate across the dry dock at the level of her water line, with two <a href="dehumidifiers">dehumidifiers</a>, keeping the space beneath at 20% relative humidity, sufficiently dry to preserve the surviving material. This being completed, the ship was "re-launched" in July 2005, and visitor access to the dry dock was restored. The site is visited by over 150,000 visitors per year with a peak in numbers in 2006 when 200,000 people visited.
The engineers Fenton Holloway won the <a href="IStructE%20Awards">IStructE Award</a> for Heritage Buildings in 2006 for the restoration of the "Great Britain". In May of that year the ship won the prestigious <a href="Gulbenkian%20Prize">Gulbenkian Prize</a> for museums and galleries. The chairman of the judging panel, Professor <a href="Robert%20Winston">Robert Winston</a>, commented:
"SS "Great Britain" got our unanimous vote for being outstanding at every level. It combines a truly groundbreaking piece of conservation, remarkable engineering and fascinating social history plus a visually stunning ship above and below the water line. Most importantly, the SS "Great Britain" is accessible and highly engaging for people of all ages."
The project won <a href="The%20Crown%20Estate%20Conservation%20Award">The Crown Estate Conservation Award</a> in 2007. and the <a href="European%20Museum%20of%20the%20Year%20Award">European Museum of the Year Award</a>s <a href="Micheletti%20Prize">Micheletti Prize</a> for 'Best Industrial or Technology Museum'. In 2008 the educational value of the project was honoured by the Sandford Award for Heritage Education. Despite the awards received by the Great Britain, the way in which the exhibition is presented has been criticised as presenting a particular view of cultural history in general and the <a href="British%20Empire">British Empire</a> in particular.
The "Great Britain" featured in several television specials.
Engine
Propeller
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</doc>
<doc id="90460" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90460" title="Depression">
Depression

Depression or depress(ed) may refer to:

</doc>
<doc id="90461" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90461" title="Edwin Lutyens">
Edwin Lutyens

Sir Edwin Landseer Lutyens, (; ; 29 March 1869 – 1 January 1944), was a British architect who is known for imaginatively adapting traditional architectural styles to the requirements of his era. He designed many <a href="English%20country%20house">English country house</a>s.
He has been referred to as "the greatest British architect" and is known best for having an instrumental role in designing and building a section of the metropolis of <a href="Delhi">Delhi</a>, known as New Delhi, which would later on serve as the seat of the <a href="Government%20of%20India">Government of India</a>. In recognition of his contribution, New Delhi is also known as "<a href="Lutyens%27%20Delhi">Lutyens' Delhi</a>". In collaboration with <a href="Sir%20Herbert%20Baker">Sir Herbert Baker</a>, he was also the main architect of several monuments in New Delhi such as the <a href="India%20Gate">India Gate</a>; he also designed Viceroy's House, which is now known as the <a href="Rashtrapati%20Bhavan">Rashtrapati Bhavan</a>.
He was born in London and grew up in <a href="Thursley">Thursley</a>, Surrey. He was named after a friend of his father, the painter and sculptor <a href="Edwin%20Henry%20Landseer">Edwin Henry Landseer</a>. For many years he worked from offices at 29 <a href="Bloomsbury%20Square">Bloomsbury Square</a>, London. Lutyens studied architecture at <a href="Royal%20College%20of%20Art">South Kensington School of Art</a>, London from 1885 to 1887. After college he joined the <a href="Ernest%20George">Ernest George</a> and <a href="Harold%20Peto">Harold Peto</a> architectural practice. It was here that he first met <a href="Herbert%20Baker">Sir Herbert Baker</a>.
He began his own practice in 1888, his first commission being a private house at Crooksbury, <a href="Farnham%2C%20Surrey">Farnham</a>, Surrey. During this work, he met the garden designer and horticulturalist <a href="Gertrude%20Jekyll">Gertrude Jekyll</a>. In 1896 he began work on a house for Jekyll at <a href="Munstead%20Wood">Munstead Wood</a> near <a href="Godalming">Godalming</a>, Surrey. It was the beginning of a professional partnership that would define the look of many Lutyens country houses.
The "Lutyens-Jekyll" garden overflowed with hardy shrubbery and herbaceous plantings within a firm classicising architecture of stairs and balustraded terraces. This combined style, of the formal with the informal, exemplified by brick paths, softened by billowing herbaceous borders, full of lilies, <a href="lupin">lupin</a>s, <a href="delphinium">delphinium</a>s and <a href="lavender">lavender</a>, was in direct contrast to the very formal bedding schemes favoured by the previous generation in the 19th century. This new "natural" style was to define the "English garden" until modern times.
Lutyens' fame grew largely through the popularity of the new lifestyle magazine "<a href="Country%20Life%20%28magazine%29">Country Life</a>" created by <a href="Edward%20Hudson%20%28magazine%20owner%29">Edward Hudson</a>, which featured many of his house designs. Hudson was a great admirer of Lutyens' style and commissioned Lutyens for a number of projects, including <a href="Lindisfarne%20Castle">Lindisfarne Castle</a> and the "Country Life" headquarters building in London, at 8 <a href="Tavistock%20Street">Tavistock Street</a>. One of his assistants in the 1890s was <a href="Maxwell%20Ayrton">Maxwell Ayrton</a>.
Initially, his designs were all <a href="Arts%20and%20Crafts%20movement">Arts and Crafts</a> style, good examples being <a href="Overstrand%20Hall">Overstrand Hall</a> <a href="Norfolk">Norfolk</a> and Le <a href="Bois%20des%20Moutiers">Bois des Moutiers</a> (1898) in France, but during the early 1900s his work became more <a href="Classicism">classical</a> in style. His commissions were of a varied nature from private houses to two churches for the new <a href="Hampstead%20Garden%20Suburb">Hampstead Garden Suburb</a> in London to <a href="Julius%20Drewe">Julius Drewe</a>'s <a href="Castle%20Drogo">Castle Drogo</a> near <a href="Drewsteignton">Drewsteignton</a> in Devon and on to his contributions to <a href="Lutyens%27%20Delhi">India's new imperial capital</a>, New Delhi, (where he worked as chief architect with Herbert Baker and others). Here he added elements of local architectural styles to his classicism, and based his urbanisation scheme on <a href="Mughal%20architecture">Mughal</a> water gardens. He also designed the <a href="Hyderabad%20House">Hyderabad House</a> for the last <a href="Nizam">Nizam</a> of Hyderabad, as his Delhi palace.
He also designed a chalk building, <a href="Marshcourt">Marshcourt</a>, in Hampshire, England. Built between 1901 and 1905, it is the last of his Tudor designs. In 1903 the main school building of <a href="Amesbury%20School">Amesbury Prep School</a> in Hindhead, Surrey, was designed and built as a private residence. It is now a <a href="Grade%20II%20listed">Grade 2*</a> listed building of National Significance.
He also designed a <a href="http%3A//www.mmtrust.org.uk/mausolea/view/22/Hannen_Mausoleum">Columbarium</a> for the <a href="Hannen">Hannen</a> family in <a href="Wargrave">Wargrave</a>.
Before the end of <a href="World%20War%20I">World War I</a>, he was appointed one of three principal architects for the Imperial War Graves Commission (now <a href="Commonwealth%20War%20Graves%20Commission">Commonwealth War Graves Commission</a>) and was involved with the creation of <a href="World%20War%20I%20memorials">many monuments to commemorate the dead</a>. Larger cemeteries have a <a href="Stone%20of%20Remembrance">Stone of Remembrance</a>, designed by himself. The best known of these monuments are the <a href="The%20Cenotaph%2C%20Whitehall">Cenotaph</a> in <a href="Whitehall">Whitehall</a>, <a href="Westminster">Westminster</a>, and the <a href="Thiepval%20Memorial%20to%20the%20Missing%20of%20the%20Somme">Memorial to the Missing of the Somme</a>, <a href="Thiepval">Thiepval</a>. The Cenotaph was originally commissioned by <a href="David%20Lloyd%20George">David Lloyd George</a> as a temporary structure to be the centrepiece of the Allied Victory Parade in 1919. Lloyd George proposed a <a href="catafalque">catafalque</a>, a low empty platform, but it was Lutyens' idea for the taller monument. The design took less than six hours to complete. Many local war memorials (such as the one at <a href="All%20Saints%27%20Church%2C%20Northampton">All Saints', Northampton</a>), <a href="Montr%C3%A9al">Montréal</a>, Toronto, <a href="Hamilton%2C%20Ontario">Hamilton (Ontario)</a>, <a href="Victoria%2C%20British%20Columbia">Victoria (British Columbia)</a>, and <a href="Vancouver">Vancouver</a> are Lutyens designs, based on the Cenotaph. So is the war memorial in Hyde Park, Sydney. He also designed the <a href="National%20War%20Memorial%2C%20Islandbridge">War Memorial Gardens</a> in Dublin, which were restored in the 1990s. Other works include the <a href="Tower%20Hill%20memorial">Tower Hill memorial</a>, and (similar to his later <a href="India%20Gate">India Gate</a> design) the <a href="Arch%20of%20Remembrance">Arch of Remembrance</a> memorial in <a href="Victoria%20Park%2C%20Leicester">Victoria Park, Leicester</a>.
Lutyens also refurbished <a href="Lindisfarne%20Castle">Lindisfarne Castle</a> for its wealthy owner.
He was <a href="knight">knight</a>ed in 1918 and was elected a <a href="Fellow%23Academia">Fellow</a> of the <a href="Royal%20Academy">Royal Academy</a> in 1921. In 1924, he was appointed a member of the newly created <a href="Commission%20for%20Architecture%20and%20the%20Built%20Environment">Royal Fine Art Commission</a>, a position he held until his death.
While work continued in New Delhi, Lutyens continued to receive other commissions including several commercial buildings in London and the <a href="Embassy%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom%20in%20Washington%2C%20D.C.">British Embassy</a> in Washington, DC.
In 1924 he completed the supervision of the construction of what is perhaps his most popular design: <a href="Queen%20Mary%27s%20Dolls%27%20House">Queen Mary's Dolls' House</a>. This four-storey <a href="Palladian">Palladian</a> villa was built in 1/12 scale and is now a permanent exhibit in the public area of <a href="Windsor%20Castle">Windsor Castle</a>. It was not conceived or built as a plaything for children; its goal was to exhibit the finest British craftsmanship of the period.
Lutyens was commissioned in 1929 to design a new <a href="Roman%20Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> cathedral in <a href="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>.
He planned a vast building of brick and granite, topped with towers and a 510-foot dome, with commissioned sculpture work by <a href="Charles%20Sargeant%20Jagger">Charles Sargeant Jagger</a> and <a href="W.%20C.%20H.%20King">W. C. H. King</a>. Work on this magnificent building started in 1933, but was halted during the <a href="Second%20World%20War">Second World War</a>. After the war, the project ended due to a shortage of funding, with only the crypt completed. A model of Lutyens' unrealised building was given to and restored by the <a href="Walker%20Art%20Gallery">Walker Art Gallery</a> in 1975 and is now on display in the <a href="Museum%20of%20Liverpool">Museum of Liverpool</a>. The architect of the present <a href="Liverpool%20Metropolitan%20Cathedral">Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral</a>, which was built over land adjacent to the crypt and consecrated in 1967, was Sir <a href="Frederick%20Gibberd">Frederick Gibberd</a>.
In 1945, a year after his death, "A Plan for the City & County of <a href="Kingston%20upon%20Hull">Kingston upon Hull</a>" was published. Lutyens worked on the plan with Sir <a href="Patrick%20Abercrombie">Patrick Abercrombie</a> and they are credited as its co-authors. Abercrombie's introduction in the plan makes special reference to Lutyens' contribution. The plan was, however, rejected by the City Council of Hull.
He received the <a href="AIA%20Gold%20Medal">AIA Gold Medal</a> in 1925.
In November 2015 the British government announced that all 44 of Lutyens' First World War memorials in England had now been listed on the advice of <a href="Historic%20England">Historic England</a>, and were therefore all protected by law. This involved the one remaining memorial—the <a href="Gerrards%20Cross%20Memorial%20Building">Gerrards Cross Memorial Building</a> in <a href="Buckinghamshire">Buckinghamshire</a>—being added to the list, plus a further fourteen having their statuses upgraded.
Less well known is that Lutyens has also designed furniture. Some of his designs are still on the market today. 
Largely designed by Lutyens over twenty or so years (1912 to 1930), New Delhi, situated within the metropolis of <a href="Delhi">Delhi</a>, popularly known as '<a href="Lutyens%27%20Delhi">Lutyens' Delhi</a>', was chosen to replace <a href="Calcutta">Calcutta</a> as the seat of the British Indian government in 1912; the project was completed in 1929 and officially inaugurated in 1931. In undertaking this project, Lutyens invented his own new order of classical architecture, which has become known as the <a href="Delhi%20Order">Delhi Order</a> and was used by him for several designs in England, such as <a href="Campion%20Hall%2C%20Oxford">Campion Hall, Oxford</a>. Unlike the more traditional British architects who came before him, he was both inspired by and incorporated various features from the local and traditional Indian architecture—something most clearly seen in the great drum-mounted Buddhist dome of <a href="Viceroy%27s%20House">Viceroy's House</a>, now <a href="Rashtrapati%20Bhavan">Rashtrapati Bhavan</a>. This palatial building, containing 340 rooms, is built on an area of some and incorporates a private garden also designed by Lutyens. The building was designed as the official residence of the <a href="Viceroy%20of%20India">Viceroy of India</a> and is now the official residence of the <a href="President%20of%20India">President of India</a>.
The Delhi Order columns at the front entrance of the palace have bells carved into them, which, it has been suggested, Lutyens had designed with the idea that as the bells were silent the British rule would never come to an end. At one time, more than 2,000 people were required to care for the building and serve the Viceroy's household.
The new city contains both the Parliament buildings and government offices (many designed by Herbert Baker) and was built distinctively of the local red sandstone using the traditional <a href="Mughal%20architecture">Mughal</a> style.
When composing the plans for New Delhi, Lutyens planned for the new city to lie southwest of the walled city of <a href="Shahjahanbad">Shahjahanbad</a>. His plans for the city also laid out the street plan for New Delhi consisting of wide tree-lined avenues.
Built in the spirit of British colonial rule, the place where the new imperial city and the older native settlement met was intended to be a market; it was there that Lutyens imagined the Indian traders would participate in "the grand shopping centre for the residents of Shahjahanabad and New Delhi", thus giving rise to the D-shaped market seen today.
Many of the garden-ringed villas in the <a href="Lutyens%27%20Bungalow%20Zone">Lutyens' Bungalow Zone</a> (LBZ)—also known as <a href="Lutyens%27%20Delhi">Lutyens' Delhi</a>—that were part of Lutyens' original scheme for New Delhi are under threat due to the constant pressure for development in Delhi. The LBZ was placed on the 2002 <a href="World%20Monuments%20Fund">World Monuments Fund</a> Watch List of 100 Most Endangered Sites. It should be noted that none of the bungalows in the LBZ were designed by Lutyens—he only designed the four bungalows in the Presidential Estate surrounding Rashtrapati Bhavan at Willingdon Crescent now known as Mother Teresa Crescent.
Other buildings in Delhi that Lutyens designed include <a href="Baroda%20House">Baroda House</a>, <a href="Bikaner%20House">Bikaner House</a>, <a href="Hyderabad%20House">Hyderabad House</a>, and <a href="Patiala%20House%20Courts%20Complex">Patiala House</a>.
Lutyens was made a <a href="Order%20of%20the%20Indian%20Empire">Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire</a> (KCIE) on 1 January 1930.
A bust of Lutyens in the former Viceroy's House is the only statue of a Westerner left in its original position in New Delhi. Lutyens' work in New Delhi is the focus of <a href="Robert%20Grant%20Irving">Robert Grant Irving</a>'s book "Indian Summer." In spite of his monumental work in India, Lutyens had views on the peoples of the Indian sub-continent that, although not uncommon for people of his class and his time, would now be considered racist.
Works in Ireland include the <a href="Irish%20National%20War%20Memorial%20Gardens">Irish National War Memorial Gardens</a> in <a href="Islandbridge">Islandbridge</a> in Dublin, which consists of a bridge over the railway and a bridge over the <a href="River%20Liffey">River Liffey</a> (unbuilt) and two tiered sunken gardens; Heywood Gardens, <a href="County%20Laois">County Laois</a> (open to the public), consisting of a hedge garden, lawns, tiered sunken garden and a belvedere; extensive changes and extensions to Lambay Castle, <a href="Lambay%20Island">Lambay Island</a>, near Dublin, consisting of a circular battlement enclosing the restored and extended castle and farm building complex, upgraded cottages and stores near the harbour, a real tennis court, a large guest house (The White House), a boathouse and a chapel; alterations and extensions to <a href="Howth%20Castle">Howth Castle</a>, <a href="County%20Dublin">County Dublin</a>; the unbuilt <a href="Hugh%20Lane">Hugh Lane</a> gallery straddling the <a href="River%20Liffey">River Liffey</a> on the site of the <a href="Ha%27penny%20Bridge">Ha'penny Bridge</a> and the unbuilt <a href="Hugh%20Lane%20Gallery">Hugh Lane Gallery</a> on the west side of <a href="St%20Stephen%27s%20Green">St Stephen's Green</a>; and Costelloe Lodge at <a href="Casla">Casla</a> (also known as <a href="Casla">Costelloe</a>), <a href="County%20Galway">County Galway</a> (that was used for refuge by <a href="J.%20Bruce%20Ismay">J. Bruce Ismay</a>, the Chairman of the <a href="White%20Star%20Line">White Star Line</a>, following the sinking of the <a href="R.M.S.%20Titanic">R.M.S. Titanic</a>).
Lutyens is thought to have designed Tranarossan House, located just north of <a href="Downings">Downings</a> on the <a href="Rosguill">Rosguill</a> Peninsula on the north coast of <a href="County%20Donegal">County Donegal</a>.
In <a href="Madrid">Madrid</a> Lutyens' work can be seen in the interiors of the <a href="Liria%20Palace">Liria Palace</a>, a neoclassical building which was severely damaged during the <a href="Spanish%20Civil%20War">Spanish Civil War</a>. The palace was originally built in the eighteenth century for <a href="James%20FitzJames%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Berwick">James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick</a>, and still belongs to his descendants.
Lutyens' reconstruction was commissioned by <a href="Jacobo%20Fitz-James%20Stuart%2C%2017th%20Duke%20of%20Alba">Jacobo Fitz-James Stuart, 17th Duke of Alba</a>. The <a href="Duke">Duke</a> had met Lutyens while he was the Spanish ambassador to Great Britain.
Two years after she proposed to him and in the face of parental disapproval, Lady Emily Bulwer-Lytton (1874–1964), third daughter of <a href="Robert%20Bulwer-Lytton%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Lytton">The 1st Earl of Lytton</a>, a former <a href="Viceroy%20of%20India">Viceroy of India</a>, and Edith (née) Villiers, married Lutyens on 4 August 1897 at <a href="Knebworth">Knebworth</a>, Hertfordshire. They had five children, but the union was largely unsatisfactory, practically from the start. The Lutyens' marriage quickly deteriorated, with Lady Emily becoming interested in <a href="theosophy">theosophy</a>, Eastern religions and a fascination – emotional and philosophical – with <a href="Jiddu%20Krishnamurti">Jiddu Krishnamurti</a>.
The couple’s daughter <a href="Elisabeth%20Lutyens">Elisabeth Lutyens</a> became a well-known composer. Another daughter, <a href="Mary%20Lutyens">Mary Lutyens</a>, became a writer known for her books about Jiddu Krishnamurti. A grandson was <a href="Nicholas%20Ridley%2C%20Baron%20Ridley%20of%20Liddesdale">Nicholas Ridley</a>, cabinet minister under <a href="Margaret%20Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a>.
During the later years of his life, Lutyens suffered with several bouts of pneumonia. In the early 1940s he was diagnosed with cancer. He died on 1 January 1944 and was cremated at <a href="Golders%20Green%20Crematorium">Golders Green Crematorium</a> where he had designed the Philipson Mausoleum in 1914–1916. His memorial, designed by his friend and fellow architect <a href="William%20Curtis%20Green">William Curtis Green</a>, is in the crypt of <a href="St.%20Paul%27s%20Cathedral%2C%20London">St. Paul's Cathedral</a> in the <a href="City%20of%20London">City of London</a>.
inspiration for his Whitehall Cenotaph design)

</doc>
<doc id="90465" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90465" title="Super-Poulet number">
Super-Poulet number

A super-Poulet number is a <a href="Poulet%20number">Poulet number</a>, or pseudoprime to base 2, whose every <a href="divisor">divisor</a> "d" divides 
For example 341 is a super-Poulet number: it has positive divisors {1, 11, 31, 341} and we have:
When a composite number is a pseudoprime to base 2, but not to every base (That is, not a <a href="Carmichael%20number">Carmichael number</a>), then it is a super-Poulet number, and when formula_1 is not prime, then it and every divisor of it are a pseudoprime to base 2, and a super-Poulet number.
The super-Poulet numbers below 10,000 are :
It is relatively easy to get super-Poulet numbers with 3 distinct prime divisors. If you find three Poulet numbers with three common prime factors, you get a super-Poulet number, as you built the product of the three prime factors.
Example:
2701 = 37 * 73 is a Poulet number
4033 = 37 * 109 is a Poulet number
7957 = 73 * 109 is a Poulet number
so 294409 = 37 * 73 * 109 is a Poulet number too. 
Super-Poulet numbers with up to 7 distinct <a href="prime%20factor">prime factor</a>s you can get with the following numbers:
For example 1.118.863.200.025.063.181.061.994.266.818.401 = 6421 * 12841 * 51361 * 57781 * 115561 * 192601 * 205441 is a super-Poulet number with 7 distinct prime factors and 120 Poulet numbers.

</doc>
<doc id="90468" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90468" title="Pompei">
Pompei

Pompei () is a city and "<a href="comune">comune</a>" in the <a href="Metropolitan%20City%20of%20Naples">Metropolitan City of Naples</a> in Italy, famous for <a href="Pompeii">its ancient Roman ruins</a>. In 2010 its population was 25,671.
Modern Pompei was founded in 1891, after the building of the <a href="Shrine%20of%20Our%20Lady%20of%20Pompei">sanctuary</a>, started by <a href="Bartolo%20Longo">Bartolo Longo</a>. He is considered as the founder of the modern town.
The town of Pompei is located at the eastern borders of its province, and its urban area is contiguous with <a href="Scafati">Scafati</a>, in the <a href="Province%20of%20Salerno">Province of Salerno</a>. It borders also with <a href="Torre%20Annunziata">Torre Annunziata</a>, <a href="Castellammare%20di%20Stabia">Castellammare di Stabia</a>, <a href="Boscoreale">Boscoreale</a>, <a href="Santa%20Maria%20la%20Carit%C3%A0">Santa Maria la Carità</a> and <a href="Sant%27Antonio%20Abate">Sant'Antonio Abate</a>.
The city is mainly famous for the ruins of the ancient city of <a href="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, located in the zone of Pompei Scavi.
The <a href="Shrine%20of%20Our%20Lady%20of%20Pompei">Shrine of Our Lady of Pompei</a>, dedicated to <a href="Our%20Lady%20of%20the%20Rosary">Our Lady of the Rosary</a>, has become a site for <a href="Catholic">Catholic</a> <a href="pilgrimage">pilgrimage</a>s in recent years. It houses a canvas by <a href="Luca%20Giordano">Luca Giordano</a>. It was founded by a convert who experienced a divine grace from Blessed Virgin Mary; miracles are reported since its foundation and the <a href="Rosary">Rosary</a> is a devotion associated with great graces for anyone who faithfully prays it. The ex-votos that cover the walls of the church are an impressive testimonial of the miracles granted from Blessed Virgin Mary since the church was consecrated in 1891. Many churches, chapels, and shrines in the world are dedicated to Our Lady of Pompei.
Road: Pompei is served by the motorway <a href="Autostrada%20A3%20%28Italy%29">A3</a> at the exits of Pompei-Scafati, Pompei Ovest (close to the ruins of <a href="Villa%20of%20the%20Mysteries">Villa of the Mysteries</a>) and also Castellammare di Stabia. It is crossed by the national roads <a href="Strada%20Statale%2018">SS 18</a> and <a href="Strada%20Statale%20145">SS 145</a>.
Railways: On the <a href="Naples%E2%80%93Salerno%20railway">Naples-Salerno line</a>, owned by <a href="Ferrovie%20dello%20Stato">FS</a>, is situated the <a href="Pompei%20railway%20station">main railway station</a> and a little stop named Pompei Scavi (ruins of P.), closed in the 1970s. Onto two lines owned by the <a href="Circumvesuviana">SFSM - Circumvesuviana</a>, Pompei counts a total of 4 station. <a href="Pompei%20Santuario%20railway%20station">Pompei Santuario</a> (P. Sanctuary, in the middle of the town) and Pompei Valle (close to Pompeii) lies on the Torre Annunziata-Pompei-Poggiomarino line. <a href="Pompei%20Scavi-Villa%20dei%20Misteri%20%28Circumvesuviana%20station%29">Pompei Scavi-Villa dei Misteri</a> (serving the <a href="Villa%20of%20the%20Mysteries">Villa of the Mysteries</a>) and Moregine lie on the Naples-Torre Annunziata-Castellammare-<a href="Sorrento">Sorrento</a> line.
The nearest airports are:

</doc>
<doc id="90469" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90469" title="Blasphemy">
Blasphemy

Blasphemy is the act of insulting or showing contempt or lack of <a href="Deference">reverence</a> for (a) <a href="God">God</a>(s), to religious or holy persons or <a href="sacred">sacred</a> things, or toward something considered <a href="sacred">sacred</a> or <a href="Sanctity%20of%20life">inviolable</a>.
Some religions consider blasphemy as a religious crime. As of 2012, anti-blasphemy laws existed in 32 countries, while 87 nations had hate speech laws that covered defamation of religion and public expression of hate against a religious group. Anti-blasphemy laws are particularly common in Muslim-majority nations, such as those in the Middle East and North Africa, although they are also present in some Asian and European countries.
The word "blasphemy" came via <a href="Middle%20English">Middle English</a> "blasfemen" and <a href="Old%20French">Old French</a> "blasfemer" and <a href="Late%20Latin">Late Latin</a> "blasphemare" from <a href="Greek%20language">Greek</a> βλασφημέω, from βλάπτω "injure" and φήμη "utterance, talk, speech". From "blasphemare" also came Old French "blasmer", from which English "<a href="blame">blame</a>" came. Blasphemy: 'from Gk. blasphemia "a speaking ill, impious speech, slander," from blasphemein "to speak evil of."' "In the sense of speaking evil of God this word is found in Ps. 74:18; Isa. 52:5; Rom. 2:24; Rev. 13:1, 6; 16:9, 11, 21. It denotes also any kind of calumny, or evil-speaking, or abuse (1 Kings 21:10 <a href="Septuagint">LXX</a>; Acts 13:45; 18:6, etc.)."
In <a href="Blasphemy%20law">some countries</a> with a <a href="state%20religion">state religion</a> blasphemy is outlawed under the criminal code. Such laws have led to the persecution, lynchings, murder or arrest of minorities and dissident members, after flimsy accusations.
As of 2012, 33 countries had some form of anti-blasphemy laws in their legal code. Of these, 20 were Muslim-majority nations – Afghanistan, Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, Malaysia, the Maldives, Morocco, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Turkey, the UAE and the Western Sahara. The other twelve nations with anti-blasphemy laws in 2012 were Denmark, Finland, Germany, Greece, India, Ireland, Italy, Lebanon, Malta, the Netherlands (abolished in 2014), Nigeria, Poland and Singapore. Blasphemy was treated as a <a href="capital%20crime">capital crime</a> (death penalty) in many Muslim nations.
Other countries have removed the ban of blasphemy. France did so in 1881 to allow freedom of religion and freedom of the press and blasphemy was abolished or repealed in Sweden in 1970, Norway with Acts in 2009 and 2015, the Netherlands in 2014, and Iceland in 2015.
Where blasphemy is banned, it can be either some laws which directly punish religious blasphemy, or some laws that allow those who are offended by blasphemy to punish blasphemers. Those laws may condone penalties or retaliation for blasphemy under the labels of <a href="blasphemous%20libel">blasphemous libel</a>, expression of opposition, or "vilification," of religion or of some religious practices, religious insult, or <a href="hate%20speech">hate speech</a>.
<a href="Christian%20theology">Christian theology</a> condemns blasphemy. It is spoken of in <a href="Gospel%20of%20Mark">Mark</a> , where blaspheming the <a href="Holy%20Spirit">Holy Spirit</a> is spoken of as unforgivable—the <a href="eternal%20sin">eternal sin</a>. However, there is dispute over what form this blasphemy may take and whether it qualifies as blasphemy in the conventional sense; and over the meaning of "unforgivable". In 2 Kings 18, the <a href="Rabshakeh">Rabshakeh</a> gave the word from the king of Assyria, dissuading trust in the Lord, asserting that God is no more able to deliver than all the gods of the land.
In , Jesus told a paralytic "your sins are forgiven" and was accused of blasphemy.
Blasphemy has been condemned as a serious, or even the most serious, sin by the major creeds and Church theologians (<a href="apostasy">apostasy</a> and <a href="infidel">infidel</a>ity [unbelief] were generally considered to be the gravest sins, with <a href="heresy">heresy</a> a greater sin than blasphemy, cf. Thomas Aquinas' "Summa Theologiae").
In the Catholic Church, there are specific prayers and devotions as <a href="Acts%20of%20Reparation">Acts of Reparation</a> for blasphemy. For instance, <a href="The%20Golden%20Arrow%20Holy%20Face%20Devotion%20%28Prayer%29">The Golden Arrow Holy Face Devotion (Prayer)</a> first introduced by Sister <a href="Marie%20of%20St%20Peter">Marie of St Peter</a> in 1844 is recited "in a spirit of reparation for blasphemy". This devotion (started by Sister Marie and then promoted by the Venerable <a href="Leo%20Dupont">Leo Dupont</a>) was approved by Pope <a href="Leo%20XIII">Leo XIII</a> in 1885. The <a href="Raccolta">Raccolta</a> Catholic prayer book includes a number of such prayers. The <a href="Five%20First%20Saturdays">Five First Saturdays</a> devotions are done with the intention in the heart of making reparation to the Blessed Mother for blasphemies against her, her name and her holy initiatives.
The <a href="Holy%20See">Holy See</a> has specific "Pontifical organizations" for the purpose of the reparation of blasphemy through <a href="Acts%20of%20Reparation%20to%20Jesus%20Christ">Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ</a>, e.g. the "Pontifical Congregation of the <a href="Benedictine%20Sisters%20of%20the%20Reparation%20of%20the%20Holy%20Face">Benedictine Sisters of the Reparation of the Holy Face</a>."
The most common punishment for blasphemers was <a href="capital%20punishment">capital punishment</a> through hanging or stoning, justified by the words of . 
The last person hanged for blasphemy in Great Britain was <a href="Thomas%20Aikenhead">Thomas Aikenhead</a> aged 20, in Scotland in 1697. He was prosecuted for denying the veracity of the Old Testament and the legitimacy of Christ's miracles.
In Islamic literature, blasphemy is of many types, and there are many different words for it: "sabb" (insult) and "shatm" (abuse, vilification), "takdhib" or "tajdif" (denial), "iftira" (concoction), "la`n" or "la'ana" (curse) and "ta`n" (accuse, defame). In Islamic literature, the term blasphemy sometimes also overlaps with <a href="infidel">infidel</a> ("kufr", disbeliever), "fisq" (depravity), "isa'ah" (insult), and "ridda" (apostasy). There are a number of <a href="sura">sura</a>h in Qur'an and <a href="sunnah">sunnah</a> in hadith relating to blasphemy, from which Quranic verses 5:33-34 and 33:57-61 have been most commonly used in Islamic history to justify and punish blasphemers. For example,
A variety of actions, speeches or behavior can constitute blasphemy in Islam. Some examples include insulting or cursing Allah, or Muhammad; mockery or disagreeable behavior towards beliefs and customs common in Islam; criticism of Islam's holy personages. <a href="Apostasy%20in%20Islam">Apostasy</a>, that is, the act of abandoning Islam, or finding faults or expressing doubts about Allah ("ta'til") and Qur'an, rejection of Muhammed or any of his teachings, or leaving the Muslim community to become an atheist is a form of blasphemy. Questioning religious opinions (fatwa) and normative Islamic views can also be construed as blasphemous. Improper dress, drawing offensive cartoons, tearing or burning holy literature of Islam, creating or using music or painting or video or novels to mock or criticize Muhammad are some examples of blasphemous acts. In the context of those who are non-Muslims, the concept of blasphemy includes all aspects of <a href="infidel">infidel</a>ity (kufr).
The <a href="Quran">Quran</a> does not explicitly mention any worldly punishment for blasphemy ("sabb allah" or "sabb al-rasul"), as it does for <a href="Apostasy%20in%20Islam">apostasy</a> ("riddah"). Islamic jurisprudence (<a href="fiqh">fiqh</a>) of Sunni and Shia <a href="madhab">madhab</a>s have declared different punishments for the religious crime of blasphemy, and they vary between schools. These are as follows:
Some jurists suggest that the sunnah in <a href="hadith">hadith</a> provide a basis for a death sentence for the crime of blasphemy, even if someone claims not to be an apostate, but has committed the crime of blasphemy. Some modern Muslim scholars contest that Islam supports <a href="blasphemy%20law">blasphemy law</a>, stating that <a href="Ulama">Muslim jurists</a> made the offense part of <a href="Sharia">Sharia</a>.
The Islamic law considers blasphemy against Muhammad a more severe offense than blasphemy against God. Repentance can lead to forgiveness by God when God is blasphemed, however since Muhammad is no longer alive, forgiveness is not possible when Muhammad is blasphemed, and the Muslim community must punish his blasphemy by avenging blasphemer's death.
In Islamic jurisprudence, Kitab al <a href="Hudud">Hudud</a> and <a href="Tazir">Taz'ir</a> cover punishment for blasphemous acts. The penalties for blasphemy can include fines, imprisonment, flogging, amputation, hanging, or beheading. Many nations prescribe and carry out the death penalty for <a href="Apostasy%20in%20Islam">apostasy</a>, a similarly motivated action, and Pakistan and Egypt demand execution for some <a href="blasphemy%20law">blasphemers</a>. Muslim clerics may call for revenge against an alleged blasphemer by issuing a <a href="fatwa">fatwa</a> (legal ruling), or simply provide guidelines on behaviors and lifestyle that is blasphemous. For example, in Malaysia, Islamic scholars issued a fatwa declaring <a href="yoga">yoga</a> as blasphemous, because yoga is a form of spiritual practice in Hinduism.
One famous case of the Islamic blasphemy law was the fatwa against English author <a href="Salman%20Rushdie">Salman Rushdie</a> for his book entitled <a href="The%20Satanic%20Verses">The Satanic Verses</a>, the title of which refers to an account that Muhammad, in the course of revealing the Quran, received a revelation from Satan and incorporated it therein until made by Allah to retract it (see "<a href="Satanic%20verses">Satanic verses</a>"). Several translators of his book into foreign languages have been murdered.
As of 2011, all Islamic majority nations, worldwide, had criminal laws on blasphemy. Over 125 non-Muslim nations worldwide did not have any laws relating to blasphemy. In Islamic nations, thousands of individuals have been arrested and punished for blasphemy of Islam. Several Islamic nations have argued in the United Nations that blasphemy against Muhammad is unacceptable, and laws should be passed worldwide to place "limits on the freedom of expression." Non-Muslim nations that do not have blasphemy laws, have pointed to abuses of blasphemy laws in Islamic nations, and have disagreed.
<a href="http%3A//www.thehindu.com/news/international/execution-of-salman-taseers-assassin-leads-to-protests/article8296802.ece">Execution of Salman Taseer’s assassin leads to protests:</a>
 states that he that blasphemes the <a href="Tetragrammaton">name of the LORD</a> "shall surely be put to death". In <a href="Halakha">Jewish law</a> the only form of blasphemy which is punishable by death is blaspheming the <a href="Tetragrammaton">Ineffable Name</a>.
The <a href="Seven%20Laws%20of%20Noah">Seven Laws of Noah</a>, which Judaism sees as applicable to all people, prohibit blasphemy.
In the early 21st century, blasphemy became an issue in the United Nations. The <a href="United%20Nations">United Nations</a> passed several resolutions which called upon the world to take action against the "defamation of religions".
The campaign for worldwide criminal penalties for the "defamation of religions" had been spearheaded by <a href="Organisation%20of%20Islamic%20Cooperation">Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</a> on behalf of the United Nations' large Muslim bloc. The campaign ended in 2011 when the proposal was withdrawn in Geneva, in the Human Rights Council because of lack of support, marking an end to the effort to impose worldwide blasphemy strictures along the lines of those in Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and Iran. This resolution had passed every year since 1999, in the United Nations, with declining number of "yes" votes with each successive year.
In July, 2011, the <a href="UN%20Human%20Rights%20Committee">UN Human Rights Committee</a> released a 52-paragraph statement, General Comment 34 on the <a href="International%20Covenant%20on%20Civil%20and%20Political%20Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a> (ICCPR) 1976, concerning freedoms of opinion and expression. Paragraph 48 states: 
In contemporary language, the notion of blasphemy is often used <a href="hyperbole">hyperbolically</a>. This usage has garnered some interest among linguists recently, and the word 'blasphemy' is a common case used for illustrative purposes.

</doc>
<doc id="90471" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90471" title="Software engineer">
Software engineer

A software engineer is a person who applies the principles of <a href="software%20engineering">software engineering</a> to the design, development, maintenance, testing, and evaluation of the software and systems that make computers or anything containing software work.
Prior to the mid-1960s, software practitioners called themselves "<a href="computer%20programmer">computer programmer</a>s" or "<a href="software%20developer">software developer</a>s," regardless of their actual jobs. Many people prefer to call themselves "software developer" and "programmer", because most widely agree what these terms mean, while "software engineer" is still being debated.
The term "programmer" has often been used as a pejorative term to refer to those without the tools, skills, education, or ethics to write good quality software. In response, many practitioners called themselves "software engineers" to escape the <a href="social%20stigma">stigma</a> attached to the word "programmer". In many companies, the titles "programmer" and "software developer" were changed to "software engineer", for many categories of programmers.
These terms cause confusion, because some denied any differences (arguing that everyone does essentially the same thing with software) while others use the terms to create a difference (arguing the terms mean completely different jobs).
In 2004, Keith Chapple of the <a href="Bureau%20of%20Labor%20Statistics">U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics</a> counted 760,840 software engineers holding jobs in the <a href="United%20States">U.S.</a>; in the same period there were some 1.4 million practitioners employed in the U.S. in all other engineering disciplines combined. The label software engineer is used very liberally in the corporate world. Very few of the practicing software engineers actually hold Engineering degrees from accredited universities. (See also <a href="Regulation%20and%20licensure%20in%20engineering%23Title%20usage">Regulation and licensure in engineering</a>.)
About half of all practitioners today have <a href="academic%20degree">degree</a>s in <a href="computer%20science">computer science</a>, <a href="information%20systems">information systems</a>, or <a href="information%20technology">information technology</a>. A small, but growing, number of practitioners have software engineering degrees. In 1987, <a href="Imperial%20College%20London">Imperial College London</a> introduced the first three-year software engineering <a href="Bachelor%27s%20degree">Bachelor's degree</a> in the UK and the world; in the following year, the <a href="University%20of%20Sheffield">University of Sheffield</a> established a similar program. In 1996, the <a href="Rochester%20Institute%20of%20Technology">Rochester Institute of Technology</a> established the first software engineering bachelor's degree program in the United States, however, it did not obtain <a href="ABET">ABET</a> accreditation until 2003, the same time as <a href="Rice%20University">Rice University</a>, <a href="Clarkson%20University">Clarkson University</a>, <a href="Milwaukee%20School%20of%20Engineering">Milwaukee School of Engineering</a> and <a href="Mississippi%20State%20University">Mississippi State University</a> obtained theirs. In 1997, PSG College of Technology in Coimbatore, India was the first to start a five-year integrated Master of Science degree in Software Engineering.
Since then, software engineering undergraduate degrees have been established at many universities. A standard international curriculum for undergraduate software engineering degrees was recently defined by the <a href="CCSE">CCSE</a>. , in the U.S., about 50 universities offer software engineering degrees, which teach both computer science and engineering principles and practices. The first software engineering <a href="Master%27s%20degree">Master's degree</a> was established at <a href="Seattle%20University">Seattle University</a> in 1979. Since then graduate software engineering degrees have been made available from many more universities. Likewise in Canada, the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB) of the <a href="Canadian%20Council%20of%20Professional%20Engineers">Canadian Council of Professional Engineers</a> has recognized several software engineering programs.
In 1998, the US <a href="Naval%20Postgraduate%20School">Naval Postgraduate School</a> (NPS) established the first <a href="doctorate">doctorate</a> program in Software Engineering in the world. Additionally, many online advanced degrees in Software Engineering have appeared such as the Master of Science in Software Engineering (MSE) degree offered through the Computer Science and Engineering Department at <a href="California%20State%20University%2C%20Fullerton">California State University, Fullerton</a>. Steve McConnell opines that because most universities teach computer science rather than software engineering, there is a shortage of true software engineers. ETS University and UQAM were mandated by IEEE to develop the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge (<a href="SWEBOK">SWEBOK</a>), which has become an ISO standard describing the body of knowledge covered by a software engineer.
In business, some software engineering practitioners have <a href="Management%20Information%20Systems">MIS</a> or <a href="computer%20information%20systems">computer information systems</a> degrees. In <a href="embedded%20systems">embedded systems</a>, some have <a href="electrical%20engineering">electrical engineering</a>, <a href="electronics%20engineering">electronics engineering</a>, <a href="computer%20science">computer science</a> with emphasis in "embedded systems" or <a href="computer%20engineering">computer engineering</a> degrees, because embedded software often requires a detailed understanding of hardware. In <a href="medical%20software">medical software</a>, practitioners may have <a href="medical%20informatics">medical informatics</a>, general medical, or biology degrees.
Some practitioners have <a href="mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="science">science</a>, <a href="engineering">engineering</a>, or <a href="technology">technology</a> degrees. Some have <a href="philosophy">philosophy</a> (logic in particular) or other non-technical degrees.For instance, <a href="Barry%20Boehm">Barry Boehm</a> earned degrees in mathematics. And, others have no degrees.
Most software engineers work as employees or contractors. Software engineers work with businesses, government agencies (civilian or military), and non-profit organizations. Some software engineers work on their own as Consulting Software Engineers. Some organizations have specialists to perform each of the tasks in the <a href="software%20development%20process">software development process</a>. Other organizations required software engineers to do many or all of them. Entry-Level Software Engineer or Associate Software Engineer may be best. Some companies offer Software Engineer as an entry level position. In large projects, people may specialize in only one role. In small projects, people may fill several or all roles at the same time. Specializations include: in industry (<a href="Requirements%20analysis">analysts</a>, <a href="Software%20architecture">architects</a>, <a href="Software%20developer">developers</a>, <a href="Software%20testing">testers</a>, <a href="technical%20support">technical support</a>, <a href="Project%20management">managers</a>) and in academia (<a href="educator">educator</a>s, <a href="researcher">researcher</a>s).
There is considerable debate over the future employment prospects for Software Engineers and other <a href="Information%20Technology">IT</a> Professionals. For example, an online futures market called the <a href="http%3A//www.ideosphere.com/fx-bin/Claim%3Fclaim%3DITJOBS">Future of IT Jobs in America</a> attempts to answer whether there will be more IT jobs, including software engineers, in 2012 than there were in 2002. Possible opportunities for Advancement can be as a Software Engineer, then to a Senior Software Engineer, or straight to a Senior Software Engineer, depending on skills and reputation. Services such as <a href="http%3A//www.devfactor.net/2014/12/01/hired-com-review-ultimate-platform-engineers/">Hired</a> are trying to better gauge the coding ability of an engineer, given not all engineers progress their abilities at the same rate.
Most Software Engineers work 37 to 40 hours per week. This job is office-based, and most of the work is done during normal office hours, but can sometimes lead to working away and working late or during weekends, depending on where and when the client is situated. The job can also be done at home or anywhere a computer is set up. Some high-profile companies have encouraged software engineers to work for long hours; <a href="Apple%20Inc">Apple</a>'s <a href="Steve%20Jobs">Steve Jobs</a> set up a culture where engineers would never take holidays and work throughout weekends, yet love what they were doing.
Most students in the developed world have avoided degrees related to software engineering because of the fear of <a href="offshore%20outsourcing">offshore outsourcing</a> (importing software products or services from other countries) and of being displaced by <a href="Foreign%20Worker%20Visa">foreign visa workers</a>. Although government statistics do not currently show a threat to software engineering itself; a related career, <a href="computer%20programming">computer programming</a> does appear to have been affected. Often one is expected to start out as a computer programmer before being promoted to software engineer. Thus, the career path to software engineering may be rough, especially during recessions.
Some career counselors suggest a student also focus on "people skills" and business skills rather than purely technical skills because such "soft skills" are allegedly more difficult to offshore.
Reasonable command over reading, writing & speaking English is asked by most of employers. It is the quasi-management aspects of software engineering that appear to be what has kept it from being impacted by globalization.
There are several prizes in the field of software engineering:
Many people believe that "software engineering" implies a certain level of academic training, professional discipline, adherence to formal processes, and especially legal liability that often are not applied in cases of software development. A common analogy is that working in <a href="construction">construction</a> does not make one a <a href="civil%20engineer">civil engineer</a>, and so writing <a href="Source%20code">code</a> does not make one a software engineer. Furthermore, because computing doesn't utilize the methods of mathematical physics common to all conventional engineering disciplines, it's more appropriate to call those engaged in this occupation as software developers, computer scientists or similar.
In 1978, a prominent computing scientist, <a href="Edsger%20Wybe%20Dijkstra">E. W. Dijkstra</a>, wrote in a paper that the coining of the term "software engineer" was not useful since it was an inappropriate analogy, "The existence of the mere term has been the base of a number of extremely shallow—and false—analogies, which just confuse the issue...Computers are such exceptional gadgets that there is good reason to assume that most analogies with other disciplines are too shallow to be of any positive value, are even so shallow that they are only confusing."
In each of the last few decades, at least one radical new approach has entered the mainstream of software development (e.g. <a href="Structured%20programming">Structured Programming</a>, <a href="Object-oriented%20programming">Object Orientation</a>), implying that the field is still changing too rapidly to be considered an engineering discipline. Proponents argue that the supposedly radical new approaches are evolutionary rather than revolutionary.
Individual commentators have disagreed sharply on how to define "software engineering" or its legitimacy as an engineering discipline. <a href="David%20Parnas">David Parnas</a> has said that software engineering is, in fact, a form of engineering. <a href="Steve%20McConnell">Steve McConnell</a> has said that it is not, but that it should be. <a href="Donald%20Knuth">Donald Knuth</a> has said that programming is an art and a science. <a href="Edsger%20W.%20Dijkstra">Edsger W. Dijkstra</a> claimed that the terms "software engineering" and "software engineer" have been misused and should be considered harmful, particularly in the <a href="United%20States">United States</a>.
The use of the title "tölvunarfræðingur" (e. <a href="computer%20scientist">computer scientist</a>) is protected by law in Iceland. Software engineering is taught in <a href="Computer%20Science">Computer Science</a> departments in Icelandic universities. Icelandic law state that a permission must be obtained from the Minister of Industry when the degree was awarded abroad, prior to use of the title. The title is only awarded to those who have obtained a master's degree in Software Engineering from a recognized higher educational institution.
The U.K. has seen the alignment of the Information Technology Professional and the Engineering Professionals.
In New Zealand, <a href="Institution%20of%20Professional%20Engineers%20New%20Zealand">IPENZ</a>, the professional engineering organization entrusted by the New Zealand government with legal power to license and regulate chartered engineers (CPEng), recognizes software engineering as a legitimate branch of professional engineering and accepts application of software engineers to obtain chartered status provided he or she has a tertiary degree of approved subjects. Software Engineering is included but Computer Science is normally not.
In Canada the use of the job title "Engineer" is controlled in each province by self-regulating professional engineering organizations, often aligned with geologists and geophysicists, who are also tasked with enforcement of the governing legislation. The intent is that any individual holding themselves out as an engineer (or geologist or geophysicist) has been verified to have been educated to a certain accredited level and their professional practice is subject to a code of ethics and peer scrutiny.
IT professionals with degrees in other fields (such as computer science or information systems) are restricted from using the title "Software Engineer", or wording "Software Engineer" in a title, depending on their province or territory of residence. In some instances, cases have been taken to court regarding the illegal use of the protected title "Software Engineer".
The <a href="Bureau%20of%20Labor%20Statistics">U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics</a> classifies "computer software engineers" as a subcategory of "computer specialists", along with occupations such as computer scientist, programmer, and network administrator. The BLS classifies all other engineering disciplines, including computer hardware engineers, as "engineers".
Some of the states regulate the use of terms such as "computer engineer" and even "software engineer". These states include at least Texas and Florida.
There is also a new PE (Professional Engineer) exam beginning in April 2013 for Software Engineering specifically as the process of tougher regulation moves forward.

</doc>
<doc id="90472" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90472" title="Rosalind Franklin">
Rosalind Franklin

Rosalind Elsie Franklin (25 July 192016 April 1958) was an <a href="English%20people">English</a> <a href="chemist">chemist</a> and <a href="X-ray%20crystallography">X-ray crystallographer</a> who made contributions to the understanding of the molecular structures of <a href="DNA">DNA</a> (deoxyribonucleic acid), <a href="RNA">RNA</a> (ribonucleic acid), <a href="viruses">viruses</a>, <a href="coal">coal</a>, and <a href="graphite">graphite</a>. Although her works on coal and viruses were appreciated in her lifetime, her contributions to the discovery of DNA were largely recognized posthumously.
Born to a prominent <a href="British%20Jews">British Jewish family</a>, Franklin was educated at a private day school at Norland Place in West <a href="London">London</a>, Lindores School for Young Ladies in <a href="Sussex">Sussex</a>, and <a href="St%20Paul%27s%20Girls%27%20School">St Paul's Girls' School</a>, London. Then she studied the <a href="Natural%20Sciences%20Tripos">Natural Sciences Tripos</a> at <a href="Newnham%20College%2C%20Cambridge">Newnham College, Cambridge</a>, from where she graduated in 1941. Earning a research fellowship, she joined the <a href="University%20of%20Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> physical chemistry laboratory under <a href="Ronald%20George%20Wreyford%20Norrish">Ronald George Wreyford Norrish</a>, who disappointed her for his lack of enthusiasm. Fortunately, the <a href="British%20Coal%20Utilisation%20Research%20Association">British Coal Utilisation Research Association</a> (BCURA) offered her a research position in 1942, and started her work on coals. This helped her earn a PhD in 1945. She went to Paris in 1947 as a "chercheur" (post-doctoral researcher) under <a href="Jacques%20Mering">Jacques Mering</a> at the Laboratoire Central des Services Chimiques de l'Etat, where she became an accomplished <a href="X-ray">X-ray</a> crystallographer. She became a research associate at <a href="King%27s%20College%20London">King's College London</a>, in 1951, but was compelled to move to <a href="Birkbeck%20College">Birkbeck College</a> after two years, owing to disagreeable clashes with her director <a href="John%20Randall%20%28physicist%29">John Randall</a> and more so with her colleague <a href="Maurice%20Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a>. At Birkbeck, <a href="J.%20D.%20Bernal">J. D. Bernal</a>, chair of the physics department, offered her a separate research team. She died in 1958 at the age of 37 of <a href="ovarian%20cancer">ovarian cancer</a>.
Franklin is best known for her work on the <a href="Photo%2051">X-ray diffraction images of DNA</a> while at King's College, London, which led to the discovery of the DNA <a href="double%20helix">double helix</a> for which <a href="James%20Watson">James Watson</a>, <a href="Francis%20Crick">Francis Crick</a> and <a href="Maurice%20Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a> shared the <a href="Nobel%20Prize%20in%20Physiology%20or%20Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> in 1962. Watson suggested that Franklin would have ideally been awarded a <a href="Nobel%20Prize%20in%20Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a>, along with Wilkins, but the Nobel Committee does not make posthumous nominations.
After finishing her work on DNA, Franklin led pioneering work at <a href="Birkbeck%20College">Birkbeck College</a>, London, on the molecular structures of viruses. Her team member <a href="Aaron%20Klug">Aaron Klug</a> continued her research, winning the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1982. Had she been alive, she would very likely have shared that prize as well.
Franklin was born on 25 July 1920 in 50 Chepstow Villas, Notting Hill, London into an affluent and influential <a href="British%20Jews">British Jewish</a> family. Her father was <a href="Ellis%20Arthur%20Franklin">Ellis Arthur Franklin</a> (1894–1964), a politically liberal London <a href="merchant%20banker">merchant banker</a> who taught at the city's <a href="Working%20Men%27s%20College">Working Men's College</a>, and her mother was Muriel Frances Waley (1894–1976). Rosalind was the elder daughter and the second child in the family of five children. David (born 1919) was the eldest brother; <a href="Colin%20Franklin%20%28bibliographer%29">Colin</a> (born 1923), <a href="Roland%20Franklin">Roland</a> (born 1926), and Jenifer (born 1929) were her younger siblings. Her father's uncle was <a href="Herbert%20Samuel%2C%201st%20Viscount%20Samuel">Herbert Samuel</a> (later Viscount Samuel), who was the <a href="Home%20Secretary">Home Secretary</a> in 1916 and the first practising Jew to serve in the <a href="Cabinet%20%28government%29">British Cabinet</a>. Her aunt, Helen Caroline Franklin, known in the family as Mamie, was married to <a href="Norman%20Bentwich">Norman de Mattos Bentwich</a>, who was the <a href="Attorney%20General">Attorney General</a> in the <a href="British%20Mandate%20of%20Palestine">British Mandate of Palestine</a>. Helen Caroline Franklin was active in <a href="trade%20union">trade union</a> organisation and the <a href="Women%27s%20Suffrage">women's suffrage movement</a>, and was later a member of the <a href="London%20County%20Council">London County Council</a>. Her uncle, <a href="Hugh%20Franklin%20%28suffragist%29">Hugh Franklin</a>, was another prominent figure in the suffrage movement, although his actions therein embarrassed the Franklin family. Rosalind's middle name, "Elsie", was in memory of Hugh's first wife, who died in the <a href="1918%20flu%20pandemic">1918 flu pandemic</a>. Her family was actively involved with the <a href="Working%20Men%27s%20College">Working Men's College</a>, where her father taught the subjects of electricity, magnetism, and the history of <a href="the%20Great%20War">the Great War</a> in the evenings, later becoming the vice-principal.
Franklin's parents helped settle Jewish refugees from Europe who had escaped the <a href="Nazism">Nazis</a>, particularly those from the "<a href="kindertransport">kindertransport</a>". They took in two Jewish children to their home, and one of them, a nine-year-old Austrian, Evi Eisenstädter, shared Jenifer's room. (Evi's father Hans Mathias Eisenstädter had been imprisoned in <a href="Buchenwald">Buchenwald</a>, and after liberation, the family adopted the surname "Ellis".)
From early childhood, Franklin showed exceptional scholastic abilities. At age six, she joined her brother Roland at <a href="Norland%20Place%20School">Norland Place School</a>, a private day school in West London. At that time, her aunt Mamie (Helen Bentwich), described her to her husband: "Rosalind is alarmingly clever – she spends all her time doing arithmetic for pleasure, and invariably gets her sums right." She also developed an early interest in cricket and hockey. At age nine, she entered a boarding school, Lindores School for Young Ladies in Sussex. The school was near the seaside, and the family wanted a good environment for her delicate health. She was eleven when she went to <a href="St%20Paul%27s%20Girls%27%20School">St Paul's Girls' School</a>, West London, one of the few girls' schools in London that taught physics and chemistry. At St Paul's she excelled in science, Latin, and sports. She also learned German, and became fluent in French, a language she would later find useful. She topped her classes, and won annual awards. Her only educational weakness was in music, for which the school music director, the composer <a href="Gustav%20Holst">Gustav Holst</a>, once called upon her mother to inquire whether she might have suffered from hearing problem or <a href="tonsillitis">tonsillitis</a>. With six distinctions, she passed her matriculation in 1938, winning a scholarship for university, the School Leaving Exhibition of £30 a year for three years, and £5 from her grandfather. Her father asked her to give the scholarship to deserving refugee student.
Franklin went to <a href="Newnham%20College%2C%20Cambridge">Newnham College, Cambridge</a> in 1938 and studied chemistry within the <a href="Natural%20Sciences%20Tripos">Natural Sciences Tripos</a>. There she met the spectroscopist <a href="Bill%20Price%20%28physicist%29">Bill Price</a>, who worked with her as a laboratory demonstrator and who later became one of her senior colleagues at King's College London. In 1941, she was awarded <a href="second-class%20honours">second-class honours</a> from her final exams. The distinction was accepted as a bachelor's degree in qualifications for employment. Cambridge began awarding titular <a href="Bachelor%20of%20Arts">B.A.</a> and <a href="Master%20of%20Arts%20%28Oxbridge%20and%20Dublin%29">M.A.</a> degrees to women from 1947, and the previous women graduates retroactively received these. In her last year at Cambridge, she met a French refugee Adrienne Weill, a former student of <a href="Marie%20Curie">Marie Curie</a>, who made a huge influence on her life and career and helped her to improve her spoken French.
Franklin was awarded a research fellowship at Newnham College, with which she joined the physical chemistry laboratory of the <a href="University%20of%20Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> to work under <a href="Ronald%20Norrish">Ronald Norrish</a>, who later won the <a href="Nobel%20Prize%20in%20Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a>. In her one year of work there, she did not have much success. As described by his biographer, Norrish was "obstinate and almost perverse in argument, overbearing and sensitive to criticism". He could not decide for her what to work upon, and at that time was succumbing to heavy drinking. Franklin wrote that he made her despise him completely. Resigning from Norrish's Lab, she fulfilled the requirements of the <a href="Conscription%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom">National Service Acts</a> by working as an assistant research officer at the <a href="British%20Coal%20Utilisation%20Research%20Association">British Coal Utilisation Research Association</a> (BCURA) in 1942. The BCURA was located on the Coombe Springs Estate near <a href="Kingston%20upon%20Thames">Kingston upon Thames</a> near the southwestern boundary of London. Norrish acted as advisor to the military at BCURA. <a href="John%20G.%20Bennett">John G. Bennett</a> was the director. <a href="Marcello%20Pirani">Marcello Pirani</a> and <a href="Victor%20Goldschmidt">Victor Goldschmidt</a>, both refugees from the Nazis, were consultants and lectured at BCURA while Franklin worked there. During her BCURA research, she stayed at Adrienne Weill's boarding house in Cambridge until her cousin Irene Franklin asked to join her in a vacated house of her uncle in <a href="Putney">Putney</a>. With Irene, she volunteered as an <a href="Air%20Raid%20Warden">Air Raid Warden</a> and regularly made patrols to see the welfare of people during air raids.
She studied the <a href="porosity">porosity</a> of coal using helium to determine its density. Through this, she discovered the relationship between the fine constrictions in the pores of coals and the permeability of the porous space. By concluding that substances were expelled in order of molecular size as temperature increased, she helped classify coals and accurately predict their performance for fuel purposes and for production of wartime devices such as <a href="gas%20masks">gas masks</a>. This work was the basis of her Ph.D. thesis "The physical chemistry of solid organic <a href="colloid">colloid</a>s with special reference to coal" for which Cambridge University awarded her a Ph.D. in 1945. It was also the basis of several papers.
With World War II ending in 1945, Franklin asked Adrienne Weill for help and to let her know of job openings for "a physical chemist who knows very little physical chemistry, but quite a lot about the holes in coal". At a conference in the autumn of 1946, Weill introduced her to Marcel Mathieu, a director of the <a href="Centre%20national%20de%20la%20recherche%20scientifique">Centre national de la recherche scientifique</a> (CNRS), the network of institutes that comprise the major part of the scientific research laboratories supported by the French government. This led to her appointment with <a href="Jacques%20Mering">Jacques Mering</a> at the Laboratoire Central des Services Chimiques de l'Etat in Paris. She joined the "labo" (as referred to by the staff) of Mering on 14 February 1947 as one of the fifteen "chercheurs" (researchers).
Mering was an X-ray crystallographer who applied <a href="X-ray%20diffraction">X-ray diffraction</a> to the study of rayon and other amorphous substances, in contrast to the thousands of regular crystals that had been studied by this method for many years. He taught her the practical aspects of applying X-ray crystallography to amorphous substances. This presented new challenges in the conduct of experiments and the interpretation of results. Franklin applied them to further problems related to coal, in particular the changes to the arrangement of atoms when it is converted to graphite. She published several further papers on this work which has become part of the mainstream of the physics and chemistry of coal. This work was covered in a 1993 monograph, and in the regularly-published textbook "Chemistry and Physics of Carbon". Mering continued the study of carbon in various forms, using X-ray diffraction and other methods.
In 1950, Franklin was granted a three-year <a href="Turner%20%26amp%3B%20Newall">Turner & Newall</a> Fellowship to work at <a href="King%27s%20College%2C%20London">King's College, London</a>. In January 1951, she started working as a research associate in the <a href="Medical%20Research%20Council%20%28UK%29">Medical Research Council's</a> (MRC) Biophysics Unit, directed by <a href="Sir%20John%20Randall">John Randall</a>. She was originally appointed to work on <a href="X-ray%20diffraction">X-ray diffraction</a> of <a href="protein">protein</a>s and <a href="lipid">lipid</a>s in solution, but Randall redirected her work to DNA fibres because of new developments in the field, and she was to be the only experienced experimental diffraction researcher at King's at the time. Randall made this reassignment, even before she started working at King's, because of the following pioneering work by <a href="Maurice%20Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a> and <a href="Raymond%20Gosling">Raymond Gosling</a> – a Ph.D. student assigned to help her.
Even using crude equipment, Wilkins and Gosling had obtained an outstanding diffraction picture of DNA which sparked further interest in this molecule. They had been carrying out <a href="X-ray">X-ray</a> diffraction analysis of DNA in the unit since May 1950, but Randall had not informed them that he had asked Franklin to take over both the DNA diffraction work and guidance of Gosling's thesis. Randall's lack of communication about this reassignment significantly contributed to the well documented friction that developed between Wilkins and Franklin.
Franklin, working with Gosling, started to apply her expertise in X-ray diffraction techniques to the structure of DNA. She used a new fine-focus X-ray tube and microcamera ordered by Wilkins, but which she refined, adjusted and focused carefully. Drawing upon her physical chemistry background, she also skillfully manipulated the critical hydration of her specimens. When Wilkins inquired about this improved technique, she replied in terms which offended Wilkins as Franklin had "an air of cool superiority".
Franklin's habit of intensely looking people in the eye while being concise, impatient and direct unnerved many of her colleagues. In stark contrast, Wilkins was very shy, and slowly calculating in speech while he avoided looking anyone directly in the eye. In spite of the intense atmosphere, Franklin and Gosling discovered that there were two forms of DNA: at high humidity (when wet), the DNA fibre became long and thin; when it was dried it became short and fat.
These forms were termed DNA "<a href="B-DNA">B</a>" and "<a href="A-DNA">A</a>" respectively. Because of the intense personality conflict developing between Franklin and Wilkins, Randall divided the work on DNA. Franklin chose the data rich "A" form while Wilkins selected the "B" form because his preliminary pictures had hinted it might be <a href="helix">helical</a>. He showed tremendous insight in this assessment of preliminary data. The X-ray diffraction <a href="Photo%2051">pictures</a> taken by Franklin at this time have been called, by <a href="J.%20D.%20Bernal">J. D. Bernal</a>, as "amongst the most beautiful X-ray photographs of any substance ever taken".
By the end of 1951 it was generally accepted at King's that the B form of DNA was a <a href="helix">helix</a>, but after she had recorded an asymmetrical image in 1952 May, Franklin became unconvinced that the A form of DNA was helical in structure. In July 1952, as a practical joke on Wilkins (who frequently expressed his view that both forms of DNA were helical), Franklin and Gosling produced a funeral notice regretting the 'death' of helical crystalline DNA (A-DNA). During 1952, they worked at applying the <a href="Patterson%20function">Patterson function</a> to the X-ray pictures of DNA they had produced. This was a long and labour-intensive approach but would yield significant insight into the structure of the molecule.
By January 1953, Franklin had reconciled her conflicting data, concluding that both DNA forms had two helices, and had started to write a series of three draft manuscripts, two of which included a double helical DNA backbone (see below). Her two A-DNA manuscripts reached "<a href="Acta%20Crystallographica">Acta Crystallographica</a>" in <a href="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a> on 6 March 1953, one day before Crick and Watson had completed their model on B-DNA. She must have mailed them while the Cambridge team was building their model, and certainly had written them before she knew of their work. On 8 July 1953 she modified one of these "in proof", "Acta" articles "in light of recent work" by the King's and Cambridge research teams.
The third draft paper was on the B form of DNA, dated 17 March 1953, which was discovered years later amongst her papers, by Franklin's Birkbeck colleague, <a href="Aaron%20Klug">Aaron Klug</a>. He then published an evaluation of the draft's close correlation with the third of the original trio of 25 April 1953 "Nature" DNA articles. Klug designed this paper to complement the first article he had written defending Franklin's significant contribution to DNA structure. He had written this first article in response to the incomplete picture of Franklin's work depicted in Watson's 1968 memoir, "<a href="The%20Double%20Helix">The Double Helix</a>".
As vividly described in "The Double Helix", on 30 January 1953, Watson travelled to King's carrying a preprint of <a href="Linus%20Pauling">Linus Pauling</a>'s incorrect proposal for DNA structure. Since Wilkins was not in his office, Watson went to Franklin's lab with his urgent message that they should all collaborate before Pauling discovered his error. The unimpressed Franklin became angry when Watson suggested she did not know how to interpret her own data. Watson hastily retreated, backing into Wilkins who had been attracted by the commotion. Wilkins commiserated with his harried friend and then changed the course of DNA history with the following disclosure. Wilkins imprudently showed Watson Franklin's DNA X-ray image. Watson, in turn, showed Wilkins a prepublication manuscript by Pauling and Corey. Franklin and Gosling's photo 51 gave the Cambridge pair critical insights into the DNA structure, whereas Pauling and Corey's paper described a molecule remarkably like their first incorrect model.
In February 1953, <a href="Francis%20Crick">Francis Crick</a> and <a href="James%20Watson">James Watson</a> of the <a href="Cavendish%20Laboratory">Cavendish Laboratory</a> in <a href="University%20of%20Cambridge">Cambridge University</a> had started to build a <a href="molecular%20modelling">model</a> of the B form of DNA using data similar to that available to both teams at King's. Much of their data were derived directly from research done at King's by Wilkins and Franklin. Franklin's research was completed by February 1953, ahead of her move to Birkbeck, and her data were critical. Model building had been applied successfully in the elucidation of the structure of the <a href="alpha%20helix">alpha helix</a> by <a href="Linus%20Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> in 1951, but Franklin was opposed to prematurely building theoretical models, until sufficient data were obtained to properly guide the model building. She took the view that building a model was to be undertaken only after enough of the structure was known.
Ever cautious, she wanted to eliminate misleading possibilities. Photographs of her Birkbeck work table show that she routinely used small molecular models, although certainly not ones on the grand scale successfully used at Cambridge for DNA. In the middle of February 1953, Crick's thesis advisor, <a href="Max%20Perutz">Max Perutz</a>, gave Crick <a href="King%27s%20College%20London%20DNA%20Controversy">a copy of a report</a> written for a <a href="Medical%20Research%20Council%20%28United%20Kingdom%29">Medical Research Council</a> biophysics committee visit to King's in December 1952, containing many of Franklin's crystallographic calculations.
Since Franklin had decided to transfer to Birkbeck College and Randall had insisted that all DNA work must stay at King's, Wilkins was given copies of Franklin's diffraction photographs by Gosling. By 28 February 1953, Watson and Crick felt they had solved the problem enough for Crick to proclaim (in the local pub) that they had "found the secret of life". However, they knew they must complete their model before they could be certain.
Watson and Crick finished building their model on 7 March 1953, one day before they received a letter from Wilkins stating that Franklin was finally leaving and they could put "all hands to the pump". This was also one day after Franklin's two A-DNA papers had reached "<a href="Acta%20Crystallographica">Acta Crystallographica</a>". Wilkins came to see the model the following week, according to Franklin's biographer <a href="Brenda%20Maddox">Brenda Maddox</a> on 12 March, and allegedly informed Gosling on his return to King's.
It is uncertain how long it took for Gosling to inform Franklin at Birkbeck, but her original 17 March B-DNA manuscript does not reflect any knowledge of the Cambridge model. Franklin did modify this draft later before publishing it as the third in the trio of 25 April 1953 "Nature" articles. On 18 March, in response to receiving a copy of their preliminary manuscript, Wilkins penned the following "I think you're a couple of old rogues, but you may well have something".
Crick and Watson then published their model in "<a href="Nature%20%28journal%29">Nature</a>" on 25 April 1953 in an article describing the double-helical structure of DNA with only a footnote acknowledging "having been stimulated by a general knowledge of" Franklin and Wilkins' "unpublished" contribution. Actually, although it was the bare minimum, they had just enough specific knowledge of Franklin and Gosling's data upon which to base their model. As a result of a deal struck by the two laboratory directors, articles by Wilkins and Franklin, which included their X-ray diffraction data, were modified and then published second and third in the same issue of "Nature", seemingly only in support of the Crick and Watson theoretical paper which proposed a model for the B form of DNA.
Weeks later, on 10 April, Franklin wrote to Crick for permission to see their model. Franklin retained her scepticism for premature model building even after seeing the Watson-Crick model, and remained unimpressed. She is reported to have commented, "It's very pretty, but how are they going to prove it?" As an experimental scientist, Franklin seems to have been interested in producing far greater evidence before publishing-as-proven a proposed model. As such, her response to the Watson-Crick model was in keeping with her cautious approach to science. Most of the scientific community hesitated several years before accepting the double helix proposal. At first mainly geneticists embraced the model because of its obvious genetic implications.
Among Franklin's key findings was that the conformation of the DNA double helix depends on the level of <a href="Hydration%20reaction">hydration</a>. She was responsible for discovering and naming <a href="A-DNA">A-DNA</a> and <a href="B-DNA">B-DNA</a>, which are the forms at low and high hydration respectively. Watson and Crick's model was for B-DNA, which is the common form the cells. It was not then known whether A-DNA had any biological functions, but <a href="A-DNA%23Biological%20Functions">several are now known</a>.
Franklin left King's College London in mid-March 1953 for <a href="Birkbeck%2C%20University%20of%20London">Birkbeck College</a>, in a move that had been planned for some time and that she described (in a letter to Adrienne Weill in Paris) as "moving from a palace to the slums... but pleasanter all the same." She was recruited by physics department chair <a href="J.%20D.%20Bernal">J. D. Bernal</a>, a brilliant crystallographer who happened to be an Irish communist, known for promoting women crystallographers. She worked as a senior scientist with her own research group, funded by the <a href="Agricultural%20Research%20Council">Agricultural Research Council</a> (ARC). Despite the parting words of Bernal to stop her interest in nucleic acids, she helped Gosling to finish his thesis, although she was no longer his official supervisor. Together they published the first evidence of double helix in the A form of DNA in the 25 July issue of "Nature". Moreover, she continued to explore another major nucleic acid, <a href="RNA">RNA</a>, a molecule equally central to life as <a href="DNA">DNA</a>. She again used X-ray crystallography to study the structure of the <a href="tobacco%20mosaic%20virus">tobacco mosaic virus</a> (TMV), an <a href="RNA%20virus">RNA virus</a>. Her meeting with <a href="Aaron%20Klug">Aaron Klug</a> in the early 1954 led to a longstanding and successful collaboration. Klug had just then earned his PhD from <a href="Trinity%20College%2C%20Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a>, and joined Birkbeck in the late 1953. In 1955 Franklin published her first major works on TMV in "Nature", in which she described that all TMV virus particles were of the same length. This was in direct contradiction to the ideas of the eminent virologist <a href="Norman%20Pirie">Norman Pirie</a>, though her observation ultimately proved correct.
Franklin assigned the study of the complete structure of TMV to her PhD student <a href="Kenneth%20Holmes">Kenneth Holmes</a>. They soon discovered (published in 1956) that the covering of TMV was protein molecules arranged in helices. Her colleague Klug worked on spherical viruses with his student John Finch, with Franklin coordinating and overseeing the work. As a team, from 1956 they started publishing seminal works on TMV, cucumber virus 4 and <a href="turnip%20yellow%20mosaic%20virus">turnip yellow mosaic virus</a>.
Franklin also had a <a href="research%20assistant">research assistant</a>, James Watt, subsidised by the <a href="National%20Coal%20Board">National Coal Board</a> and was now the leader of the ARC group at Birkbeck. The Birkbeck team members continued working on RNA viruses affecting several plants, including potato, turnip, tomato and pea. In 1955 the team was joined by an American post-doctoral student <a href="Donald%20Caspar">Donald Caspar</a>. He worked on the precise location of RNA molecules in TMV. In 1956 he and Franklin published individual but complementary papers in the 10 March issue of "Nature", in which they showed that the <a href="RNA">RNA</a> in TMV is wound along the inner surface of the hollow virus. Caspar was not an enthusiastic writer, and Franklin had to write the entire manuscript for him.
In 1957 her research grant from ARC had expired, and was given a one-year extension ending in March 1958. She applied for a new grant from the US <a href="National%20Institutes%20of%20Health">National Institutes of Health</a>, which approved £10,000 for three years, the largest fund ever received at Birkbeck.
<a href="Expo%2058">Expo 58</a>, the first major international fair after World War II, was to be held in Brussels in 1958. Franklin was invited to make a five-foot high model of TMV, which she started in 1957. Her materials included table tennis balls and plastic bicycle handlebar grips. The Brussels world's fair, with an exhibit of her virus model at the International Science Pavilion, opened on 17 April, one day after she died.
Her main research team at Birkbeck College, London Klug, Finch and Holmes moved to the <a href="Laboratory%20of%20Molecular%20Biology">Laboratory of Molecular Biology</a>, Cambridge in 1962.
Franklin was best described as an <a href="agnosticism">agnostic</a>. Her lack of religious faith apparently did not stem from anyone's influence, rather from her own inquisitive mind. She developed her scepticism as a young child. Her mother recalled that she refused to believe in the <a href="Existence%20of%20God">existence of god</a>, and remarked, "Well, anyhow, how do you know He isn't She?" She later made her position clear, now based on her scientific experience, and wrote to her father in 1940:
She however did not abandon Jewish traditions. As the only Jewish student at Lindores School, she had Hebrew lessons on her own while her friends went to church. She joined the Jewish Society at age 27 out of respect of her grandfather's request. She confided to her sister that she was "always consciously a Jew".
Franklin loved travelling abroad, particularly <a href="trekking">trekking</a>. She first "qualified" at Christmas 1929 for a vacation at <a href="Menton">Menton</a>, France, where her grandfather went to escape English winter. Her family frequently spent vacations in Wales or Cornwall. A trip to France in 1938 gave her a lasting love for France and its language. She considered the French lifestyle as "vastly superior to that of English". In contrast, she described English people as having "vacant stupid faces and childlike complacency". Her family was almost stuck in Norway in 1939, as World War II was declared on their way home. In another instance, she trekked the French Alps with Jean Kerslake in 1946, which almost cost her her life. She slipped off on a slope, and was barely rescued. But she wrote to her mother, "I am quite sure I could wander happily in France forever. I love the people, the country and the food."
She made several professional trips to US, and was particularly jovial among her American friends and constantly displayed her sense of humour. William Ginoza of the <a href="University%20of%20California%2C%20Los%20Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a> later recalled that she was the opposite of Watson's description of her, and as Maddox comments, Americans enjoyed her "sunny side."
Watson's "The Double Helix" almost entirely refers to her as "Rosy", the name people at King's College used behind her back. She did not want to be called by that name because she had a great-aunt Rosy. In the family she was called "Ros". To others, she was simply Rosalind. She made it clear to an American visiting friend Dorothea Raacke, while sitting with her at Crick's table in <a href="The%20Eagle%2C%20Cambridge">The Eagle</a> pub in Cambridge. She [Raacke] asked her how she was to be called, and she replied, "I'm afraid it will have to be Rosalind," and added, "Most definitely not "Rosy"."
She often expressed her political views. She initially blamed <a href="Winston%20Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> for inciting the war, but later admired him for his speeches. She actively supported Professor <a href="John%20Ryle%20%28physician%29">John Ryle</a> as an independent candidate for parliament in 1940, but he was unsuccessful.
She did not seem to have intimate relationship with anyone and always kept her deepest personal feelings to herself. Since her younger days she avoided close friendship with the opposite sex. Once her cousins visited them, she paid Roland to accompany them. In her later years, Evi Ellis, who had shared her bedroom when a child refugee and who was then married to Ernst Wohlgemuth and had moved to Notting Hill from Chicago, tried matchmaking with <a href="Ralph%20Miliband">Ralph Miliband</a> but failed. Franklin once told Evi that her flatmate asked her for a drink, but she did not get the intention. She was quite infatuated by her French mentor Mering, who had a wife and a mistress. Mering also admitted that he was captivated by her "intelligence and beauty". According to Sayre, she did confess her feeling for Mering when she was undergoing surgery, but her family denied this. But Mering wept when he visited her later, and destroyed all her letters.
Her closest personal affair was probably with her once post-doctoral student <a href="Donald%20Caspar">Donald Caspar</a>. In 1956, she visited him at his home in Colorado after her tour to <a href="University%20of%20California%2C%20Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>, and she was known to remark later that Caspar was one "she might have loved, might have married". In her letter to Sayre, she described him as "an ideal match".
In mid-1956, while on a work-related trip to the United States, Franklin first began to suspect a health problem. While in New York she found difficulty in zipping her skirt, her stomach had bulged. Back in London she consulted Mair Livingstone, who asked her, "You're not pregnant?" to which she retorted, "I wish I were." But her diagnosis report stated that it was not pregnancy, and her case was marked "URGENT". An operation on 4 September of the same year revealed two tumours in her abdomen. After this period and other periods of hospitalization, Franklin spent time convalescing with various friends and family members. These included <a href="Anne%20Sayre">Anne Sayre</a>, Francis Crick, his wife Odile, with whom Franklin had formed a strong friendship, and finally with the Roland and Nina Franklin family where Rosalind's nieces and nephews bolstered her spirits.
Franklin chose not to stay with her parents because her mother's uncontrollable grief and crying upset her too much. Even while undergoing cancer treatment, Franklin continued to work, and her group continued to produce results – seven papers in 1956 and six more in 1957. In 1957, the group was also working on the <a href="polio%20virus">polio virus</a> and had obtained funding from the <a href="Public%20Health%20Service">Public Health Service</a> of the <a href="National%20Institutes%20of%20Health">National Institutes of Health</a> in the United States for this.
At the end of 1957, Franklin again fell ill and she was admitted to the <a href="Royal%20Marsden%20Hospital">Royal Marsden Hospital</a>. On 2 December, she made her will. She named her three brothers as executors and made her colleague <a href="Aaron%20Klug">Aaron Klug</a> the principal beneficiary, who would receive £3,000 and her Austin car. Her other friends Mair Livingstone would get £2,000, Anne Piper £1,000, and her nurse Miss Griffith £250. The remainder of the estate was to be used for charities. She returned to work in January 1958, and she was given a promotion to Research Associate in Biophysics on 25 February. She fell ill again on 30 March, and she died on 16 April 1958, in <a href="Chelsea%2C%20London">Chelsea, London</a>, of <a href="bronchopneumonia">bronchopneumonia</a>, secondary <a href="carcinomatosis">carcinomatosis</a>, and <a href="ovarian%20cancer">ovarian cancer</a>. <a href="Health%20effects%20of%20radiation">Exposure to X-ray radiation</a> is sometimes considered to be a possible factor in her illness.
Other members of her family have died of cancer, and the incidence of <a href="gynaecological%20cancer">gynaecological cancer</a> is known to be disproportionately high among <a href="Ashkenazi%20Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a>. Her death certificate read: "A Research Scientist, Spinster, Daughter of Ellis Arthur Franklin, a Banker." She was interred on 17 April 1958 in the family plot at <a href="Willesden%20United%20Synagogue%20Cemetery">Willesden United Synagogue Cemetery</a> at Beaconsfield Road in <a href="London%20Borough%20of%20Brent">London Borough of Brent</a>. The inscription on her tombstone reads:
IN MEMORY OF <br> ROSALIND ELSIE FRANKLIN <br> מ' רחל בת ר' יהודה <Br> DEARLY LOVED ELDER DAUGHTER OF <br> ELLIS AND MURIEL FRANKLIN <br> 25TH JULY 1920 - 16TH APRIL 1958 <br> SCIENTIST <br> HER RESEARCH AND DISCOVERIES ON <br> VIRUSES REMAIN OF LASTING BENEFIT <br> TO MANKIND <br> ת נ צ ב ה [Hebrew initials for "her soul shall be bound in the bundle of life"]
Various controversies surrounding Rosalind Franklin came to light following her death.
Anne Sayre, Franklin's friend and one of her biographers, states "In 1951 ... King's College as an institution, was not distinguished for the welcome that it offered to women ... Rosalind ... was unused to "purdah" [a religious and social institution of female seclusion] ... there was one other woman scientist on the laboratory staff". Andrzej Stasiak states "Sayre's book became widely cited in feminist circles for exposing rampant sexism in science." Farooq Hussain states "there were seven women in the biophysics department ... Jean Hanson became an FRS, Dame Honor B. Fell, Director of <a href="Strangeways%20Laboratory">Strangeways Laboratory</a>, supervised the biologists". Maddox states, "<a href="John%20Randall%20%28physicist%29">Randall</a> ... did have many women on his staff ... they found him ... sympathetic and helpful."
Sayre states "that while the male staff at King's lunched in a large, comfortable, rather clubby dining room" the female staff of all ranks "lunched in the student's hall or away from the premises". Elkin states that most of the <a href="Medical%20Research%20Council%20%28UK%29">MRC</a> group typically ate lunch together (including Franklin) in the mixed dining room discussed below. And Maddox states, of Randall, "He liked to see his flock, men and women, come together for morning coffee, and at lunch in the joint dining room, where he ate with them nearly every day." Francis Crick also commented that "her colleagues treated men and women scientists alike."
Sayre also discusses at length Franklin's struggle in pursuing science, particularly her father's concern about women in academic professions. This account had been taken to accuse Ellis Franklin of sexism against his daughter. A good deal of information explicitly claims that he strongly opposed her entering Newnham College. Franklin's <a href="Public%20Broadcasting%20Service">Public Broadcasting Service</a> (PBS) biography goes further by stating that he refused to pay her fees, and that an aunt stepped in for her. Her sister Jenifer Glynn explains that these stories are myths, and that her parents fully supported Franklin's entire career.
Sexism is said to pervade the memoir of one peer, James Watson, in his book "The Double Helix" published 10 years after Franklin's death and after Watson had returned from Cambridge to Harvard. His Cambridge colleague, Peter Pauling, wrote in a letter, "Morris ["sic"] Wilkins is supposed to be doing this work; Miss Franklin is evidently a fool." Crick acknowledges later, "I'm afraid we always used to adopt – let's say, a "patronizing" attitude towards her."
Glynn accuses Sayre of making her sister a feminist heroine, and Watson's "The Double Helix" as the root of what she calls "Rosalind Industry". She conjectures that these alleged sexism stories would "have embarrassed her [Rosalind Franklin] almost as much as Watson’s account would have upset her", and declared that "she was never a feminist." Klug and Crick also concurred that she was definitely not a feminist.
Franklin's letter to her parents in January 1939 is often taken as reflecting her own prejudiced attitude and that she was "not immune to the sexism rampant in these circles." In it she remarked one lecturer as "very good, though female." But as Maddox explains, it was more of circumstantial comment rather than a gender bias. It was more of an admiration because at the time woman teachers of science were a rarity. She in fact laughed at men who were embarrassed by the appointment of the first female professor <a href="Dorothy%20Garrod">Dorothy Garrod</a>.
Rosalind Franklin's first important contributions to the Crick and Watson model was her lecture at the seminar in November 1951, where she presented to those present, among them Watson, the two forms of the molecule, type A and type B, her position being that the phosphate units are located in the external part of the molecule. She also specified the amount of water to be found in the molecule in accordance with other parts of it, data that have considerable importance in terms of the stability of the molecule. Franklin was the first to discover and formulate these facts, which in fact constituted the basis for all later attempts to build a model of the molecule. However, Watson, at the time ignorant of the chemistry, failed to comprehend the crucial information, and this led to construction of a wrong model.
The other contribution included an X-ray photograph of B-DNA (called <a href="Photo%2051">photograph 51</a>), that was briefly shown to Watson by Wilkins in January 1953, and a report written for an MRC biophysics committee visit to King's in December 1952 which was shown by Perutz at the Cavendish Laboratory to both Crick and Watson. This MRC report contained data from the King's group, including some of Franklin's and Gosling's work, and was given to Crick – who was working on his thesis on <a href="haemoglobin">haemoglobin</a> structure – by his thesis supervisor Perutz, a member of the visiting committee.
Sayre's biography of Franklin contains a story alleging that the photograph 51 in question was shown to Watson by Wilkins without Franklin's permission, and that this constituted a case of bad science ethics. Others dispute this story, asserting that Wilkins had been given photograph 51 by Franklin's Ph.D. student Gosling because she was leaving King's to work at Birkbeck, and there was allegedly nothing untoward in this transfer of data to Wilkins because Director Randall had insisted that all DNA work belonged exclusively to King's and had instructed Franklin in a letter to even stop working on it and submit her data. Also, it was implied by <a href="Horace%20Freeland%20Judson">Horace Freeland Judson</a>, that Maurice Wilkins had taken the photograph out of Franklin's drawer, but this is also said to be incorrect.
Likewise, Perutz saw "no harm" in showing an MRC report containing the conclusions of Franklin and Gosling's X-ray data analysis to Crick, since it had not been marked as confidential, although "The report was not expected to reach outside eyes". Indeed, after the publication of Watson's "The Double Helix" exposed Perutz's act, he received so many letters questioning his judgment that he felt the need to both answer them all and to post a general statement in "Science" excusing himself on the basis of being "inexperienced and casual in administrative matters".
Perutz also claimed that the MRC information was already made available to the Cambridge team when Watson had attended Franklin's seminar in November 1951. A preliminary version of much of the important material contained in the 1952 December MRC report had been presented by Franklin in a talk she had given in November 1951, which Watson had attended but not understood.
The Perutz letter was as said one of three letters, published with letters by Wilkins and Watson, which discussed their various contributions. Watson clarified the importance of the data obtained from the MRC report as he had not recorded these data while attending Franklin's lecture in 1951. The upshot of all this was that when Crick and Watson started to build their model in February 1953 they were working with critical parameters that had been determined by Franklin in 1951, and which she and Gosling had significantly refined in 1952, as well as with published data and other very similar data to those available at King's. It was generally believed that Franklin was never aware that her work had been used during construction of the model, but Gosling asserted in his 2013 interview that, "Yes. Oh, she did know about that."
Upon the completion of their model, Crick and Watson had invited Wilkins to be a <a href="Collaborative%20writing">co-author</a> of their paper describing the structure. Wilkins turned down this offer, as he had taken no part in building the model. He later expressed regret that greater discussion of co-authorship had not taken place as this might have helped to clarify the contribution the work at King's had made to the discovery. There is no doubt that Franklin's experimental data were used by Crick and Watson to build their model of DNA in 1953. Some, including Maddox, have explained this citation omission by suggesting that it may be a question of circumstance, because it would have been very difficult to cite the unpublished work from the MRC report they had seen.
Indeed, a clear timely acknowledgment would have been awkward, given the unorthodox manner in which data were transferred from King's to Cambridge. However, methods were available. Watson and Crick could have cited the MRC report as a personal communication or else cited the "Acta "articles in press, or most easily, the third "Nature" paper that they knew was in press. One of the most important accomplishments of Maddox's widely acclaimed biography is that Maddox made a well-received case for inadequate acknowledgement. "Such acknowledgement as they gave her was very muted and always coupled with the name of Wilkins".
Twenty five years after the fact, the first clear recitation of Franklin's contribution appeared as it permeated Watson's account, "The Double Helix", although it was buried under descriptions of Watson's (often quite negative) regard towards Franklin during the period of their work on DNA. This attitude is epitomized in the confrontation between Watson and Franklin over a preprint of Pauling's mistaken DNA manuscript. Watson's words impelled Sayre to write her rebuttal, in which the entire chapter nine, "Winner Take All" has the structure of a legal brief dissecting and analyzing the topic of acknowledgement.
Sayre's early analysis was often ignored because of perceived feminist overtones in her book. It should be noted that in their original paper, Watson and Crick do not cite the X-ray diffraction work of both Wilkins and Franklin. However, they admit their having "been stimulated by a knowledge of the general nature of the unpublished experimental results and ideas of Dr. M. H. F. Wilkins, Dr. R. E. Franklin and their co-workers at King's College, London." Watson and Crick had no experimental data to support their model. It was Franklin and Gosling's own publication in the same issue of "Nature" with the X-ray image of DNA, which served as the main evidence; in which they concluded:
Franklin was never nominated for a <a href="Nobel%20Prize">Nobel Prize</a>. Her work was a crucial part in the discovery of DNA, which Francis Crick, James Watson, and Maurice Wilkins were awarded a Nobel Prize in 1962. She had died in 1958, and during her lifetime the DNA structure was not considered as fully proven. It took Wilkins and his colleagues about seven years to collect enough data to prove and refine the proposed DNA structure. Moreover, its biological significance, as proposed by Watson and Crick, was not established. General acceptance for the DNA double helix and its function did not start until late in the 1950s, leading to Nobel nominations in 1960, 1961, and 1962 for Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, and in 1962 for Nobel Prize in Chemistry. The first breakthrough was from <a href="Matthew%20Meselson">Matthew Meselson</a> and <a href="Franklin%20Stahl">Franklin Stahl</a> in 1958, who experimentally showed the DNA replication of a bacterium "<a href="Escherichia%20coli">Escherichia coli</a>". Now known as <a href="Meselson%E2%80%93Stahl%20experiment">Meselson–Stahl experiment</a>, DNA was found to replicate into two double-stranded helices, with each helix having one of the original DNA strands. This <a href="Semiconservative%20replication">DNA replication</a> was firmly established by 1961 after further demonstration in other species, and of the stepwise chemical reaction. According to the 1961 Crick–Monod letter, this experimental proof, along with Wilkins having initiated the DNA diffraction work, were the reasons why Crick felt that Wilkins should be included in the DNA Nobel prize.
In 1962 the Nobel Prize was subsequently awarded to Crick, Watson, and Wilkins. It is not clear whether she would have been included, had she lived. The award was for their body of work on <a href="nucleic%20acids">nucleic acids</a> and not exclusively for the discovery of the structure of DNA. By the time of the award Wilkins had been working on the structure of DNA for more than 10 years, and had done much to confirm the Watson–Crick model. Crick had been working on the <a href="genetic%20code">genetic code</a> at Cambridge and Watson had worked on <a href="RNA">RNA</a> for some years. Watson has suggested that ideally Wilkins and Franklin would have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Franklin's colleague and principal beneficiary in her will Klug was the sole winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1982, "for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes." This work was exactly what Franklin had started and which she introduced to Klug, and it is highly plausible that, were she alive, she would have shared the Nobel prize.
Franklin's part in the discovery of the nature of DNA was shown in the 1987 TV Movie "<a href="Life%20Story%20%28TV%20film%29">Life Story</a>", starring <a href="Tim%20Pigott-Smith">Tim Pigott-Smith</a> as Crick, <a href="Alan%20Howard">Alan Howard</a> as Wilkins, <a href="Jeff%20Goldblum">Jeff Goldblum</a> as Watson, and <a href="Juliet%20Stevenson">Juliet Stevenson</a> as Franklin. This movie portrayed Franklin as somewhat stern, but also alleged that Watson and Crick did use a lot of her work to do theirs.
A 56-minute documentary of the life and scientific contributions of Franklin, "DNA - Secret of Photo 51", was broadcast in 2003 on <a href="PBS%20Nova">PBS NOVA</a>. Narrated by <a href="Barbara%20Flynn">Barbara Flynn</a>, the program features interviews with Wilkins, Gosling, Klug, Maddox, including Franklin's friends Vittorio Luzzati, Caspar, Anne Piper, and Sue Richley. The UK version produced by <a href="BBC">BBC</a> is titled "Rosalind Franklin: DNA's Dark Lady".
The first episode of another PBS documentary serial, "DNA", was aired on 4 January 2004. The episode titled "The Secret of Life" centres much around the contributions of Franklin. Narrated by Jeff Goldblum, it features Watson, Wilkins, Gosling and Peter Pauling (son of Linus Pauling).
A play titled "Rosalind: A Question of Life" was written by Deborah Gearing to mark the work of Franklin, and was first performed on 1 November 2005 at the <a href="Birmingham%20Repertory%20Theatre">Birmingham Repertory Theatre</a>, and published by <a href="Oberon%20Books">Oberon Books</a> in 2006.
Another play, "Photograph 51" by Anna Ziegler, published in 2011, has been produced at several places in the USA, and in late 2015 was put on at the Noel Coward Theatre, London, with <a href="Nicole%20Kidman">Nicole Kidman</a> playing Franklin. Ziegler's version of the 1951–53 'race' for the structure of DNA sometimes emphasizes the pivotal role of Franklin's research and her personality. Although sometimes altering history for dramatic effect, the play nevertheless illuminates many of the key issues of how science was and is conducted.
"False Assumptions" by <a href="Lawrence%20Aronovitch">Lawrence Aronovitch</a> is a play about the life of <a href="Marie%20Curie">Marie Curie</a> in which Franklin is portrayed as frustrated and angry at the lack of recognition for her scientific contributions.
Rosalind Franklin produced a number of publications, some cited a number of times. A representative sample is listed below. The last two publications in this list were published posthumously.

</doc>
<doc id="90473" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90473" title="Wall Street Week">
Wall Street Week

Wall Street Week (WSW) is an <a href="investment">investment</a> news and information <a href="Television">TV</a> program that was broadcast weekly each Friday evening on <a href="Public%20Broadcasting%20Service">Public Broadcasting Service</a> (PBS) in the United States from 1970 to 2005 and now airs, after being revived in April 2015, weekly each Sunday morning on <a href="Fox%20Broadcasting%20Company">Fox Broadcasting Company</a> in select major markets and at <a href="http%3A//wallstreetweek.com">wallstreetweek.com</a>. It features a host (or hosts) and guest experts participating in discussions related to the <a href="financial%20market">financial market</a>s.
The original show, which was created by <a href="Anne%20Truax%20Darlington">Anne Truax Darlington</a> and produced by <a href="Maryland%20Public%20Television">Maryland Public Television</a> (MPT), debuted on the entire <a href="Public%20Broadcasting%20Service">PBS</a> network on January 7, 1972 and was officially titled Wall $treet Week with <a href="Louis%20Rukeyser">Louis Rukeyser</a> (W$W) during the 32 years he hosted from 1970 to 2002 (the "S" in "Street" was in the shape of a dollar sign).
In June 2002, the show was modified, dropping Rukeyser and changing the name to Wall Street Week with <a href="Fortune%20%28magazine%29">Fortune</a>. Rukeyser went on to host "<a href="Louis%20Rukeyser%27s%20Wall%20Street">Louis Rukeyser's Wall Street</a>" on <a href="CNBC">CNBC</a> (cancelled on December 31, 2004 at Rukeyser's request due to continuing ill health), which was also distributed to PBS stations. Wall Street Week with <a href="Fortune%20%28magazine%29">Fortune</a>, which was hosted by <a href="Geoff%20Colvin">Geoff Colvin</a> and former <a href="Fox%20News">Fox News</a> business correspondent <a href="Karen%20Gibbs">Karen Gibbs</a>, ended its PBS run on June 24, 2005.
Wall Street Week was resurrected in April 2015 by SkyBridge Media LLC, an affiliated entity of global investment firm <a href="SkyBridge%20Capital">SkyBridge Capital</a>, which was founded by financier and entrepreneur <a href="Anthony%20Scaramucci">Anthony Scaramucci</a>. The new "Wall Street Week" features <a href="Anthony%20Scaramucci">Anthony Scaramucci</a> and Morgan Stanley senior advisor Gary Kaminsky as co-hosts. The new show airs Sunday mornings on Fox affiliates in select markets, and is available for streaming and on-demand viewing Sunday mornings starting at 11 AM ET on wallstreetweek.com.
Over the years, the list of guests included such notables as <a href="Paul%20Volcker">Paul Volcker</a>, <a href="Alan%20Greenspan">Alan Greenspan</a>, <a href="Ross%20Perot">Ross Perot</a>, <a href="John%20Kenneth%20Galbraith">John Kenneth Galbraith</a>, <a href="Malcolm%20Forbes">Malcolm Forbes</a>, and <a href="Paul%20Samuelson">Paul Samuelson</a>. 
After being introduced, guests for the interview segment were escorted from backstage by a woman in formal dress dubbed by production staff and listed in the <a href="Credits%20roll">credits</a> as "Ms. Smythe" ("Miss Smythe" until the late 1980s), always followed by her real name. Various women over the years performed this task, the most famous being Natalie Seltz.
During Rukeyser's tenure, the program featured a distinctive theme composed by Donald Swartz entitled "TWX in 12 Bars," which featured percussion supplied by a <a href="teletype%20machine">teletype machine</a>. The opening bells of the song replicated the sound of the <a href="Westminster%20chime">Westminster chime</a>s.
On the last Friday of the year, the host and panelists would appear in <a href="black%20tie">black tie</a>, make market predictions and stock recommendations for the upcoming year, and review how well their predictions of one year ago fared.
On October 23, 1987, the first program following <a href="Black%20Monday%20%281987%29">Black Monday</a>, the show dropped its regular format for a special program where Rukeyser interviewed three experts on the impact of the stock market crash.
Afterwards, the show would employ this alternative format whenever events warranted, usually once every few months.
Whenever Rukeyser was on vacation or otherwise absent, one of the show's regular panelists would fill in. For many years this function was usually performed by Carter Randall, though in later years it was usually Frank Cappiello or (less often) <a href="Martin%20Zweig">Martin Zweig</a> after Randall died in 1999. Both Randall and Cappiello were investment bankers from <a href="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, convenient to where "WSW" was produced in <a href="Owings%20Mills%2C%20Maryland">Owings Mills, Maryland</a>.
During the 1984 and 1985 <a href="pledge%20drive">pledge-drive</a> seasons, Rukeyser hosted two "Investment Primer" specials, introducing viewers to the stock market and how it worked. The first show, which aired in 1984, dealt with stocks, bonds, and gold; whereas the second show in 1985 dealt with mutual funds, options and commodities. Some of the guests included <a href="Stan%20Weinstein">Stan Weinstein</a> (editor of "The Professional Tape Reader"), Peter Lynch (manager of the Magellan funds at <a href="Fidelity%20Investments">Fidelity Investments</a>), and Dick Fabian (editor for "The Telephone Switch Newsletter")
With the new hosts came a change in format:
The new show's theme music was an updated, more orchestral version of "TWX in 12 Bars", produced again by Don Swartz and Don Barto.
Without Louis Rukeyser as host, this new version suffered from lower ratings, neither capturing a new more youthful market as PBS had intended, nor retaining the original viewers. It was cancelled after three seasons.
During its run, the show used two different indexes to predict future market trends:
From 1970 to 1989, the show used the Wall Street Week Index (later known as the WSW Technical Market Index), a <a href="technical%20analysis">technical analysis</a> developed by <a href="Robert%20Nurock">Robert Nurock</a>. The analysis consisted of ten separate technical <a href="Technical%20indicator">indicators</a>, each of which was assigned a value of either +1 (indicating a <a href="bullish">bullish</a> trend), -1 (for a <a href="bearish">bearish</a> trend, or 0 (neutral)). A net balance of +5 (or higher) was interpreted as a buy signal, while a reading of -5 (or lower) was a sell signal. While the index rarely gave outright buy or sell signals, over time it was found to give an accurate forecast of the stock market. Rukeyser irreverently named the index "The Elves" (a reference to the <a href="Gnomes%20of%20Z%C3%BCrich">Gnomes of Zürich</a>), and dubbed Nurock the "Chief Elf." After being in neutral for a considerable period of time, Rukeyser requested significant changes in the makeup of the index. Nurock refused since he believed his ten indicators were still the best way to judge the technical aspects of the market. This ended Nurock's association with the show and the Index was replaced.
Used From 1989 to the end of the Rukeyser era, the Elves Index was also a reading of ten indicators scored in the same manner as the Wall Street Week Index. Instead of reflecting technical factors, the indicators now represented the personal sentiment of ten market analysts about the direction of the market over the next three months. The Elves Index had more volatility and gave more buy and sell signals than the old Wall Street Week Index, but was not as highly regarded. In 1998, one magazine even suggested the Elves Index was more useful as a <a href="contrarian">contrarian</a> tool, citing three examples where buy signals were followed by periods of market drift or contraction. Later, Rukeyser added an Elves Index for the NASDAQ. This index had one of the worst predictive records of any public index.
The indexes were "retired" by Rukeyser after the <a href="September%2011%2C%202001%20attacks">September 11, 2001 attacks</a>. At that point, the indexes were signalling a very strong sell signal. However, as was usually the case, it was an excellent time to do the opposite as the market rallied significantly after the initial selloff.
The premiere of "WSW" on November 20, 1970 was carried on eleven stations of the <a href="American%20Public%20Television">Eastern Educational Television Network</a>. The show rapidly grew in coverage and viewers until it became one of the most popular programs on the newly created PBS member stations. At its peak in the 1980s, the program aired on over 300 stations, and claimed a viewership of 4,100,000 households, which meant more people watched "WSW" every week than read the "<a href="Wall%20Street%20Journal">Wall Street Journal</a>". The program became a major source of profit for both MPT and PBS through underwriting support and viewer pledges (it is estimated PBS earned $5,000,000 profit annually from the show).
Over the years, stock traders and analysts noted that a company touted on "WSW" on Friday would experience a run-up in its stock price the following Monday. This phenomenon, dubbed "The Rukeyser Effect", was stated to be a further demonstration of the program's influence. However, in 1987, Prof. <a href="Robert%20Pari">Robert Pari</a> of <a href="Bentley%20College">Bentley College</a> published an academic article in the "<a href="Journal%20of%20Portfolio%20Management">Journal of Portfolio Management</a>" detailing the results of a study that found that stocks recommended by Rukeyser's guests on Wall Street Week not only tended to rise in price and trading volume in the days "preceding" the Friday evening broadcast, peaking on the Monday afterward, but thereafter those stocks tended to drop in price and under-perform the market for up to a year following the recommendation. Rukeyser strongly disputed this claim, but ten years later Professors <a href="Jess%20Beltz">Jess Beltz</a> and <a href="Robert%20Jennings">Robert Jennings</a> published another academic article in the "<a href="Review%20of%20Financial%20Economics">Review of Financial Economics</a>" reporting results consistent with Pari's original findings, and that there was "little correlation between the 6-month performance of a recommendation and the abnormal volume at the date the recommendation is made." They observed that there were differences in return performance between the recommendations of different individuals, but the market could not discern the more insightful recommendations from the less insightful. Another commentator observed "It is mathematically impossible for the thirty million viewers of this show to beat the market, since they are the market."
Louis Rukeyser conducted the proceedings with a wry sense of humor (including the use of <a href="pun">pun</a>s) and a reassuring manner. In 1980 Rukeyser explained his hosting philosophy to "<a href="The%20New%20York%20Times">The New York Times</a>" as, "I am talking to one person, whom I regard as intelligent, with a good sense of humor, but not all that technically knowledgeable." He instructed panelists and guests not to use technical jargon and economic theories on the show, but rather talk about making money, because, "Economics puts people to sleep. Money wakes them up."
From its ratings peak in the early 1980s, "WSW" suffered a long steady decline in viewers due to competition from shows such as the "<a href="Nightly%20Business%20Report">Nightly Business Report</a>", cable programs like "<a href="Lou%20Dobbs%20Tonight">Moneyline</a>", and cable networks such as <a href="CNBC">CNBC</a>. By 2001 viewership was down to 1,500,000 households and demographics showed that the average "WSW" viewer was 65 years old (about the same age as Rukeyser). MPT began to discuss the possibility of updating the format in an effort to reverse these trends. On March 21, 2002, MPT announced that beginning in June the program would be renamed "Wall Street Week with Fortune", would be a collaboration between MPT and Fortune magazine, and would feature two new cohosts. Rukeyser was invited to remain with the program in a reduced role as a senior correspondent, but he turned down the offer.
The following evening, Rukeyser opened the telecast by announcing "A funny thing happened to me on the way to the studio this week—I got ambushed." He criticized MPT's decision to change the show format, announced that he was developing a new business program for PBS, and concluded his commentary by asking viewers to write to their local PBS station and request it carry his new show. After the broadcast MPT dismissed Rukeyser and executive producer Rich Dubroff. Over the next three months <a href="Marshall%20Loeb">Marshall Loeb</a> and Ray Brady served as guest hosts while the new format was put in place.
Despite "ambushing" Rukeyser, the show's trend of losing viewers continued as the show floundered on without Rukeyser's trusted presence and was terminated in early 2005. Rukeyser died 11 months after the show ended.
In May 2014, <a href="SkyBridge%20Capital">SkyBridge Capital</a> acquired licensing rights to "Wall Street Week", creating a new entity, SkyBridge Media, for the purpose of re-launching the show.
The new "Wall Street Week" features SkyBridge founder and managing partner <a href="Anthony%20Scaramucci">Anthony Scaramucci</a> and Morgan Stanley senior advisor Gary Kaminsky as hosts, and the format has been refreshed to maintain the spirit of the original show while modernizing certain aspects of the presentation. The show is filmed at the Thomson Reuters studio at 3 Times Square in New York, NY.
The new "Wall Street Week" streams every Sunday morning at 11 AM ET on wallstreetweek.com, where it can be watched on-demand on any device - mobile, tablet or computer. The show also airs Sunday mornings on local Fox affiliates in New York, Washington, D.C., Chicago and San Francisco. The website also features Web Extra video and blog content.
The first episode aired April 19 with special guest "bond king" <a href="Jeffrey%20Gundlach">Jeffrey Gundlach</a> of DoubleLine Capital and panelists Liz Ann Sonders (who was a frequent panelist on the original "Wall Street Week with Louis Rukeyser") of Charles Schwab and Jonathan Beinner of Goldman Sachs Asset Management. Gundlach's commentary on the show, where he called for a potential crash in the junk bond market, made waves across Wall Street in the week following the premiere.

</doc>
<doc id="90478" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90478" title="Brueghel">
Brueghel

Brueghel or Bruegel () was the name of several Dutch/Flemish painters from the same family line:
Bruegel may also refer to:

</doc>
<doc id="90479" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90479" title="Puy-de-Dôme">
Puy-de-Dôme

Puy-de-Dôme (; "lo Puèi de Doma" / "lo Puèi Domat" in the "<a href="Auvergnat">Auvergnat</a>" dialect of the <a href="Occitan%20language">Occitan language</a>) is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the centre of <a href="France">France</a> named after the famous dormant volcano, the <a href="Puy%20de%20D%C3%B4me">Puy de Dôme</a>.
Inhabitants were called Puydedomois until December 2005. With effect from Spring 2006, in response to a letter writing campaign, the name used for the inhabitants was changed by the <a href="General%20councils%20%28France%29">departmental General Council</a> to Puydômois, and this is the name that has since then been used in all official documents and publications.
Puy-de-Dôme is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on 4 March 1790. It was created from part of the <a href="provinces%20of%20France">former province</a> of <a href="History%20of%20Auvergne">Auvergne</a>. Originally, the department was to be called "Mont-d'Or" ("Golden Mountain"), but this was changed to Puy-de-Dôme following the intervention of , a local <a href="National%20Assembly%20%28French%20Revolution%29">deputy</a>, because of a concern that the name originally chosen risked attracting excessive unwelcome attention from the national taxation authorities.
Puy-de-Dôme is part of the current <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Auvergne-Rh%C3%B4ne-Alpes">Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes</a> and is surrounded by the departments of <a href="Loire%20%28department%29">Loire</a>, <a href="Haute-Loire">Haute-Loire</a>, <a href="Cantal">Cantal</a>, <a href="Corr%C3%A8ze">Corrèze</a>, <a href="Allier">Allier</a>, and <a href="Creuse">Creuse</a>.
The department is in the <a href="Massif%20Central">Massif Central</a> and boasts more than 80 volcanic craters. It is three hours from <a href="Paris">Paris</a> and an hour from <a href="Lyon">Lyon</a> by <a href="Autoroutes%20of%20France">highways</a> <a href="A71%20autoroute">A71</a> and <a href="A72%20autoroute">A72</a>. The <a href="A75%20autoroute">A75</a> links it to the <a href="Mediterranean%20Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>.
Its main cities are <a href="Clermont-Ferrand">Clermont-Ferrand</a>, <a href="Thiers%2C%20Puy-de-D%C3%B4me">Thiers</a>, <a href="Riom">Riom</a>, <a href="Issoire">Issoire</a>, <a href="Ambert">Ambert</a>, and <a href="Cournon-d%27Auvergne">Cournon-d'Auvergne</a>. Parts of the department belong to the <a href="Parc%20naturel%20r%C3%A9gional%20Livradois-Forez">Parc naturel régional Livradois-Forez</a>.
<a href="Clermont-Ferrand">Clermont-Ferrand</a>, is home to one of the country's best known manufacturing businesses and brands, <a href="Michelin">Michelin</a>. <a href="Thiers%2C%20Puy-de-D%C3%B4me">Thiers</a> is the oldest industry place in Auvergne with its cutlery tradition from the 14th century.
The countryside lends itself to tourism and Puy-de-Dôme is a popular weekend destination for city dwellers. The 1999 census found that 11.7% of the usable homes in the department were being kept as second homes.
The department was the electoral constituency of <a href="Valery%20Giscard%20d%27Estaing">Valery Giscard d'Estaing</a>, who served as President of the Republic from 1974 to 1981.

</doc>
<doc id="90494" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90494" title="Moselle (department)">
Moselle (department)

Moselle () is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the east of <a href="France">France</a> named after the river <a href="Moselle%20%28river%29">Moselle</a>.
Moselle is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on March 4, 1790. It was created from the former <a href="provinces%20of%20France">province</a> of <a href="Lorraine%20%28province%29">Lorraine</a>.
In 1793 France annexed the German <a href="enclave">enclave</a>s of <a href="Manderen">Manderen</a>, <a href="Lixing-l%C3%A8s-Rouhling">Lixing-lès-Rouhling</a>, <a href="Momerstroff">Momerstroff</a>, and <a href="Cr%C3%A9hange">Créhange</a> (Kriechingen) - all possessions of princes of the German <a href="Holy%20Roman%20Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> - and incorporated them into the Moselle département.
By the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Paris%20%281814%29">Treaty of Paris of 1814</a> following the first defeat and abdication of <a href="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>, France had to surrender almost all the territory it had conquered since 1792. In northeastern France, the Treaty did not restore the 1792 borders, however, but defined a new frontier to put an end to the convoluted nature of the border, with all its enclaves and exclaves. As a result, France ceded the <a href="exclave">exclave</a> of <a href="Tholey">Tholey</a> (now in <a href="Saarland">Saarland</a>, <a href="Germany">Germany</a>) as well as a few <a href="Commune%20in%20France">communes</a> near <a href="Sierck-les-Bains">Sierck-les-Bains</a> (both territories until then part of the Moselle département) to Austria. On the other hand, the Treaty confirmed the French annexations of 1793, and furthermore, the south of the Napoleonic département of <a href="Sarre%20%28d%C3%A9partement%29">Sarre</a> was ceded to France, including the town of <a href="Lebach">Lebach</a>, the city of <a href="Saarbr%C3%BCcken">Saarbrücken</a>, and the rich coal basin nearby. France thus became a net beneficiary of the Treaty of Paris: all the new territories ceded to her being far larger and more strategic than the few territories ceded to Austria. All these new territories were incorporated into the Moselle department, and so Moselle had now a larger territory than ever since 1790.
However, with the <a href="Hundred%20Days">return of Napoleon</a> (March 1815) and his final defeat at the <a href="Battle%20of%20Waterloo">Battle of Waterloo</a> (June 1815), the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Paris%20%281815%29">Treaty of Paris</a> in November 1815 imposed much harsher conditions on France. Tholey and the communes around Sierck-les-Bains were still to be ceded as agreed in 1814, but the south of the Sarre department with Saarbrücken was withdrawn from France. In addition, France had to cede to <a href="Austria">Austria</a> the area of <a href="Rehlingen">Rehlingen</a> (now in Saarland) as well as the strategic fort-town of <a href="Saarlouis">Saarlouis</a> and the territory around it, all territories and towns which France had controlled since the 17th century, and which formed part of the Moselle department since 1790. At the end of 1815 Austria transferred all these territories to <a href="Prussia">Prussia</a>. (So later France could directly invade Prussia, starting on 2 August 1870 the <a href="Franco-German%20War">Franco-German War</a>, which it had declared on <a href="North%20German%20Confederation">North Germany</a> on 19 July, with the French Army of the Rhine Corps II and III conquering Saarbrücken. And from the Saar basin the Prussian forces subsequently counterattacked and invaded France, supported by North Germany and the southern German states and defeating France in 1871.)
Thus, by the end of 1815, the Moselle department had finally the limits that it would keep until 1871. It was slightly smaller than at its creation in 1790, the incorporation of the Austrian enclaves not compensating for the loss of Saarlouis, Rehlingen, Tholey, and the communes around Sierck-les-Bains. Between 1815 and 1871, the department had an area of 5,387 km² (2,080 sq. miles). Its <a href="prefectures%20in%20France">prefecture</a> (capital) was <a href="Metz">Metz</a>. It had four <a href="Arrondissements%20of%20France">arrondissements</a>: Metz, <a href="Briey">Briey</a>, <a href="Sarreguemines">Sarreguemines</a>, and <a href="Thionville">Thionville</a>.
After the French defeat in the <a href="Franco-Prussian%20War">Franco-Prussian War</a> of 1870-1871, almost all of the Moselle department, along with <a href="Alsace">Alsace</a> and portions of the <a href="Meurthe%20Department">Meurthe</a> and <a href="Vosges%20%28department%29">Vosges</a> departments, went to the <a href="German%20Empire">German Empire</a> by the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Frankfurt%20%281871%29">Treaty of Frankfurt</a> on the ground that the population in those areas spoke <a href="German%20dialects">German dialects</a>. <a href="Otto%20von%20Bismarck">Bismarck</a> omitted only one-fifth of Moselle (the arrondissement of Briey in the extreme west of the department) from annexation, as it was a French-speaking area. (Bismarck later regretted his decision when it was discovered that the region of Briey and <a href="Longwy">Longwy</a> had rich iron-ore deposits.) The Moselle department ceased to exist on May 18, 1871, and the eastern four-fifths of Moselle returned to Germany merged with the also German-annexed eastern third of the <a href="Meurthe%20Department">Meurthe Department</a> into the German <a href="Bezirk%20Lothringen">Department of Lorraine</a>, based in Metz, within the newly established <a href="Reichsland%20Elsa%C3%9F-Lothringen">Imperial State of Alsace-Lorraine</a>. France merged the remaining area of Briey with the truncated Meurthe department to create the new <a href="Meurthe-et-Moselle">Meurthe-et-Moselle</a> department (a new name chosen on purpose to remind people of the lost Moselle department) with its "préfecture" at <a href="Nancy%2C%20France">Nancy</a>.
In 1919, following the French victory in the <a href="First%20World%20War">First World War</a>, Germany returned Alsace-Lorraine to France under the terms of the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>. However, it was decided not to recreate the old separate departments of Meurthe and Moselle by reverting to the old department borders of before 1871. Instead, Meurthe-et-Moselle was left untouched, and the German Region of Lorraine (Bezirk Lothringen) was reconstituted as the new department of Moselle. Thus, the Moselle department was reborn, but with quite different borders from those before 1871. Having lost the area of Briey, it had now gained the areas of <a href="Ch%C3%A2teau-Salins">Château-Salins</a> and <a href="Sarrebourg">Sarrebourg</a> which before 1871 had formed one-third of the Meurthe department and which had been part of the "Reichsland" of "Alsace-Loraine" since 1871.
The new Moselle department now reached its current area of 6,216 km² (2,400 sq. miles), larger than the old Moselle because the areas of Château-Salins and Sarrebourg were far larger than the area of Briey and Longwy.
During <a href="World%20War%20II">World War II</a> Germany again annexed Moselle from France: it became part of the "<a href="Gau%20Westmark">Gau Westmark</a>" in accordance with the <a href="Second%20Armistice%20at%20Compi%C3%A8gne">armistice of June 22, 1940</a>. Adolf Hitler considered Moselle and Alsace part of Germany and as a result had the eligible inhabitants drafted into the German <a href="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a>.
The <a href="United%20States%20Army">United States Army</a> liberated Moselle from the <a href="III%20Reich">III Reich</a> in battle in 1944, and it was returned to French governance in 1945 with the same frontiers as 1919. As a result of German aggression in <a href="World%20War%202">World War 2</a> both the French Government actively discouraged the Germanic heritage of the region, and the local German <a href="Lorraine%20Franconian">Lorraine Franconian</a> dialects ceased to be used in the public realm. in recent years efforts there has been a revival of the old dialects and distinct Franco-German culture of the region with the onset of open borders between France and Germany as members of the <a href="European%20Union">European Union</a>'s<a href="Schengen%20Treaty">Schengen Treaty</a>.
Moselle is part of the current <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Alsace-Champagne-Ardenne-Lorraine">Alsace-Champagne-Ardenne-Lorraine</a> and is surrounded by the French departments of <a href="Meurthe-et-Moselle">Meurthe-et-Moselle</a> and <a href="Bas-Rhin">Bas-Rhin</a>, as well as <a href="Germany">Germany</a> (states of <a href="Saarland">Saarland</a> and <a href="Rhineland-Palatinate">Rhineland-Palatinate</a>) and <a href="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a> in the north. Parts of Moselle belong to <a href="Parc%20naturel%20r%C3%A9gional%20de%20Lorraine">Parc naturel régional de Lorraine</a>.
The following are the most important rivers:
The inhabitants of the department are called "Mosellans" in <a href="French%20%28language%29">French</a>.
The population has remained relatively stable since World War II and now exceeds 1 million, located mostly in the urban area around <a href="Metz">Metz</a> and along the river <a href="Moselle%20%28river%29">Moselle</a>.
If the Moselle department still existed in its limits of between 1815–1871, its population at the 1999 French census would have been 1,089,804 inhabitants. The current Moselle department, whose limits were set in 1919, had less population, with only 1,023,447 inhabitants. This is because the industrial area of Briey and Longwy lost in 1871 is more populated than the rural areas of Château-Salins and Sarrebourg gained in 1919.
A significant minority of inhabitants of the department (fewer than 100,000) speak a Germanic dialect known as "platt lorrain" or "Lothringer Platt" (see <a href="Lorraine%20Franconian">Lorraine Franconian</a> and <a href="Linguistic%20boundary%20of%20Moselle">Linguistic boundary of Moselle</a>).
<a href="Linguistics">Linguistically</a>, "Platt" can be further subdivided into three varieties, going from east to west: <a href="Rhenish%20Franconian">Rhenish Franconian</a>, <a href="Moselle%20Franconian">Moselle Franconian</a>, and <a href="Luxembourgish%20language">Luxembourgish</a>.
Moselle and <a href="Alsace">Alsace</a> to its east have their own laws in certain fields. The statutes in question date primarily from the period 1871 - 1919 when the area was part of the <a href="German%20Empire">German Empire</a>. With the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Versailles">return of Alsace-Lorraine to France</a> in 1919, many in central government assumed that the recovered territories would be subject to French law.
Local resistance to a total acceptance of French law arose because some of <a href="Otto%20von%20Bismarck">Bismarck</a>'s reforms included strong protections for civil and social rights. After much discussion and uncertainty, Paris accepted in 1924 that pre-existing German law would apply in certain fields, notably hunting, economic life, local government relationships, health insurance, and social rights. Many of the relevant statues continue to be referred to in the original German, as they have never been formally translated.
One major difference with French law is the absence of the <a href="La%C3%AFcit%C3%A9">formal separation between church and state</a>: several mainstream denominations of the Christian church as well as the Jewish faith benefit from state funding, despite principles applied rigorously in the rest of France.

</doc>
<doc id="90497" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90497" title="Manche">
Manche

Manche () is a <a href="France">French</a> <a href="Departments%20of%20France">department</a> in <a href="Normandy%20%28French%20region%29">Normandy</a> ("Normandie"), named for the <a href="English%20Channel">English Channel</a>, which is known as "La Manche", literally "the sleeve", in French, that borders its north and west shores and part of its east shore.
Manche is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on March 4, 1790. It was created from part of the province of <a href="Normandy">Normandie</a>.
The first capital was <a href="Coutances">Coutances</a> until 1796, and it resumed that role after <a href="World%20War%20II">World War II</a> because of the almost complete destruction of <a href="Saint-L%C3%B4">Saint-Lô</a> during the <a href="battle%20of%20Normandy">battle of Normandy</a> following <a href="D-Day">D-Day</a>. When Saint-Lô was rebuilt, it again became the capital.
The Department includes the <a href="Cotentin%20Peninsula">Cotentin Peninsula</a> down to the famous <a href="Mont%20St%20Michel">Mont St Michel</a>; though of the off-shore <a href="Channel%20Islands">Channel Islands</a> only <a href="Chausey">Chausey</a> forms part of the territory of the department.
Manche borders the Normandy departments of <a href="Calvados%20%28d%C3%A9partement%29">Calvados</a> to the east and <a href="Orne">Orne</a> to the southeast. <a href="Mayenne">Mayenne</a>, a department of the <a href="Pays%20de%20la%20Loire">Pays de la Loire</a>, is to the south-east, and <a href="Ille-et-Vilaine">Ille-et-Vilaine</a> in <a href="Brittany">Brittany</a> is to the south-west.
The region is lush and green with sandy beaches, remaining very rural and farming oriented. The peninsula was originally joined as a single land mass to <a href="Cornwall">Cornwall</a> and <a href="Dorset">Dorset</a> in England, meaning that their countrysides are very similar. Flat marsh areas are known for their bird watching. The region and around St Lo is the horse capital of France, where the cooler climate compared to the south is ideal for breeding and training.
France's first <a href="EPR%20%28nuclear%20reactor%29">EPR reactor</a> is near completion at Cherbourg and the TGV fast trains are planned for Paris to Caen and Cherbourg for 2020.
The climate is <a href="Oceanic%20climate">oceanic</a>, with relatively mild winters temperatures can go below zero for a few days occasionally. Temperate summers, around 20 °C, can occasionally reach 35 °C in direct sun light. Precipitation is substantial, and varies greatly by region, between 700mm on the coast and 1300mm in the southern central area. Highly localised, not life-threatening flash flooding has been experienced over the last few years in the spring period.
The west coast benefits from the <a href="Gulf%20stream">Gulf stream</a>'s influence, allowing the naturalization of many Mediterranean and exotic plants (mimosas, palms, agaves...).
There is often a sea breeze on the coast, which combined with tides contributes to quick temperature changes over a single day. Sea temperatures can be very pleasant for swimming between July and October.
Inhabitants of the department are called "Manchots" or "Manchois".

</doc>
<doc id="90499" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90499" title="Isère">
Isère

Isère (; <a href="Arpitan">Arpitan</a>: "Isera", <a href="Occitan">Occitan</a>: "Isèra") is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the <a href="Auvergne-Rh%C3%B4ne-Alpes">Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes</a> <a href="Regions%20of%20France">region</a> in the east of <a href="France">France</a> named after the river <a href="Is%C3%A8re%20%28river%29">Isère</a>.
Isère is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on March 4, 1790. It was created from part of the <a href="province%20of%20France">former province</a> of <a href="Dauphin%C3%A9">Dauphiné</a>. Its area has been reduced twice, in 1852 and again in 1967, on both occasions losing territory to the department of <a href="Rh%C3%B4ne%20%28department%29">Rhône</a>.
In 1852 in response to rapid urban development round the edge of <a href="Lyon">Lyon</a>, the (hitherto Isère) communes of <a href="Bron">Bron</a>, <a href="Vaulx-en-Velin">Vaulx-en-Velin</a>, <a href="V%C3%A9nissieux">Vénissieux</a> and <a href="Villeurbanne">Villeurbanne</a> were transferred to <a href="Rh%C3%B4ne%20%28department%29">Rhône</a>. In 1967 the redrawing of local government borders led to the creation of the <a href="Urban%20Community%20of%20Lyon">Urban Community of Lyon</a> (more recently known simply as Greater Lyon / Grand Lyon). At that time intercommunal groupings of this nature were not permitted to straddle departmental frontiers, and accordingly 23 more Isère communes (along with 6 communes from <a href="Ain">Ain</a>) found themselves transferred to Rhône. The affected Isère communes were <a href="Chaponnay">Chaponnay</a>, <a href="Chassieu">Chassieu</a>, <a href="Communay">Communay</a>, <a href="Corbas">Corbas</a>, <a href="D%C3%A9cines-Charpieu">Décines-Charpieu</a>, <a href="Feyzin">Feyzin</a>, <a href="Genas">Genas</a>, <a href="Jonage">Jonage</a>, <a href="Jons">Jons</a>, <a href="Marennes%2C%20Rh%C3%B4ne">Marennes</a>, <a href="Meyzieu">Meyzieu</a>, <a href="Mions">Mions</a>, <a href="Pusignan">Pusignan</a>, <a href="Saint-Bonnet-de-Mure">Saint-Bonnet-de-Mure</a>, <a href="Saint-Laurent-de-Mure">Saint-Laurent-de-Mure</a>, <a href="Saint-Pierre-de-Chandieu">Saint-Pierre-de-Chandieu</a>, <a href="Saint-Priest%2C%20Rh%C3%B4ne">Saint-Priest</a>, <a href="Saint-Symphorien-d%27Ozon">Saint-Symphorien-d'Ozon</a>, <a href="S%C3%A9r%C3%A9zin-du-Rh%C3%B4ne">Sérézin-du-Rhône</a>, <a href="Simandres">Simandres</a>, <a href="Solaize">Solaize</a>, <a href="Ternay%2C%20Rh%C3%B4ne">Ternay</a> and <a href="Toussieu">Toussieu</a>.
Most recently, on 1 April 1971, <a href="Colombier-Saugnieu">Colombier-Saugnieu</a> was lost to Rhône. Banners appeared in the commune's three little villages at the time proclaiming "<a href="Dauphin%C3%A9">Dauphinois</a> toujours" "(Always Dauphinois)"
"Isère" was also the name of the French ship which delivered the 214 boxes holding the <a href="Statue%20of%20Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a>.
Isère is part of the current region of <a href="Auvergne-Rh%C3%B4ne-Alpes">Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes</a> and is surrounded by the departments of <a href="Rh%C3%B4ne%20%28department%29">Rhône</a>, <a href="Ain">Ain</a>, <a href="Savoie">Savoie</a>, <a href="Hautes-Alpes">Hautes-Alpes</a>, <a href="Dr%C3%B4me">Drôme</a>, <a href="Ard%C3%A8che">Ardèche</a>, and <a href="Loire%20%28department%29">Loire</a>.
Isère includes a part of the French <a href="Alps">Alps</a>. The highest point in the department is the Sub-Peak "Pic Lory" at 4,088 metres, subsidiary to the <a href="Barre%20des%20%C3%89crins">Barre des Écrins</a>. The summit of <a href="La%20Meije">La Meije</a> at 3,988 metres is also very known. The <a href="Vercors%20Plateau">Vercors Plateau</a> dominates the west of the department.
Inhabitants of the department are called "Isérois".
The President of the General Council is <a href="Andr%C3%A9%20Vallini">André Vallini</a> of the <a href="Socialist%20Party%20%28France%29">Socialist Party</a>.
The <a href="Grande%20Chartreuse">Grande Chartreuse</a> is the mother abbey of the <a href="Carthusian">Carthusian</a> order. It is located 14 miles north of Grenoble.
As early as the 13th century, residents of the north and central parts of Isère spoke a dialect of the <a href="Franco-Proven%C3%A7al%20language">Franco-Provençal language</a> called <a href="Franco-Proven%C3%A7al%20language%23Dialects">Dauphinois</a>. It continued to be spoken in rural areas of Isère into the 20th century.
Isère features many <a href="ski%20resort">ski resort</a>s, including the <a href="Alpe%20d%27Huez">Alpe d'Huez</a>, <a href="Les%20Deux%20Alpes">Les Deux Alpes</a>, the <a href="1968%20Winter%20Olympics">1968 Winter Olympics</a> resorts of <a href="Chamrousse">Chamrousse</a>, <a href="Villard%20de%20Lans">Villard de Lans</a>, <a href="Autrans">Autrans</a>. Other popular resorts include <a href="Les%207%20Laux">Les 7 Laux</a>, <a href="Le%20Collet%20d%27Allevard">Le Collet d'Allevard</a>, <a href="M%C3%A9audre">Méaudre</a>, <a href="Saint-Pierre-de-Chartreuse">Saint-Pierre-de-Chartreuse</a>, <a href="Alpe%20du%20Grand%20Serre">Alpe du Grand Serre</a>, <a href="Gresse-en-Vercors">Gresse-en-Vercors</a>.
Grenoble has a dozen museums, including the most famous created in Grenoble in 1798, the <a href="Museum%20of%20Grenoble">Museum of Grenoble</a>.
It is the third largest ski and winter destination of France, after <a href="Savoie">Savoie</a> and <a href="Haute-Savoie">Haute-Savoie</a>, and before <a href="Hautes-Alpes">Hautes-Alpes</a>. It also hosts <a href="Coupe%20Icare">Coupe Icare</a>, an annual festival of free flight, such as <a href="paragliding">paragliding</a> and <a href="hang-gliding">hang-gliding</a>, held at the world-renowned paragliding site at <a href="Lumbin">Lumbin</a>.
<a href="Poma">Poma</a> (ski-lifts) and <a href="Rossignol">Rossignol</a> (ski and winter surf company) are headquartered in Isère, near Grenoble.
Other companies include STMicroelectronics France, <a href="Schneider%20Electric">Schneider Electric</a> SA, Caterpillar France SAS, Hewlett Packard, Becton Dickinson France SAS, Soitec, Siemens, Teisseire.
Isère produces the following cheeses: <a href="Bleu%20du%20Vercors-Sassenage">Bleu du Vercors-Sassenage</a>, an <a href="Appellation%20d%27Origine%20Contr%C3%B4l%C3%A9e">Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée</a> cheese, and <a href="Saint-Marcellin">Saint-Marcellin</a>.

</doc>
<doc id="90500" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90500" title="Boosting (machine learning)">
Boosting (machine learning)

Boosting is a <a href="Ensemble%20learning">machine learning ensemble</a> <a href="meta-algorithm">meta-algorithm</a> for primarily reducing <a href="Supervised%20learning%23Bias-variance%20tradeoff">bias</a>, and also variance in <a href="supervised%20learning">supervised learning</a>, and a family of machine learning algorithms which convert weak learners to strong ones. Boosting is based on the question posed by <a href="Michael%20Kearns%20%28computer%20scientist%29">Kearns</a> and <a href="Leslie%20Valiant">Valiant</a> (1988, 1989): Can a set of weak learners create a single strong learner? A weak learner is defined to be a classifier which is only slightly correlated with the true classification (it can label examples better than random guessing). In contrast, a strong learner is a classifier that is arbitrarily well-correlated with the true classification.
Robert Schapire's affirmative answer in a 1990 paper to the question of Kearns and Valiant has had significant ramifications in <a href="machine%20learning">machine learning</a> and <a href="statistics">statistics</a>, most notably leading to the development of boosting. 
When first introduced, the "hypothesis boosting problem" simply referred to the process of turning a weak learner into a strong learner. "Informally, [the hypothesis boosting] problem asks whether an efficient learning algorithm […] that outputs a hypothesis whose performance is only slightly better than random guessing [i.e. a weak learner] implies the existence of an efficient algorithm that outputs a hypothesis of arbitrary accuracy [i.e. a strong learner]." Algorithms that achieve hypothesis boosting quickly became simply known as "boosting". Freund and Schapire's arcing (Adapt[at]ive Resampling and Combining), as a general technique, is more or less synonymous with boosting.
While boosting is not algorithmically constrained, most boosting algorithms consist of iteratively learning weak classifiers with respect to a distribution and adding them to a final strong classifier. When they are added, they are typically weighted in some way that is usually related to the weak learners' accuracy. After a weak learner is added, the data is reweighted: examples that are misclassified gain weight and examples that are classified correctly lose weight (some boosting algorithms actually decrease the weight of repeatedly misclassified examples, e.g., <a href="boost%20by%20majority">boost by majority</a> and <a href="BrownBoost">BrownBoost</a>). Thus, future weak learners focus more on the examples that previous weak learners misclassified.
There are many boosting algorithms. The original ones, proposed by <a href="Robert%20Schapire">Robert Schapire</a> (a recursive majority gate formulation) and <a href="Yoav%20Freund">Yoav Freund</a> (boost by majority), were not adaptive and could not take full advantage of the weak learners. However, Schapire and Freund then developed <a href="AdaBoost">AdaBoost</a>, an adaptive boosting algorithm that won the prestigious <a href="G%C3%B6del%20Prize">Gödel Prize</a>.
Only algorithms that are provable boosting algorithms in the probably approximately correct learning formulation can accurately be called "boosting algorithms". Other algorithms that are similar in spirit to boosting algorithms are sometimes called "leveraging algorithms", although they are also sometimes incorrectly called boosting algorithms.
The main variation between many boosting algorithms is their method of weighting training data points and hypotheses. <a href="AdaBoost">AdaBoost</a> is very popular and perhaps the most significant historically as it was the first algorithm that could adapt to the weak learners. However, there are many more recent algorithms such as <a href="LPBoost">LPBoost</a>, <a href="TotalBoost">TotalBoost</a>, <a href="BrownBoost">BrownBoost</a>, <a href="MadaBoost">MadaBoost</a>, <a href="LogitBoost">LogitBoost</a>, and others. Many boosting algorithms fit into the <a href="AnyBoost">AnyBoost</a> framework, which shows that boosting performs <a href="gradient%20descent">gradient descent</a> in <a href="function%20space">function space</a> using a <a href="Convex%20function">convex</a> cost function.
In 2008 Phillip Long (at Google) and Rocco A. Servedio (Columbia University) published a paper at the 25th International Conference for Machine Learning suggesting that many of these algorithms are probably flawed. They conclude that "convex potential boosters cannot withstand random classification noise," thus making the applicability of such algorithms for real world, noisy data sets questionable. The paper shows that if any non-zero fraction of the training data is mis-labeled, the boosting algorithm tries extremely hard to correctly classify these training examples, and fails to produce a model with accuracy better than 1/2. This result does not apply to branching program based boosters but does apply to <a href="AdaBoost">AdaBoost</a>, <a href="LogitBoost">LogitBoost</a>, and others.

</doc>
<doc id="90501" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90501" title="Labrador Peninsula">
Labrador Peninsula

The Labrador Peninsula is a large <a href="peninsula">peninsula</a> in eastern <a href="Canada">Canada</a>. It is bounded by the <a href="Hudson%20Bay">Hudson Bay</a> to the west, the <a href="Hudson%20Strait">Hudson Strait</a> to the north, the <a href="Labrador%20Sea">Labrador Sea</a> to the east, and the <a href="Gulf%20of%20Saint%20Lawrence">Gulf of Saint Lawrence</a> to the southeast. The peninsula includes the region of <a href="Labrador">Labrador</a>, which is part of the province of <a href="Newfoundland%20and%20Labrador">Newfoundland and Labrador</a>, and the regions of <a href="Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean">Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean</a>, <a href="C%C3%B4te-Nord">Côte-Nord</a>, and <a href="Nord-du-Qu%C3%A9bec">Nord-du-Québec</a>, which are in the province of <a href="Quebec">Quebec</a>. The peninsula has a population of about 150,000 (2006 census). It also has an area of , making it the 4th largest peninsula in the world.
The peninsula is surrounded by sea on all sides except for the southwest where it connects to the mainland. The northwestern part of the Labrador Peninsula is shaped as a lesser peninsula, the <a href="Ungava%20Peninsula">Ungava Peninsula</a>, surrounded by Hudson Bay, the Hudson Strait, and <a href="Ungava%20Bay">Ungava Bay</a>. The northernmost point of the Ungava Peninsula, <a href="Cape%20Wolstenholme">Cape Wolstenholme</a>, also serves as the northernmost point of the Labrador Peninsula and of the province of Quebec.
The peninsula is a plateau threaded by river valleys. There are several mountain ranges. The <a href="Torngat%20Mountains">Torngat Mountains</a>, located in the northern part of the peninsula, contain the highest point of the peninsula <a href="Mount%20Caubvick">Mount Caubvick</a>, which at is also the highest point of Canada east of <a href="Alberta">Alberta</a>. The mountains also host <a href="Torngat%20Mountains%20National%20Park">Torngat Mountains National Park</a>, the only national park of Canada on the Labrador Peninsula. The park is located in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, whereas the adjacent <a href="Kuururjuaq%20National%20Park">Kuururjuaq National Park</a> is governed by the province of Quebec.
It is widely accepted that the peninsula is named after Portuguese explorer <a href="Jo%C3%A3o%20Fernandes%20Lavrador">João Fernandes Lavrador</a>. He was granted a patent by King <a href="Manuel%20I%20of%20Portugal">Manuel I</a> of <a href="Portugal">Portugal</a> in 1499 which gave him the right to explore that part of the Atlantic Ocean as set out in the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a>.
Together with <a href="P%C3%AAro%20de%20Barcelos">Pêro de Barcelos</a>, he first sighted Labrador in 1498. Fernandes charted the coasts of Southwestern <a href="Greenland">Greenland</a> and of adjacent Northeastern North America around 1498 and gave notice of them in Portugal and Europe. His landowner status allowed him to use the title lavrador, Portuguese for "farmer" or "landholder" (). Fernandes actually gave the name of "Terra do Lavrador" to Greenland which was the first land he sighted, but eventually the name was spread to all areas and finally was set for Labrador.

</doc>
<doc id="90504" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90504" title="Adja">
Adja

Adja may refer to:

</doc>
<doc id="90506" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90506" title="Adjassou-Linguetor">
Adjassou-Linguetor

In <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Haitian Vodou</a> Adjassou-Linguetor is a <a href="loa">loa</a> with protruding eyes and a bad temper. She governs spring water.

</doc>
<doc id="90507" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90507" title="Adjinakou">
Adjinakou

In <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Vodou</a> and especially in <a href="Haiti">Haiti</a>, Adjinakou is an <a href="elephant">elephant</a> <a href="loa">loa</a>.
Adjinakou is also known as Agaou L'Ephant and is of the <a href="Rada%20loa">Rada loa</a> Family.

</doc>
<doc id="90509" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90509" title="Adya Houn'tò">
Adya Houn'tò

In <a href="West%20African%20Vodun">West African Vodun</a> Adya Hount'tò is a <a href="loa">loa</a> associated with <a href="drum">drum</a>ming.

</doc>
<doc id="90510" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90510" title="Ardèche">
Ardèche

Ardèche (; <a href="Occitan">Occitan</a> and <a href="Arpitan">Arpitan</a>: "Ardecha") is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">département</a> in the <a href="Auvergne-Rh%C3%B4ne-Alpes">Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes</a> <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of south-central France. It is named after the <a href="Ard%C3%A8che%20%28river%29">River Ardèche</a>.
The area has been inhabited by humans at least since the <a href="Upper%20Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a>, as attested by the famous cave paintings at <a href="Chauvet%20Cave">Chauvet Pont d'Arc</a>. The plateau of the Ardèche river has extensive standing stones (<a href="dolmen">dolmen</a>s and <a href="menhir">menhir</a>s), erected thousands of years ago. The river is the largest natural canyon in Europe and the caves that dot the cliffs (which go as high as 300 m (1,000 feet)) are known for signs of prehistoric inhabitants (arrowheads and flint knives are often found).
The Vivarais, as the Ardèche is still called, takes its name and coat-of-arms from <a href="Viviers%2C%20Ard%C3%A8che">Viviers</a>, which was the capital of the <a href="Gaul">Gaul</a>ish tribe of <a href="Helvii">Helvii</a>, part of <a href="Gallia%20Narbonensis">Gallia Narbonensis</a>, after the <a href="Archeological%20site%20of%20Alba-la-Romaine">destruction of their previous capital</a> at <a href="Alba-la-Romaine">Alba-la-Romaine</a>. <a href="Saint%20And%C3%A9ol%2C%202nd%20Cty%20CE">Saint Andéol</a>, a disciple of <a href="St%20Polycarp">St Polycarp</a>, is supposed to have evangelized the Vivarais during the reign of Emperor <a href="Septimius%20Severus">Septimius Severus</a>, and was supposedly <a href="martyr">martyr</a>ed in 208. (Legend tells of Andéol's burial by Amycia Eucheria Tullia.)
<a href="Auxonius">Auxonius</a>, in 430, transferred the see to Viviers as a result of the problems suffered at its previous site in Alba Augusta.
The area of the Vivarais suffered greatly in the 9th century with raids from <a href="Hungarian%20people">Magyar</a> and <a href="Saracen">Saracen</a> slavers operating from the coast of <a href="Provence">Provence</a> resulting in an overall <a href="depopulation">depopulation</a> of the region.
In the early 10th century, economic recovery saw the building of many <a href="Romanesque%20architecture">Romanesque</a> churches in the region including Ailhon, Mercuer, St Julien du Serre, Balazuc, Niègles and Rochecolombe. The medieval county of Viviers or Vivarais at this time was administratively a part of the <a href="Kingdom%20of%20Arles">Kingdom of Arles</a>, formed in 933 with the fusion by <a href="Rudolph%20II%20of%20Burgundy">Rudolph II of Burgundy</a> of the realms of <a href="Provence">Provence</a> and <a href="Kingdom%20of%20Burgundy">Burgundy</a> and bequeathed by its last monarch <a href="Rudolph%20III%20of%20Burgundy">Rudolph III of Burgundy</a> to the <a href="Holy%20Roman%20Empire">Holy Roman Emperor</a> <a href="Conrad%20II%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor">Conrad II</a> in 1032. Locally throughout this period, the Church played an important role. John II (<a href="Giovanni%20of%20Siena">Giovanni of Siena</a>), Cardinal and <a href="Bishop%20of%20Viviers">Bishop of Viviers</a> (1073–95), accompanied Pope <a href="Urban%20II">Urban II</a> to the <a href="Council%20of%20Clermont">Council of Clermont</a>. It was later held in fief by the <a href="Counts%20of%20Toulouse">Counts of Toulouse</a>, who lost it to the French crown in 1229. In 1284, with the Cistercian Abbey of Marzan, Philip IV established Villeneuve de Berg, and by the treaty of 10 July 1305 <a href="Philip%20IV%20of%20France">Philip IV of France</a> obliged the bishops of Vivarais to admit the sovereignty of the Kings of France over all their temporal domain. The realm was largely ignored by the Emperors and was finally granted to France as part of the domain of the <a href="Dauphin%20of%20France">Dauphin</a>, the future <a href="Charles%20VII%20of%20France">Charles VII</a> of <a href="House%20of%20Valois">Valois</a> in 1308. During this period, the Maillard family, as Counts of Tournon, were influential in the Ardèche. During the <a href="Hundred%20Years%20War">Hundred Years War</a>, the area maintained its loyalty to the French crown, despite frequent attacks from the west.
As a result of the reformation of <a href="John%20Calvin">John Calvin</a> in <a href="Geneva">Geneva</a>, the Vivarais Ardèche was one of the areas which strongly embraced Protestantism partly as a result of the missionary activity of 1534 by <a href="Jacques%20Valery">Jacques Valery</a>. During the following <a href="French%20Wars%20of%20Religion">Wars of Religion</a> (1562–1598), the Ardèche was considered a strategically important location between Protestant Geneva, Lyon and Catholic Languedoc. The region had prospered with the introduction of tobacco growing from America, and the agrarian experiments of <a href="Olivier%20de%20Serres">Olivier de Serres</a>, father of modern French agriculture. The influence of Protestant Lyon, and the growth of the silk industry, thanks to the planting of <a href="mulberry">mulberry</a> trees, had given the <a href="Bourgeoisie">burghers</a> of the Vivarais towns a certain independence of thinking, and with the support of the powerful Protestant <a href="Huguenot">Huguenot</a>s, the <a href="Comte%20de%20Crussol">Comte de Crussol</a> and <a href="Olivier%20de%20Serres">Olivier de Serres</a> the Vivarais became a Protestant stronghold. As a result, it suffered many attacks and eight pitched battles between 1562 and 1595. In 1598, the <a href="Edict%20of%20Nantes">Edict of Nantes</a> put an end to these struggles. At that time, the Vivarais had over 75 Protestant churches and five fortified strongholds with permanent garrisons. However, the problems of the area were not over. In 1629, Paule de Chambaud, daughter of the Huguenot lord of Privas, chose instead to marry a Catholic, the Vicomte de l'Estrange, who supported the persecution of Protestants by <a href="Cardinal%20Richelieu">Cardinal Richelieu</a>. Privas, with a majority of the population Protestant, refused to submit, and as a centre of the revolt of the <a href="Benjamin%20de%20Rohan%2C%20duc%20de%20Soubise">Benjamin de Rohan, duc de Soubise</a>, was burned to the ground by the forces of <a href="Louis%20XIII">Louis XIII</a>, sent to support the Vicomte de l'Estrange. As a result, one-fifth of the Protestant population of the Vivarais emigrated.
The <a href="Revocation%20of%20the%20Edict%20of%20Nantes">Revocation of the Edict of Nantes</a> in 1685, which finally outlawed Protestantism, resulted in the peasant family of <a href="Marie%20Durand">Marie</a> and <a href="Pierre%20Durand">Pierre Durand</a> leading a revolt against royal authority. This led to the <a href="Camisard">Camisard</a> revolt of the <a href="Ard%C3%A8che%20prophets">Ardèche prophets</a>. Louis XIV responded by dispatching <a href="Dragoons">Dragoons</a>, who brutalised the population by "<a href="dragonnade">dragonnade</a>s", destroying a number of communities. The brutality of those years was enormous and peace was only restored in 1715. As a result of brutality on both sides, a further 50,000 Archèche Protestants left France, many fleeing to Switzerland, whilst others were forced into abjuration (conversion).
In the following century, despite the growth of the community of Annonay, an increasing polarisation between the upper nobility families such as Rohan Soubise, and Vogue, Count of Aubenas, possessing huge financial fortunes, and the lesser nobility, the village clergy and the bourgeoisie of the Vivarais paralleled developments elsewhere in France. Despite this, the sons of a local Annonay paper-maker, <a href="Joseph%20Montgolfier">Joseph</a> and <a href="Jacques%20Etienne%20Montgolfier">Jacques Etienne Montgolfier</a> ascended in the first <a href="hot%20air%20balloon">hot air balloon</a> over the town on 4 June 1783. The firm of Canson Mongolfier continues making paper to this day and on the anniversary every year on the first weekend in June a large hot air balloon gathering celebrates the event of the first journey. At the 200th anniversary in 1983, some 50 hot air balloons took part with the first historic flight reenacted with people dressed in period costume.
During the French Revolution, in 1789, with the Declaration of Human Rights, Ardèche Protestants were at last recognised as citizens in their own right, free at last to practise their faith. However, Catholicism continued to grow and by the early 19th century, the Ardèche included only 34,000 Protestants out of a population of 290,000. Named after the river of the same name, the Ardèche was one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on 4 March 1790. The support of Count <a href="Fran%C3%A7ois%20Antoine%20de%20Boissy%20d%27Anglas">François Antoine de Boissy d'Anglas</a> representing the Third Estate of the Vivarais in the States General, the freeing of the serfs and the support of the lesser clergy of the church ensured that the Ardèchois had supported the early revolution, but they withdrew support when things became more radical. During the <a href="Reign%20of%20Terror">Reign of Terror</a>, in 1794, a <a href="guillotine">guillotine</a> was kept busy with the execution of the former moderate supporters of the revolution at Privas. Under the <a href="French%20Directory">Directory</a>, bands of <a href="Chouans">Chouans</a> took to the Cevennes to escape and support former <a href="emigr%C3%A9">emigré</a>s.
With the Naploeonic period, the Ardèche entered a period of increasingly prosperous inconspicuousness. After a period of eclipse, Viviers was re-established in 1822 as the site of the see of the bishops of Ardèche, where it remains to this day.
Throughout the 19th century, a modest economic growth took place. The population grew from 273,000 in 1793 to 388,500 in 1861. The silk worm industry boomed until 1855, when disease affected the worms and competition with China undermined the industry's profitability. Mining at Privas saw the exploitation of local iron ore, which was quickly depleted. As a result, six <a href="blast%20furnaces">blast furnaces</a> were established, but they were only moderately profitable, the last closing at Pouzain in 1929.
The scientific pioneer <a href="Marc%20Seguin">Marc Seguin</a>, whose inventions played a key role in the development of early locomotives, was born in the department. However, Seguin located <a href="Seguin%20%26amp%3B%20Co.">his business</a> upstream near <a href="Lyon">Lyon</a>, and industrial development in the Ardèche remained relatively small scale. No large towns appeared in the department during the years of France's industrialisation, and its official population total of 388,500, reached in 1861, turned out to be a peak level which has not been matched subsequently.
Since the 1860s, the Ardèche economy has been split between the prosperous Rhône valley and the relatively poor and mountainous Haut Vivarais on the western side of the department. Sheep farming did not lead to the prosperity hoped for and wine growing, which was badly hit by the <a href="phylloxera">phylloxera</a> crisis during the closing decades of the 19th century, has had to compete with other more established areas of France.
The department, corresponding to the ancient province of Vivarais, is part of the current <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Auvergne-Rh%C3%B4ne-Alpes">Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes</a> and is surrounded by the French departments of <a href="Dr%C3%B4me">Drôme</a>, <a href="Vaucluse">Vaucluse</a>, <a href="Gard">Gard</a>, <a href="Loz%C3%A8re">Lozère</a>, <a href="Haute-Loire">Haute-Loire</a>, <a href="Loire%20%28department%29">Loire</a> and <a href="Is%C3%A8re">Isère</a>. It is a land of great contrasts: at the lowest it is at a mere 40 metres of elevation above sea level at the point at which the Ardèche river flows into the Rhône (in the south east of the department) up to 1,754 metres at Mont Mézenc (Centre-west), it is bordered to the east by the length of the Rhône valley for 140 km and to the west by the high plateaus of the Massif Central.
At its widest, the department does not exceed 75 km. It covers an area of 5,550 square kilometres, a size that hides the great diversity from place to place in terms of relief, the absence of access to rapid transport (unique in France) and the difficulties in transport from one part of the Ardeche to another, above all in winter. Privas shares this inaccessibility, being by road 589 km from Paris, 574 km from Strasbourg, 215 km from Marseille, 211 km from Annecy, 162 km from Chambéry, 147 km from Nîmes, 140 km from Lyon, 135 km from Grenoble, and 127 km from Saint-Étienne.
There are five <a href="natural%20region">natural region</a>s of the Ardèche:
They border the western frontier of the department with an average altitude of 1,100 metres. Basically they are of <a href="granite">granitic</a> composition split by the Velay <a href="Basalt">Basalt</a>s of the Massif of Mézenc, and the Forez Mounts, centred upon <a href="volcanoes">volcanic</a> cones of ash, <a href="lava">lava</a> plugs and numerous <a href="magma">magma</a> flows (Mézenc: 1,754 metres; Gerbier de Jonc: 1,551 m). Their inclination slopes gently towards the west, thus leading to a westerly flow of water towards the <a href="Atlantic">Atlantic</a>. Here the <a href="Loire">Loire</a> has its source. Within a distance of a few kilometres is the volcanic lake of Issarlès (92 ha, 5 km in circumference, 108 m in depth). The climate is extreme: snow for many months, very violent winds over autumn and winter (known locally as "la burle"), frequent fogs in the valleys, extreme falls of temperature between the seasons, with heavy rains (1,500 mm per year in average) strongly concentrated in September and October.
The transition zone descending from the mountains (1,200 m) to the valley of the Rhône (300 to 400 m), is the plateau region. The medium altitude of the plateau is one of green forested crests separated by wild and uncrossable <a href="Canyon">gorges</a>. <a href="Hydrology">Hydrographic</a> resources are dominated by these torrential streams and rainfall is characterised by the frequent importance of summer showers, with climate much less extreme than that of the mountains to the west.
The Ardèche river flows as far as the Rhône, following a course generally to the south east. This <a href="Karst">Karst</a> region is formed of calcareous <a href="limestone">limestone</a>s, where the streams flow in steep-sided valleys separated by sharp crests. With a generally low altitude the Bas-Vivarais enjoys a warm, and dry, almost Mediterranean climate. Skies are wide and bright, temperatures more elevated (3 or 4 °C in January). The winds from the north-east are dominant, but those of the south (known as the "vent du midi") and of the west are full of humidity, bringing heavy precipitation for a few days at a time. The few rivers, the Lavezon, Escoutay, and Frayol, provide less of a hydrological resource than one sees in the crysaline granitic areas to the north. This is the country of the vine, of shrubland, of cereals and extensive fruit trees (this is the region of <a href="Aubenas">Aubenas</a> and of <a href="Joyeuse%2C%20Ard%C3%A8che">Joyeuse</a>).
This plateau with an altitude of 800 metres above sea level, is completely surrounded to the north by the valleys of the Ouvèze and the Payre, to the south by the valley of the Escoutay, to the west by the Col of the Escrinet and the valley of Vesseaux. It is built of basalt which extends in length 18 km in the direction of the Rhône, and at its widest is a maximum 11 km in width. The climate here is also fairly extreme: snow, without being thick, is frequent, variations of temperature accentuated by the fact of the strong cold winds that blow. The soil is rich and fertile. Farming is dominated by the growing of wheat, oats and potatoes, dominates, with the raising of goats and cattle. On the slopes one finds vines and fruit trees.
The Rhône corridor is very straight on the right bank which runs almost at the foot of the Vivarais plateaus, leaving tiny plains where the rivers from the Vivarais descend to the Rhône. Here the strong wind of the north, (known as the <a href="Mistral%20%28wind%29">mistral</a>) dominates. Nevertheless, the temperatures are moderated by the influence of the "Midi" to the south. The small plains are very fertile and favourable to orchards (peaches and apricots) at first and on the slopes the vines dominate.
Maps of different types of agricultural products translate clearly into these five regions. "The true character of the Ardèche is" according to A. Siegfried, "of a slope turning towards the Mediterranean, open to the influences coming from the Midi. These influences climb the length of the valleys to the summit of the high plateau, which resists their passage, not letting them penetrate. The high and the low are thus opposed, such is the character of the Ardèche personality."
Ardèche is divided into 3 <a href="Arrondissements%20of%20France">arrondissements</a>.
Deputies in the <a href="National%20Assembly%20of%20France">National Assembly</a>:
<br>
Representing Ardèche in the <a href="Senate%20of%20France">Senate of France</a> are Senators <a href="Michel%20Teston">Michel Teston</a> and <a href="Yves%20Chastan">Yves Chastan</a>.
The President of the General Council is <a href="Pascal%20Terrasse">Pascal Terrasse</a> of the <a href="Socialist%20Party%20%28France%29">Socialist Party</a>.
The inhabitants of the department are called "Ardéchois". As one of the poorer districts in France, emigration from the Ardèche outnumbered immigrants for a long time, although this situation has recently changed. In 1990, Ardèche reached once again the population level it had 50 years earlier. Today, the population numbers 309,000 (compared to 390,000 in 1860). Despite this demographic recovery, the area remains marked by a rural exodus which minimises the effects of a higher than average <a href="birth%20rate">birth rate</a>. Despite this, the rate of natural increase is practically non-existent, as the Ardèche also has a higher than average median age amongst Ardèche born inhabitants, and thus also a higher than average <a href="death%20rate">death rate</a>.
Ardèche has a low population of foreign born immigrants, found almost exclusively in the tourist locations of Largentière, Le Pouzin and Bourg-Saint-Andéol. They number about 11,000, representing a mere 4% of the population. During the summer months, many European tourists visit the Ardèche, principally Dutch and Germans staying at camping sites.
Some 50% of the population of the department lives in rural communities, compared to a national average of 75% of the French population living in urban locations. The Ardèche has an average population density of 52 per km², compared to 122 per km² for the <a href="Rh%C3%B4ne-Alpes">Rhône-Alpes</a> region and 104 per km² in France. Population density is highest in the regions around the two towns of <a href="Annonay">Annonay</a> and <a href="Aubenas">Aubenas</a> and along the edge of the Rhône valley. The mountainous areas is much less densely populated with only 6 to 7 inhabitants per km² in the cantons of Saint-Étienne-de-Lugdarès and Valgorge. As the mountains and the plateau continue to depopulate, those of the Rhône valley, Bas-Vivarais and lower Ardèche are continuing to grow, but the population situation, whilst better than in the past, still remains an issue for the region.
The Rhône valley and the Annonay region, close to the main axes of communication, (Highways and the TGV railway) are the most urbanised areas of the department. Here the natural growth in population is everywhere positive. Annonay, Tournon-sur-Rhône and Guilherand-Granges benefit from the proximity of the nearby town of Valence and the economically more advanced department of la Drôme. In the southern interior with the town of Aubenas and the valley of the Ardèche river, the population of the cantons of Villeneuve-de-Berg and of Vallon-Pont-d'Arc grow at four times the speed of the departmental average.
The high plateau and the mountainous areas as far as <a href="Privas">Privas</a> continue to lose its young population (the median age of the population as a whole is growing more elderly as a result of the weakness of the power of this region to attract new permanent inhabitants). For example, le Cheylard and Lamastre have recently lost 300 and 250 inhabitants respectively.
With its rivers and streams, the Ardèche has become a favorite place for <a href="canoe">canoe</a> and <a href="kayak">kayak</a> enthusiasts from around the world. The Ardèche contains a part of the <a href="C%C3%A9vennes%20National%20Park">Cévennes National Park</a>.
The area is very well known for <a href="sport%20climbing">sport climbing</a>, with many well-managed limestone and granite crags. 
Each year the Ardeche hosts one of France's biggest road cycling events, <a href="L%27Ardechoise">L'Ardechoise</a>, with 16,000 entrants participating in 2011.
The Ardèche is known for the speciality of <a href="Sweet%20Chestnut">Sweet Chestnut</a>s, with the famous "châtaigne d'Ardèche'" granted the "AOC", or <a href="Appellation%20d%27origine%20contr%C3%B4l%C3%A9e">"Appellation of Controlled Origin"</a>, in 2006.

</doc>
<doc id="90513" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90513" title="Agassou">
Agassou

In the <a href="West%20African%20Vodun">Vodou</a> religion, Agassou (also Ati-A-Sou) is a <a href="loa">loa</a>, or deity, who guards the old traditions of <a href="Dahomey">Dahomey</a>. The Rada Lwa of <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Haitian Vodou</a>.
Agassou is the product of a divine mating—his mother was a princess and is said to have mated with a Leopard, giving birth to Agassou. Those in the occultism know this to be the pairing of a <a href="Nephilim">Nephilim</a>, with the resulting offspring being demi-divine. The angel Cassial has been recorded since ancient antiquity to incarnate as a leopard. Perhaps, this was one of his encounters, recorded and remembered down through the ages.
Agassou is further noted as ruler and king of a particular sect in Africa that has come to be known as the <a href="Leopard%20Society">Leopard Society</a>. His brothers were also to have been the progeny of angelic matings. Their lineage, their royal regalia, and their legacy are still held to this very day, by the Leopard Society of West Africa. In that society, the men take their lineage, to this very day, from the clan of Agassou. His shield and his spear are guarded to this very day—gifts that are said to have been given to him by his angelic father.
As such, Agassou is then the first human who can be traced back to see how he ascended to the status of Lwa. In the Priyere, he is called him "Houngan Agassou de Bo Miwa", in honor of his work as both a Priest/King and a magician. It is also a very ancient reference to Cassial, who was often referred to as the "Mirror of God". His spears and shield are still in ancient Dahomey which is Benin today.
In Rada, he's referred to as Ati-Agassou, in Petro Hougan Agassou.
In African oral chant from Bening, Agassou is depicted as the chosen one sent to Haiti by Ayida Wedo to bring the practice to her African children to ease their pain and sufferings from slavery. Agassou was given a crab for the journey.
His day is Thursday, and his colors are brown and gold. Hougan (ou'k bon) meaning "you are the righteous one" or the Mambo will invoke Agassou when money is needed in the temple, his specialty is making money out of cigarettes.

</doc>
<doc id="90514" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90514" title="Agwé">
Agwé

In <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Vodou</a>, and especially in <a href="Haiti">Haiti</a>, Agwé (also spelt Goue, Agoueh, or Agive), is a <a href="loa">loa</a> who rules over the sea, fish, and aquatic plants, as well as the patron loa of fishermen and sailors. He is considered to be married to <a href="Erzulie%20Freda">Erzulie Freda</a> and <a href="La%20Sirene">La Sirene</a>. He goes by several titles, including "koki la me" ("Shell of the Sea"), "koki dore" ("Golden Shell"), "The Angel in the Mirror", "The Eel", and "The Tadpole in the Pond". A recent appearance of Agwé on stage was <a href="Once%20On%20This%20Island">Once On This Island</a> where he was one of the four gods: <a href="Asak">Asak</a>a Mother of Earth, Agwé God of Water, <a href="Erzulie">Erzulie</a> Goddess of Love and Papa Gé (<a href="Papa%20Ghede">Papa Ghede</a>) Demon of Death.
Met Agwe is the Loa of direction. His territory is the winds and the currents, waves and depths of the oceans. He helps sailors find their bearings when lost at sea. He provides inspiration and guidance whenever an individual needs them in times of turmoil, loss, or indecision. He lives in a glorious palace under the seas. Patron of sailors, sea travelers and pirates.
Agwe Arroyo or Agwe Tawoyo / Agwe 'Woyo ("Agwe of the Streams") is captain of "Immamou", the ship that carries the dead to "Guinee", the afterlife. He cries salt-water tears for the departed. He assisted the souls of those that suffered crimes against humanity during the trans-atlantic slave trade.
Papa Agwe is envisioned as a handsome African man with green eyes, sometimes lighter skin, often wearing a naval officer's or sailor's uniform. He is considered to be a gentleman who commands respect and embodies several ideals of masculinity including bravery, reserve and provision.
Agwe Flambeau ("Agwe of the Torch") is from a realm of boiling water, like a hot springs or an underwater volcanic eruption. He is appealed to give rivals bad luck in fishing or sailing. He is also invoked to avoid or remove bad luck at sea, to avoid sinking or drowning, or to stop or prevent rough seas and bad storms.
Agwe Ge-Rouge ("Agwe of the Red Eyes")
His colours are blue, white, and occasionally sea-green or brown. His "veve" (ritual symbol) is a boat with sails. His symbols are painted shells, painted oars, and sealife like the Seahorse and Starfish. He is syncretised with the Catholic Saint <a href="Ulrich%20of%20Augsburg">Ulrich of Augsburg</a> and occasionally the archangel <a href="Raphael%20%28archangel%29">Raphael</a>, both of whom are depicted holding fish. His holy day is Thursday.
He is saluted or signaled with blowing on a conch-shell and/or volleys of gunfire. When he possesses a devotee he often pushes himself around the temple on a chair (his boat) with a cane (his oar), shouting naval commands and saluting members of the congregation. His "chevals" ("horses", or possessed devotees) need to be kept moist with wet sponges or damp towels and have to be kept from running into the sea, where Agwe belongs.
Small offerings to Agwe are poured or dropped overboard in deep ocean water. Large offerings to Agwe are left on constructed rafts ("barques d'Agwe") which are floated or towed out to sea. If the raft sinks, it is accepted; if it returns to shore it is rejected. After the offering is left, the supplicants cannot look back at that place or it will anger Agwe. "Chevals" must be prevented from falling or leaping into the sea and drowning, as it would offend Agwe. Nothing toxic (lead pipes, cement bags, garbage) must be used to weigh down the raft; if it will hurt or pollute the sea, it will anger Agwe.
His offerings include: 
He is rarely offered seafood. If it is offered (perhaps to celebrate a bountiful year, good fortune, or a joyous occasion) it must be prepared and then cooked in a pan or oven. Then (to be fit for the table of the King of the Sea) it must be served on a white china dish with blue patterns.
Agwe's ship is crewed by other Loa as well:
At Agwe's ceremonies, they arrive first to make sure the place is fit for "The Admiral".
"Agwe" is also a character in the <a href="Musical%20%28theater%29">musical</a> "<a href="Once%20on%20This%20Island">Once on This Island</a>" as the god of water.

</doc>
<doc id="90516" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90516" title="Ariège (department)">
Ariège (department)

Ariège (; ) is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the <a href="Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es">Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyrénées</a> region of southwestern France named after the <a href="Ari%C3%A8ge%20River">Ariège River</a>. Its capital is the town of <a href="Foix">Foix</a> and the <a href="INSEE">INSEE</a> and Postal code is 09. The inhabitants of the department are known as "Ariègeois" or "Ariègeoises".
The department is part of the current region of <a href="Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es">Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyrénées</a> and is surrounded by the French departments of <a href="Haute-Garonne">Haute-Garonne</a> to the west and north, <a href="%3AAude">:Aude</a> to the east, and <a href="Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es-Orientales">Pyrénées-Orientales</a> in the south-east, as well as Spain (<a href="Lleida">Lleida</a>) and <a href="Andorra">Andorra</a> in the south.
Covering an area of 4,890 km, the department is divided into three arrondissements: <a href="Arrondissement%20of%20Foix">Foix</a>, <a href="Arrondissement%20of%20Pamiers">Pamiers</a>, and <a href="Arrondissement%20de%20Saint-Girons">Saint-Girons</a>.
It is composed of <a href="Cantons%20of%20the%20Ari%C3%A8ge%20department">13 cantons</a>, 21 intercommunalities, and <a href="Communes%20of%20the%20Ari%C3%A8ge%20department">332 communes</a>. In 2009 the Regional Natural Park of the Ariège Pyrenees was created covering about 40% of the area of the department of Ariège.
There are three main areas:
The north of the department consists of plains, hills and low valleys where agriculture is prevalent. Part of <a href="Lauragais">Lauragais</a> covers the northeast of the department. Two major rivers, the <a href="Ari%C3%A8ge%20%28river%29">Ariège</a> and the <a href="L%C3%A8ze">Lèze</a> traverse the plain from south to north. A landscape of grain fields dominates the scene with growing of <a href="corn">corn</a> and <a href="sunflowers">sunflowers</a> and with <a href="prairies">prairies</a>.
This area includes the <a href="Pre-Pyrenees">Plantaurel mountains</a> and the Pre-Pyrenean hills below 1000m. Various geological structures are present in contrast: the Foix Valley with its granite mountain landscape and the <a href="Lavelanet">Lavelanet</a> region with <a href="marl">marl</a> and <a href="limestone">limestone</a>.
The geography is dominated by the <a href="Pyrenees">Pyrenees</a> mountains exceeding 1,000m above sea level which form the border between France and Spain. The "<a href="Pica%20d%27Estats">Pica d'Estats</a>" (3143m), the "peak of Montcalm" (3077m), and "<a href="Pic%20de%20Sotllo">Pic de Sotllo</a>" (3072m) are the highest points of the department. These peaks are clearly visible from <a href="Toulouse">Toulouse</a> in the <a href="Haute%20Garonne">Haute Garonne</a>.
The landscape is dominated by forests with <a href="coniferous">coniferous</a> species coexist with <a href="hardwoods">hardwoods</a> such as <a href="chestnut">chestnut</a> trees, <a href="Robinia%20pseudoacacia">Black Locust</a> trees, <a href="Sorbus%20aucuparia">ash</a> trees, and <a href="beech">beech</a> trees.
There are hundreds of kilometres of well-marked paths which allow exploration of the magnificent Pyrenees mountains. The high mountains are easily accessible via good roads, cable cars or by foot. There are a number of lodges providing high level mountain accommodation that are comfortable, warm and with good meals.
There are also a number of fresh water lakes which provide a variety of activities including, walking, swimming, fishing, canoeing, sailboarding and picnicking.
There are several downhill ski resorts, the three largest being Ax-Bonascre, Les Monts D'Olmes and <a href="Guzet-Neige">Guzet-Neige</a>. There are many cross country ski-ing resorts, one of the best being at Plateau de Beille, near <a href="Les%20Cabannes%2C%20Ari%C3%A8ge">Les Cabannes</a>.
Ariège is one of the least populated and most unspoiled regions of France. The locals enjoy keeping traditions alive, especially old farming techniques. Consequently, as fewer insecticides, for example, have been used, the flora and fauna of the area continue to be rich in both diversity and numbers. Butterflies are common and birds are numerous; particularly noticeable are large birds of prey, including the magnificent Griffon vultures.
There are also many unspoiled villages and hamlets tucked away in the valleys close to the department's border with Spain – <a href="Seix">Seix</a>, Cominac, and <a href="Aulus-les-Bains">Aulus-les-Bains</a> are examples – together with picturesque mountain villages, most notably <a href="Aleu">Aleu</a> which comes alive in the holiday season.
Ariège stands on the eastern limit of <a href="oceanic%20climate">oceanic</a> dominance over rainfall, but other influences are felt:
There is no great tendency to summer drought as the flow of air from the north-west brings rain throughout the year. Rainfall is moderate on the foothills and in some sheltered valleys, measuring 700 to 1,000 mm per year, but increases significantly in the higher valleys with levels between 1,000 mm and 1,800 mm. The slopes exposed to the north-west, such as Aulus and <a href="Orlu%2C%20Ari%C3%A8ge">Orlu</a>, are, as one would expect, the wettest, together with the frontal ridges that meet air flow from the southwest (giving rise to the <a href="Foehn%20wind">Foehn effect</a>). Snow cover is common over 1,000 metres, lasting several months above 1,500 to 2,000 metres. Some periglacial areas exist over 2,500 m but the only true <a href="glacier">glacier</a> in Ariège is that of <a href="Mont%20Valier">Mont Valier</a>, near <a href="Castillon-en-Couserans">Castillon-en-Couserans</a>.
Temperatures are mild in the foothills, e.g. at the city of <a href="Foix">Foix</a> (400 metres) the average is 5 °C in January and 19 °C in July. However, they decline rapidly with elevation, e.g. at <a href="l%27Hospitalet-pr%C3%A8s-l%27Andorre">l'Hospitalet-près-l'Andorre</a> (1,430 m) it is 0 °C in January and 14 °C in July.
Ariège is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on 4 March 1790 under the Act of 22 December 1789. It was created from the counties of <a href="County%20of%20Foix">Foix</a> (Languedoc), and <a href="Couserans">Couserans</a> (Gascogne).
A request was made to the Council of State to rename the department Ariège-Pyrénées. According to the proponents of this project, the word "Pyrenees" would better position the department to promote itself throughout France. The demand was rejected.
<a href="Foix">Foix</a> is the administrative capital of the Ariège. It is an ancient medieval town with a fortress, <a href="Chateau%20de%20Foix">Chateau de Foix</a>, perched on a hill overlooking it. The fortress has been attacked many times without being captured including an attempt by <a href="Simon%20de%20Montfort%2C%205th%20Earl%20of%20Leicester">Simon de Montfort</a>. It has also been used as a prison, and the names of English prisoners of war can still be seen on the cell walls. Another famous castle in the Ariège is <a href="Ch%C3%A2teau%20de%20Monts%C3%A9gur">Montségur</a>, located on a rocky outcrop at a height of 1200 metres. During the <a href="Albigensian%20Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a> and siege in 1244 the castle was largely destroyed, with more than two hundred <a href="Cathar">Cathar</a> priests burnt at the stake as heretics. The castle was gradually rebuilt by Royalists over the next three hundred years.
The start of the seventeenth century saw the area ravaged by the <a href="Huguenot%20rebellions">Huguenot rebellions</a> by Protestants against Catholics. In 1621 the <a href="Huguenot">Huguenot</a> forces ruined the church at <a href="La%20Tour-du-Crieu">La Tour-du-Crieu</a>. In 1629 <a href="Pamiers">Pamiers</a> was sacked by <a href="Henri%2C%20Prince%20of%20Cond%C3%A9%20%281588%E2%80%931646%29">Henry of Condé</a> following uprisings that left several hundred dead in the city. This was also the period during which the abbeys at <a href="Foix">Foix</a>, <a href="Tarascon-sur-Ari%C3%A8ge">Tarascon-sur-Ariège</a>, <a href="Saint-Girons%2C%20Ari%C3%A8ge">Saint-Girons</a>, <a href="Saverdun">Saverdun</a> and <a href="Le%20Mas-d%27Azil">Le Mas-d'Azil</a> were torched and destroyed.
The nineteenth century was a time of strong industrial growth, supported in Ariège by an abundant supply of water power. The department also benefited from its significant reserves of iron ore. The growth of iron-based industries was a feature of the period with the establishment, in 1817, of a <a href="Steelmaking">steel manufacturing plant</a> at <a href="Pamiers">Pamiers</a> which has been a principle driver of the local economy ever since. Other representative examples of the iron-based industries that developed in Ariège during the nineteenth century include the forges at <a href="Montgaillard%2C%20Ari%C3%A8ge">Montgaillard</a> and the <a href="blast%20furnace">blast furnace</a>s at <a href="Tarascon-sur-Ari%C3%A8ge">Tarascon-sur-Ariège</a>.
A description of the department's industrial development during the nineteenth century should also include mention the paper industry at <a href="Saint-Girons%2C%20Ari%C3%A8ge">Saint-Girons</a> and the textile industry in the Pays d'Olmes. Changes in forest laws in 1829 resulted in the <a href="War%20of%20the%20Maidens">War of the Maidens</a>, a revolt by peasants who saw their rights to use the forests restricted and who disguised themselves as females while performing acts of rebellion.
Towns of particular historical interest in the department include <a href="Pamiers">Pamiers</a> which hosted a large commercial centre and three churches, <a href="Mirepoix%2C%20Ari%C3%A8ge">Mirepoix</a>, a medieval town, as is <a href="Saint-Lizier">Saint-Lizier</a> - situated on a hilltop with winding streets, fine views, and a church with <a href="cloister">cloister</a>s that are noteworthy. <a href="Saint-Girons%2C%20Ari%C3%A8ge">Saint-Girons</a> is an agricultural centre with a Saturday market.
The patriotic song "Arièjo O moun Pais" was written by Father Sabas Maury, born on 1 March 1863 in <a href="Gesti%C3%A8s">Gestiès</a> in the valley of Siguer, who was pastor of <a href="Miglos">Miglos</a> and <a href="Varilhes">Varilhes</a>. It naturally became the anthem for Ariége.
The Ariege department is a largely unknown department which is situated next to <a href="Aude">Aude</a> in the southwestern part of the Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyrénées region and shares its borders with <a href="Aude">Aude</a>, <a href="Andorra">Andorra</a>, <a href="Haute-Garonne">Haute-Garonne</a> and <a href="Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es-Orientales">Pyrénées-Orientales</a>.
It is predominantly a farming area as the soil is rich and fertile but more than 50% of Ariège is mountainous, with 490,965 hectares being covered by forests.
In the Ax valleys, the mining of <a href="talc">talc</a> is the most typical activity. The processing plant for talc at <a href="Luzenac">Luzenac</a> is supplied by "Carrière de talc de Trimouns" who is the largest producer in the region (400,000 tonnes per year).
This industry is supplemented by tourism with winter sports resorts (<a href="Ax%203%20Domaines">Ax 3 Domaines</a>, Ascou-Pailhères, <a href="Plateau%20de%20Beille">Plateau de Beille</a>, Le Chioula, and <a href="Goulier">Goulier</a> Neige).
In the Lavelanet area the textile industry used to be the major industry but has gradually disappeared. There are only a few companies trying to survive in the face of competition from Eastern Europe and Asia.
In the Pamiers area metallurgy, aeronautics, and chemistry are the main industries. Metallurgy, in the Aubert & Duval factory, produces forgings for the aerospace and energy industries. There are several companies in the aeronautics outsourcing industry such as "Recaero" and "Maz'Air" who are partners with aircraft manufacturers. Chemistry is represented by the paint industry with the "Alliance Maestria" which includes several companies making paint for anything from buildings to aircraft. In the same sector there is also "Etienne Lacroix" in the commune of <a href="Maz%C3%A8res%2C%20Ari%C3%A8ge">Mazères</a> which mainly manufactures fireworks and pyrotechnics.
For the Saint-Girons area, industry is in decline and is represented mainly by the production of paper.
<a href="Hydroelectric">Hydroelectric</a> production from Ariège is about one-fifth of Pyrenean production. The hydroelectric plant at <a href="Aston%2C%20Ari%C3%A8ge">Aston</a> has the largest annual production capacity in the Pyrenees (392 million kWh). With <a href="Orlu%2C%20Ari%C3%A8ge">Orlu</a> and "<a href="L%27Hospitalet-pr%C3%A8s-l%27Andorre">L'Hospitalet-près-l'Andorre</a>", these three plants have the largest capacity in the department. The hydroelectric developments in Ariège can support a city of 600,000 inhabitants. Large industrial plants use the energy produced together with the <a href="natural%20gas">natural gas</a> from <a href="Lacq">Lacq</a>.
The Ariège Chamber of Commerce and Industry is situated at Foix. The department’s Economic Development Agency (ARIEGE EXPANSION) is at <a href="Verniolle">Verniolle</a>. The department has established three ‘business incubators’ to support enterprise in Ariège.
Mostly mountainous and rural, the department of Ariège is far from the main transport routes serving the main valleys and coastlines. The railway arrived in the department in 1861 with the <a href="Portet-Saint-Simon%E2%80%93Puigcerd%C3%A0%20railway">Toulouse to Puigcerda</a> line which is the only line that remains open to this day in the department. Besides the trains of the <a href="TER%20Midi-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es">TER Midi-Pyrénées</a>, this route is still served by <a href="Intercit%C3%A9s">Intercity trains</a> from <a href="Gare%20de%20Paris-Austerlitz">Paris-Austerlitz</a>.
Since 2002 Ariège has been connected to the national motorway network via the <a href="A66%20autoroute">A66 autoroute</a> which joins the <a href="A61%20autoroute">A61 autoroute</a> at <a href="Villefranche-de-Lauragais">Villefranche-de-Lauragais</a> and continues south of <a href="Pamiers">Pamiers</a> by the National Route NR20 as a dual carriageway as far as <a href="Tarascon-sur-Ariege">Tarascon-sur-Ariege</a>. The upgrading to autoroute standards on the Pamiers to Tarascon and setting up a dual carriageway to <a href="Andorra">Andorra</a> are dreams for the future.
The department has 151,477 inhabitants, or 146,289 <a href="population%20without%20double%20counting">without double counting</a>.
The populations of the arrondissements (double-counting) are :
The populations of the principal towns (double-counting) are :
Communes with more than 2,000 inhabitants (and trend of the population as at 2006)
NB : The communes in italics are part of the agglomeration of Pamiers.
The department has 2 <a href="Metropolitan%20area">Urban Areas</a>: <a href="Foix">Foix</a> (17,000 inhabitants) and <a href="Pamiers">Pamiers</a> (23,876 inhabitants).
According to the general census of the population of 8 March 1999, 26.5% of available housing in the department consists of second homes.
The following table indicates the main communes of Ariège in which the number of second homes amounts to more than 10% of total dwellings.
The department has two <a href="parliamentary%20constituencies">parliamentary constituencies</a> and 13 cantons. In general it can be said that:
"With a republican and secular tradition since the <a href="French%20Third%20Republic">Third Republic</a>, Ariege is firmly held by the <a href="Socialist%20Party%20%28France%29">Socialist Party</a> (PS) even though in recent years the right has managed to sink a few corners of the fortress".
This results in a parliamentary representation that is exclusively PS and a General Council where 19 of the 22 members are PS or close to this party - the political orientation of the department is therefore clearly identified. In 2007 it was the department with the most votes for <a href="S%C3%A9gol%C3%A8ne%20Royal">Ségolène Royal</a> (59.56%). In 2012 it had the third most voters for <a href="Francois%20Hollande">Francois Hollande</a> in France with 64.69% after <a href="Corr%C3%A8ze">Corrèze</a> and <a href="Seine%20Saint-Denis">Seine Saint-Denis</a>.
Although male/female parity is well respected by MPs (Mrs. <a href="Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9rique%20Massat">Frédérique Massat</a> and Mr. Alain Fauré), all 22 councillors were men until 2011 when two women were elected.
The President of the General Council is Augustin Bonrepaux of the <a href="Socialist%20Party%20%28France%29">Socialist Party</a>.
The region was originally part of <a href="Aquitaine">Aquitaine</a> and has retained many hallmarks of the <a href="Gascony">Gascon</a> culture and <a href="Gascon%20language">Gascon language</a>.
The gastronomy of Ariège is based on the cooking of Pyrenean regional food, such as cheese or <a href="charcuterie">charcuterie</a> from the mountain country. <a href="http%3A//www.azinat.com/ariege/azinat/">Azinat</a> is the local and typical dish of Ariège. The department is also well advanced in the field of organic farming.

</doc>
<doc id="90521" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90521" title="Ayida-Weddo">
Ayida-Weddo

In <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Vodou</a>, especially in <a href="Benin">Benin</a> and <a href="Haiti">Haiti</a>, Ayida-Weddo is a <a href="loa">loa</a> of fertility, <a href="rainbow">rainbow</a>s, wind, water, fire, and <a href="snake">snake</a>s. Ayida-Weddo is known as the "Rainbow Serpent". Variants of Ayida-Weddo's name include Aida-Weddo, Ayida-Wedo, Aido Quedo, and Aido Hwedo.
Ayida-Weddo is a member of the <a href="Rada%20loa">Rada</a> family and a root, or (Old French) "racine" <a href="Loa">Loa</a>. She is married to husband/companion <a href="Damballa">Damballah-Wedo</a>, the Sky God is also a Loa of creation. She shares her husband with his concubine, <a href="Erzulie">Erzulie Freda</a>.
Ayida-Weddo's symbols are the rainbow and white <a href="paket%20kongo">paket kongo</a>. Her ceremonial colors are white and blue. Appropriate offerings to her include white chickens, white eggs, rice, and milk. Her favorite plant is cotton.
The <a href="Fon%20people">Fon people</a> of Benin believe the rainbow snake Ayida-Weddo, created to serve <a href="Nana%20Buluku">Nana Buluku</a>, held up the heavens. The creature had a twin personality as the red part of the rainbow was male, while the blue part was female. She is portrayed as a narrow green snake. Like Dambala, she lives in the sky as well as in all the trees, springs, pools, and rivers. In some West African mythology, <a href="Mawu">Mawu</a> the creator sent down <a href="Adam">Adanhu</a> and <a href="Eve">Yewa</a> from the sky with the rainbow serpent Ayida-Weddo.
"In the beginning there was a vast serpent, whose body formed seven thousand coils beneath the earth, protecting it from descent into the abysmal sea. Then the titanic snake began to move and heave its massive form from the earth to envelop the sky. It scattered stars in the firmament and wound its taught flesh down the mountains to create riverbeds. it shot thunderbolts to the earth to create the sacred thunderstones. From its deepest core it released the sacred waters to fill the earth with life. As the first rains fell, a rainbow encompassed the sky and Danbala took her, Ayida Wedo, as his wife. The spiritual nectar that they created reproduces through all men and women as milk and semen. The serpent and the rainbow taught humankind the link between blood and life, between menstruation and birth, and the ultimate Vodou sacrament of blood sacrifice." 
She is <a href="syncretism">syncretised</a> with the <a href="Catholic">Catholic</a> figure of <a href="Our%20Lady%20of%20Immaculate%20Conception">Our Lady of Immaculate Conception</a>. 

</doc>
<doc id="90522" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90522" title="Cantal">
Cantal

Cantal (; ) is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in south-central France. It is named after the Cantal mountain range, a group of extinct, eroded volcanic peaks, which covers much of the department. Residents are known as "Cantaliens" or "Cantalous" (<a href="Occitan%20language">Occitan language</a>).
Cantal is part of the current <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Auvergne-Rh%C3%B4ne-Alpes">Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes</a>. It borders the departments of <a href="Puy-de-D%C3%B4me">Puy-de-Dôme</a>, <a href="Haute-Loire">Haute-Loire</a>, <a href="Aveyron">Aveyron</a>, <a href="Lot%20%28department%29">Lot</a>, <a href="Loz%C3%A8re">Lozère</a>, and <a href="Corr%C3%A8ze">Corrèze</a>. Its principal towns are <a href="Aurillac">Aurillac</a>, <a href="Saint-Flour%2C%20Cantal">Saint-Flour</a>, and <a href="Mauriac%2C%20Cantal">Mauriac</a>. The highest point in Cantal is "Le Plomb du Cantal" at 1858 metres.
Cantal remains, with <a href="Loz%C3%A8re">Lozère</a> and <a href="Creuse">Creuse</a>, one of the most sparsely populated and geographically isolated French departments. Aurillac is the farthest removed departmental capital from a major motorway.
Cantal is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on 4 March 1790. It was created from a part of the <a href="provinces%20of%20France">former province</a> of <a href="Auvergne%20%28province%29">Auvergne</a>, called <a href="Haute-Auvergne">Haute-Auvergne</a>. 
The <a href="Occitan%20language">Occitan language</a> was historically dominant in Cantal.
The Cantal department has different types of climates according to the geographical position.
The west is well watered, thanks to abundant precipitations coming from the Atlantic. The temperatures are generally even; the east is much drier and cooler.
There is abundant precipitation on the central area. To this fact, it is necessary to add the effect of the altitude: the climate is quite cold in winter (it snows almost every winter) but it can be very hot during the summer, especially in the southern part of the department with borders with <a href="Aveyron">Aveyron</a> and <a href="Lot%20%28department%29">Lot</a>.
In the central part of the department, i.e. on the highest ground, the altitude surpasses m and It can be very cold. There is abundant snowfall which can remain up to six months on the tops. Winter temperatures can fall to below , whereas in summer is often reached.
The television weather forecasts often indicate <a href="Aurillac">Aurillac</a> as the coldest city of France in the mornings. The temperatures observed by "Météo France" are explained by the following:
Fog is rare and disappears quickly. There is sunshine throughout year and the wind is not usually strong. The annual sunshine hours reflect Cantal's southerly latitude (the same as <a href="Bordeaux">Bordeaux</a>'s). Average number of hours of sunshine from 1991 to 2000:
Nîmes: 2590 h – Millau : 2120 h – Aurillac: 2080 h – Toulouse: 2010 h – Bordeaux: 1990 h – Lyon: 1930 h – Limoges: 1870 h – Tours: 1800 h – Nantes: 1690 h – Paris: 1630 h.
The Cantal is a mountainous department whose altitude varies between 250 m in the valley of the River <a href="Lot%20%28river%29">Lot</a> and 1855 m in the top of Plomb du Cantal. The temperature variations can be very high from one place to another. It is not colder in the Cantal than in other mountainous regions like the Vosges or Jura. The prevailing winds and the relief divide the Cantal into four climatic zones:
Cantal frequently experiences violent summer storms. According to specialists, the lightning flashes in this department are among the most spectacular in France.
In Cantal, the farmers practise mountain pasture, with the herd passing summer at altitude in the mountains. The milk is traditionally used to produce <a href="Appellation%20d%27Origine%20Contr%C3%B4l%C3%A9e">Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée</a> (AOC) cheese such as <a href="Cantal%20cheese">Cantal</a>, <a href="Salers%20cheese">Salers cheese</a> and <a href="Bleu%20d%27Auvergne">Bleu d'Auvergne</a>. Cantal is the only French departement to be home to no fewer than five <a href="Appellation%20d%27Origine%20Contr%C3%B4l%C3%A9e">Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée</a> cheeses
The official population count for 2013 was 147,000. The population peaked at 262,117 in 1836. It has been below 200,000 for the last 90 years. The department has experienced a particularly drastic level of depopulation, although the phenomenon was a feature of many of the country's rural departments throughout the twentieth century, as agricultural wages failed to keep pace with those available in the industrialising regions outside the department.
The department counts several remarkable buildings. Among them, the Romanesque religious buildings like the churches of Cheylade (eleventh century), Dieno or Massiac. Some churches are in the Gothic style like the Cathedral of St Pierre de Saint-Flour (fifteenth century).
The characteristic folk dance in Cantal is "La Bourée". In the countryside it would be danced in folk costumes with accompaniment by accordion. The dance form was long ago adapted for use in courtly music and features prominently in the <a href="Baroque">Baroque</a> <a href="Suite%20de%20danses">dance suite</a>s of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Prominent museums in Cantal include:
Dishes of Cantal are made of basic recipes. In origin, they were designed to satisfy hill farmers who did very physical work: looking after cows, the manufacture of cheese, etc.
Thus, ham, cheese, vegetables are at the basis of the dishes in this department, such as:
Located in the "Parc Regional des Volcans d’Auvergne", the Cantal is a department with little urbanization. The main industry is tourism, especially rural tourism.
The most visited places are Puy Mary (1787 m) considered to be one of the prettiest panoramas in Europe, the Plomb du Cantal (1855 m), the village of <a href="Salers">Salers</a>, and the gorges of the <a href="Truy%C3%A8re">Truyère</a> (with the <a href="Garabit%20viaduct">Garabit viaduct</a>, the castle of <a href="Alleuze">Alleuze</a>, and the towns of <a href="Boisset%2C%20Cantal">Boisset</a>, <a href="Pierrefort">Pierrefort</a>). The "Parc Naturel des Volcans d’Auvergne" features several inactive volcanoes. Cantal also has numerous castles. Puy Mary can be accessed by car easily. and is accessible to hikers. It is also possible to hike to the nearby Puy de Peyre-Arse(1806m). <a href="Le%20Lioran">Le Lioran</a> or Super-Lioran are the best places to start the hike. <a href="Le%20Lioran">Le Lioran</a> is accessible by rail or bus and Super-Lioran is just a kilometre away from <a href="Le%20Lioran">Le Lioran</a>. From Super-Lioran it is also possible to hike to Plomb du Cantal. There is also an option of taking the cable car to Plomb du Cantal from Super-Lioran. <a href="http%3A//www.lelioran.com">Super-Lioran tourist office</a> has various hike routes in the region. There are also various adventure courses, dirt bikes, summer luges etc. that run in Super-Lioran.
Among the various activities offered in this department, the "Massif Cantalien" can be discovered through walking, horseback riding or <a href="mountain%20biking">mountain biking</a> excursions (tracks are especially designed for this). Aquatic sports are also popular, thanks to numerous lakes.
The department also offers more classical activities such as mountaineering, <a href="canoeing">canoeing</a> and fishing. The landscape also allows the practice of free flight: <a href="base%20jump">base jump</a>ers frequent the sector around the Puy Mary and the Brezon valley.
Thanks to its terrain, Cantal can count on a good snow level, which allows winter sports.
The station of <a href="Le%20Lioran">Le Lioran</a>, largest ski-resort of the Massif Central offers alpine skiing (with specific adaptations for snowboard) and ice-skating. Excursions in snow shoes are also possible. The department has several hundred kilometres of cross-country skiing tracks.
This staunchly <a href="Catholic%20Church">Catholic</a> department is an old stronghold of the French Right, and was the electoral base of the late president <a href="Georges%20Pompidou">Georges Pompidou</a>. Only the area around <a href="Aurillac">Aurillac</a>, historically <a href="anti-clerical">anti-clerical</a> and <a href="Radical%20Socialist%20Party">Radical</a>, has some left-wing support.
The current president of the <a href="Cantal%20General%20Council">general council</a> is <a href="Vincent%20Descoeur">Vincent Descoeur</a> of the <a href="Union%20for%20a%20Popular%20Movement">Union for a Popular Movement</a>, presently the main opposition party in France.
<a href="Paul%20Doumer">Paul Doumer</a>, French president from May 1931 to May 1932, was born in <a href="Aurillac">Aurillac</a> in this department.
 

</doc>
<doc id="90525" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90525" title="Corrèze">
Corrèze

Corrèze (; ) is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in south-western France, named after the <a href="Corr%C3%A8ze%20River">Corrèze River</a>.
The inhabitants of the department are called "Corréziens".
Corrèze is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on 4 March 1790. It includes part of the <a href="provinces%20of%20France">former province</a> of <a href="Limousin%20%28province%29">Limousin</a> (the Bas-Limousin).
The 1851 census recorded a population of 320,866: this remained relatively constant for the rest of the nineteenth century. During the twentieth century, however, Corrèze shared the experience of many of <a href="France">the country's</a> rural departments as the population fell steadily. 
Within Corrèze the nineteenth-century railway planners, influenced in part by the department's topography, endowed <a href="Brive-la-Gaillarde">Brive-la-Gaillarde</a> with good connections and a major junction from which railway lines fanned out in six different directions. The railways arrived in 1860, at an opportune moment, directly after <a href="phylloxera">phylloxera</a> had destroyed the local <a href="vineyard">wine industry</a>. The new railways enabled the farms in the area surrounding Brive to specialise in fruits and vegetables which they could now transport rapidly to the larger population centres of central and southern France. Locally, the new agriculture triggered the development, in the Brive basin, of related businesses and industries such as the manufacture of jams and liquors, as well as timber/paper-based packaging businesses.
The department is part of the <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Aquitaine-Limousin-Poitou-Charentes">Aquitaine-Limousin-Poitou-Charentes</a>. It is surrounded by the department of <a href="Creuse">Creuse</a>, <a href="Haute-Vienne">Haute-Vienne</a>, <a href="Cantal">Cantal</a>, <a href="Puy-de-D%C3%B4me">Puy-de-Dôme</a>, <a href="Lot%20%28department%29">Lot</a>, and <a href="Dordogne">Dordogne</a>. <a href="Tulle">Tulle</a> is the <a href="prefecture">prefecture</a> of Corrèze and <a href="Brive-la-Gaillarde">Brive-la-Gaillarde</a> the largest city.
The President of the General Council was <a href="Fran%C3%A7ois%20Hollande">François Hollande</a> of the <a href="Socialist%20Party%20%28France%29">Socialist Party</a> until 2012 when he was elected President of the Republic. <a href="Jacques%20Chirac">Jacques Chirac</a> also served as a Deputy of the National Assembly here for many years. 
People who were born or have significantly lived in Corrèze include:

</doc>
<doc id="90530" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90530" title="Damballa">
Damballa

Damballa or Damballah or Danbala (see current <a href="Haitian%20Creole">Haitian Creole</a> orthography) is one of the most important of all the <a href="loa">loa</a>. Damballa is the <a href="Sky%20Father">Sky Father</a> and the <a href="%3Awikt%3Aprimordial">primordial</a> creator of all life. He rules the mind, intellect, and cosmic equilibrium. Damballa, as the serpent spirit and "The Great Master", created the cosmos by using his 7,000 coils to form the stars and the planets in the heavens and to shape the hills and valleys on earth. By shedding the serpent skin, Damballa created all the waters on the earth. Damballa is <a href="syncretism">syncretized</a> with either <a href="St.%20Patrick">Saint Patrick</a>, <a href="Jesus">Christ the Redeemer</a>, <a href="Our%20Lady%20of%20Mercy">Our Lady of Mercy</a>, or <a href="Moses">Moses</a>.
Damballa's wife is <a href="Ayida-Weddo">Ayida-Weddo</a>, and <a href="Erzulie">Erzulie Freda</a> is his concubine.

</doc>
<doc id="90531" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90531" title="Corse-du-Sud">
Corse-du-Sud

Corse-du-Sud (; ) () is a <a href="Departments%20of%20France">department</a> of <a href="France">France</a> consisting of the southern part of the island of <a href="Corsica">Corsica</a>.
The department was formed on 15 September 1975, when the department of <a href="Corsica">Corsica</a> was divided into <a href="Haute-Corse">Haute-Corse</a> and Corse-du-Sud. Its boundaries correspond to the former department of <a href="Liamone">Liamone</a>, which existed from 1793 to 1811.
The department hit the head-lines at the end of the twentieth century with the assassination at <a href="Ajaccio">Ajaccio</a> of the prefect <a href="Claude%20%C3%89rignac">Claude Érignac</a> on 6 February 1998.
The department is surrounded on three sides by the <a href="Mediterranean%20Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> and on the north by the department of <a href="Haute-Corse">Haute-Corse</a>.
The entire island of Corsica is mountainous with many beautiful beaches.
The people living in this subregion are called "Southerners" ("Suttanacci").
Corsicans are a fiercely independent people. However, on 6 July 2003 a referendum rejected increased autonomy by a very small majority, with 50.98 percent of those voting being against and 49.02 percent for. This was a major setback for the French Minister of the Interior, <a href="Nicolas%20Sarkozy">Nicolas Sarkozy</a>, who had hoped to use Corsica as the first step in his decentralization programme.
The President of the Departemental Council is Pierre-Jean Luciani, who has held the office since 2015.
South Corsica enjoys the mild and hot climate of Mediterranean Islands, and therefore attracts a lot of tourists. Its gem is the city of <a href="Bonifacio%2C%20Corse-du-Sud">Bonifacio</a>, part of which is built upon a huge cliff.
But inside mountains are beautiful as well, especially the Aiguilles de Bavella, some naked, needle-like rocks.
<br>

</doc>
<doc id="90535" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90535" title="Ayizan">
Ayizan

In <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Vodou</a>, and especially in <a href="Haiti">Haiti</a>, Ayizan (also Grande Ai-Zan, Aizan, or Ayizan Velekete) is the <a href="loa">loa</a> of the marketplace and commerce.
She is a racine, or root Loa, associated with Vodoun <a href="Rite%20of%20passage">rites of initiation</a> (called kanzo). Just as her husband <a href="Loco%20%28loa%29">Loco</a> is the archetypal <a href="Houngan">Houngan</a> (priest), Ayizan is regarded as the first, or archetypal <a href="Mambo%20%28Voodoo%29">Mambo</a> (priestess), and as such is also associated with priestly knowledge and mysteries, particularly those of initiation, and the natural world.
As the spiritual parents of the priesthood she and her husband are two of the Loa involved in the <a href="kanzo%20rites">kanzo rites</a> in which the Priest/ess-to-be is given the <a href="asson">asson</a> (sacred rattle and tool of the priesthood), and are both powerful guardians of "reglemen," or the correct and appropriate form of Vodoun service.
She is <a href="wiktionary%3Asyncretised">syncretised</a> with the Catholic <a href="Clare%20of%20Assisi">Saint Clare</a>, her symbol is the <a href="palm%20frond">palm frond</a>, she drinks no alcohol, and is the wife of <a href="Loco%20%28loa%29">Loko Atisou</a>. Her colours are most commonly gold, yellow and white.

</doc>
<doc id="90538" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90538" title="Azaka-Tonnerre">
Azaka-Tonnerre

In <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Vodou</a>, and especially in <a href="Haiti">Haiti</a>, Azaka-Tonnerre (also Azaca or Azacca) is in the same "family" of <a href="loa">loa</a> as Azaka Medeh - the loa of <a href="agriculture">agriculture</a>. Azaka-Tonnerre is a loa of <a href="thunder">thunder</a>.

</doc>
<doc id="90539" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90539" title="Haute-Corse">
Haute-Corse

Haute-Corse (; ) () is a <a href="Departments%20of%20France">department</a> of <a href="France">France</a> consisting of the northern part of the island of <a href="Corsica">Corsica</a>.
The department was formed on 15 September 1975, when the department of Corsica was divided into Upper Corsica ("Haute-Corse") and South Corsica ("<a href="Corse-du-Sud">Corse-du-Sud</a>"). The department corresponds exactly to the former department of Golo, which existed between 1793 and 1811.
The department is surrounded on three sides by the <a href="Mediterranean%20Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> and on the south by the department of Corse-du-Sud.
The people living in this subregion are called "Northerners" ("Supranacci").
The Corsicans are a fiercely independent people. However, a 6 July 2003 referendum on increased autonomy was voted down by a very thin majority: 50.98 percent against to 49.02 percent for. This was a major setback for French Minister of the Interior <a href="Nicolas%20Sarkozy">Nicolas Sarkozy</a>, who had hoped to use Corsica as the first step in his decentralization policies.
The President of the General Council is <a href="Paul%20Giacobbi">Paul Giacobbi</a>, who has held the office since 1998.

</doc>
<doc id="90541" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90541" title="Unisys ICON">
Unisys ICON

The ICON was a computer built specifically for use in schools, to fill a standard created by the <a href="Ministry%20of%20Education%20%28Ontario%29">Ontario Ministry of Education</a>. It was based on the <a href="Intel%2080186">Intel 80186</a> CPU and ran an early version of the <a href="QNX">QNX</a> <a href="Unix-like">Unix-like</a> operating system. The system was packaged as an all-in-one machine similar to the <a href="Commodore%20PET">Commodore PET</a>, and included a <a href="trackball">trackball</a> for mouse-like control. Over time a number of <a href="GUI">GUI</a>-like systems appeared for the platform, based on the system's <a href="NAPLPS">NAPLPS</a>-based graphics system.
The ICON was widely used, mostly in <a href="high%20school">high school</a>s in the mid to late 1980s, but disappeared after that time with the widespread introduction of <a href="Personal%20Computer">PC</a>s and <a href="Apple%20Macintosh">Apple Macintosh</a>es. They were also known as the CEMCorp ICON, Burroughs ICON, and finally Unisys ICON when <a href="Burroughs%20Corporation">Burroughs</a> and <a href="Sperry%20Corporation">Sperry Corporation</a> merged to form <a href="Unisys">Unisys</a> in 1986. The machine was also nicknamed the "bionic beaver".
In 1981, three years after the first usable <a href="microcomputers">microcomputers</a> appeared, the <a href="Ministry%20of%20Education%20%28Ontario%29">Ontario Ministry of Education</a> sensed that microcomputers could be an important component of education. In June the <a href="Ministry%20of%20Education%20%28Ontario%29">Minister of Education</a>, <a href="Bette%20Stephenson">Bette Stephenson</a>, announced the need for computer literacy for all students and formed the Advisory Committee on Computers in Education to guide their efforts. She stated that:
It is now clear that one of the major goals that education must add to its list of purposes, is computer literacy. The world of the very near future requires that all of
us have some understanding of the processes and uses of computers."
According to several contemporary sources, Stephenson was the driving force behind the project; "whenever there was a problem she appears to have 'moved heaven and earth' to get it back on the tracks."
The Ministry recognized that a small proportion of teachers and other school personnel were already quite involved with microcomputers and that some schools were acquiring first-generation machines. These acquisitions were uneven, varying in brand and model not just between school boards, but among schools within boards and even classroom to classroom. Among the most popular were the <a href="Commodore%20PET">Commodore PET</a> which had a strong following in the new <a href="computer%20programming">computer programming</a> classes due to its tough all-in-one construction and built-in support for <a href="Microsoft%20BASIC">Microsoft BASIC</a>, and the <a href="Apple%20II">Apple II</a> which had a wide variety of educational software, mostly aimed at early education.
The Ministry wanted to encourage uses of microcomputers that supported its curriculum guidelines and was willing to underwrite the development of software for that purpose. However, the wide variety of machines being used meant that development costs had to be spread over several platforms. Additionally, many of the curriculum topics they wanted to cover required more storage or graphics capability than at least some of the machines then in use, if not all of them. Educational software was in its infancy, and many hardware acquisitions were made without a clear provision for educational software or a plan for use.
A series of Policy Memos followed outlining the Committee's views. Policy Memo 47 stated that computers are to be used creatively, and for information retrieval; at the time most systems were used solely for programming. They also announced funding for the development of educational software on an estimated 6000 machines. The Ministry decided that standardizing the computers would reduce maintenance costs, and allow for the development of consistent educational software. The Ministry contracted the Canadian Advanced Technology Alliance (CATA) to help develop specifications for the new system.
Policy Memos 68-73 followed in early 1983, stating that none of the existing platforms had all the qualities needed to be truly universal. The idea of a new machine quickly gained currency, with the added bonus that it would help develop a local microcomputer industry. In order to make the new machine attractive, the Ministry agreed to fund up 75% of the purchase price from their own budget. When the plan was first announced there was widespread concern among educators. Their main complaint is that the Ministry would select a standard that was not powerful enough for their needs. A secondary concern was that the time delay between announcing and introducing the computer would be lengthy, a period in which existing purchases could be funded instead.
The first set of concerns were rendered moot when the specifications were introduced in March 1983 in the "Functional Requirements for Microcomputers for Educational Use in Ontario Schools--Stage I." The physical design required a PET-like all-in-one case, headphones output for voice and sound effects, and a <a href="trackball">trackball</a> for mouse-like pointing support. Inside the case, the specification called for a processor and support systems to allow a <a href="multitasking">multitasking</a> <a href="operating%20system">operating system</a> to be used, selecting the <a href="Intel%2080186">Intel 80186</a> as the CPU. Color graphics were specified, at least as an option, along with monochrome and color monitors on top. Voice synthesis was built in, and the keyboard provided for accented characters. Additionally, the systems would include no local storage at all, and would instead rely on a <a href="computer%20network">networked</a> <a href="file%20server">file server</a> containing a <a href="hard%20drive">hard drive</a>.
The specification was considerably in advance of the <a href="state%20of%20the%20art">state of the art</a> of the time, and when it was delivered commentators immediately reversed their earlier concerns and suggested the machine was too powerful, and would therefore be available in too small numbers.
To deliver such a machine, Robert Arn, a member of the CATA team, set up CEMCORP, the "Canadian Educational Microprocessor Corporation". When the specification was announced in 1983, CEMCORP was announced as the winner of a $10 million contract to develop and supply the initial machines. An additional $5 million in funding was announced to cover development of new software applications, while the <a href="Ontario%20Institute%20for%20Studies%20in%20Education">Ontario Institute for Studies in Education</a> (OISE) was asked to convert 30 existing programs to the new machine. In order to be able to afford what was expected to be an expensive machine, the Ministry announced a special "Recognized Extraordinary Expenditure" (REE) grant that would provide for up to 75% of the purchase costs of machines meeting the "Grant Eligible Microcomputer Systems" or "G.E.M.S." specifications.
At the time, only the ICON met the GEMS requirements, which cut its purchase price from around $2500 to a mere $495 ($2700/$696 USD) -- less expensive than most existing microcomputers. The entire program was politically explosive throughout its gestation as a result, causing a continual stream of news stories. Critics complained that other machines could be bought for half the cost, but supporters pushed back that no other machine at that price point supported the GEMS specifications. The release of the <a href="IBM%20Personal%20Computer/AT">PC/AT</a> in 1984 made nightly news as it used the same processor as the ICON, reopening the debate. Around this time other platforms, such as the <a href="Waterloo%20PORT">Waterloo PORT</a> networking system, gained approval for the government support that had originally been the province of the ICON.
The basic ICON design had reached "beta quality" after just over a year, using off the shelf parts, the hardware manufactured by Microtel and <a href="operating%20system">operating system</a> from <a href="QNX">Quantum Software Systems</a>. The original Microtel machines were first introduced to Ontario schools in 1984 in small numbers, packaged in a short-lived dark brown case. At this point <a href="Burroughs%20Corporation">Burroughs Canada</a> was brought in to sell and support the machine. It wasn't long after this that <a href="Sperry%20Corporation">Sperry</a> and Burroughs merged to form <a href="Unisys">Unisys</a> in 1986. Several generations of ICON machines were produced, evolving steadily to become more and more PC-like. They were built into the early 1990s, but by this point were used almost entirely for running DOS and Windows programs.
Throughout the project's lifetime it was subject to continual debate and much political rhetoric. A 1992 article on the topic complained that
Bette Stephenson favoured top-down decision making and as a result got trapped by her tunnel vision. Her ICON computer fiasco drained millions from the provincial
treasury and created a white elephant scorned by boards and shunned by teachers... Computer resources were forced upon the school system as a result of a top-down government decision that was taken precipitously and without research.
The Ministry ceased all support for the ICON in 1994, and <a href="Archives%20Ontario">Archives Ontario</a> declined to take ICON hardware and copies of the ICON software, which were destroyed. This was controversial in its own right, as others maintained that it could be sent to other schools that lacked extensive Information Technology. Despite the development of the ICON program, equality among schools was not assured because each school community could afford different capital outlays depending on the parents' affluence.
The ICON system was based on a <a href="workstation">workstation</a>/<a href="file%20server">file server</a> model, with no storage local to the workstations. Both the workstations and the servers were similar internally, based on <a href="Intel%2080186">Intel 80186</a> <a href="microprocessor">microprocessor</a>s, and connected to each other using <a href="ARCNET">ARCNET</a>. Several upgrades were introduced into the ICON line over time. The ICON2 sported a redesigned case, a detached keyboard with integrated trackball, expanded RAM, and facilities for an internal hard disk. The CPU was upgraded to the 386 in the Series III, while an "ICON-on-a-card" for PCs also appeared.
The original ICON workstations were housed in a large wedge-shaped steel case, with a full-sized keyboard mounted slightly left-of-center and a trackball mounted to the right. A rubber bumper-strip ran along the front edge, a precaution against a particular type of cut users sometimes got from the PET's sharp case. The <a href="Enhanced%20Graphics%20Adapter">EGA</a> monitor was mounted on top of a tilt-and-swivel mount, a welcome improvement on the PET. It also included <a href="Texas%20Instruments">TI</a>'s TMS 5220 speech chip, originally designed for the <a href="TI-99">TI-99</a>, and would speak the vaguely <a href="obscene">obscene</a> word "dhtick" when starting up. Early Microtel machines were dark brown, but the vast majority of examples in the classroom were a more nondescript beige.
The fileserver, sometimes referred to as the LexICON, was a simple box with an internal 10MB <a href="hard%20drive">hard drive</a> and a 5.25" <a href="floppy%20drive">floppy drive</a> opening to the front, and parallel port for a shared printer. Later Lexicons included a 64MB hard disk, divided into two partitions. Unlike the PET's floppy system, however, users of the ICON used Unix commands to copy data to their personal floppy disks from its "natural" location in the user's home directory on the hard drive.
Both the client and server ran the <a href="Unix-like">Unix-like</a> <a href="QNX">QNX</a> as their operating system with the addition of network file-sharing, the basic portions of it embedded in <a href="Read-only%20memory">ROM</a>. To this they added a <a href="NAPLPS">NAPLPS</a>/Telidon-based graphics system, which was intended to be used with the trackball to make interactive programs. The system included a Paint programme that used the trackball, but did not include a usable <a href="GUI">GUI</a>, although there were several attempts to produce one. QNX 2.0.1 included a modest one called "House", and another was built at least to the prototype stage by <a href="Helicon%20Systems">Helicon Systems</a> in Toronto and appeared in one form as Ambience, though its capabilities were limited. A later upgrade called ICONLook improved upon this greatly, but it was apparently too slow to use realistically. <a href="Helicon%20Systems">Helicon Systems</a> also produced a <a href="MIDI">MIDI</a> interface for the original ICON.
The biggest problem for the machine was a lack of software. The ICON was originally designed to let teachers create and share their own lessonware, using a simple hypertext-based system where pages could either link to other pages or run programs written in "C". The "anyone can create lessonware" model was rejected by the Ministry of Education before the ICON shipped (in favour of a model where the Ministry funded and controlled all lessonware), leaving the ICON with only the QNX command line interface and the Cemcorp-developed text editor application.
The various <a href="Watcom">Watcom</a> programming languages were quickly ported to the system, but beyond that, the educational software teachers expected was few and far between. The Ministry contracted for a number of applications, but the small target market and the sometimes-difficult procedure required to secure such contracts were significant obstacles for realistic commercial development.
Although the Icon was terminated, the <a href="QNX">QNX</a> operating system is alive and well, if particularly different from its earliest versions. It is in over 100 vehicle models (<a href="automotive%20navigation%20system">navigation systems</a>, <a href="telematics">telematics</a>, <a href="speech%20recognition">speech recognition</a>, <a href="bluetooth">bluetooth</a> hands-free systems), and powers the <a href="Cisco%20Systems">Cisco</a> <a href="Cisco%20CRS-1">CRS-1</a> and <a href="BlackBerry">BlackBerry</a>'s <a href="BlackBerry%20Tablet%20OS">BlackBerry Tablet OS</a> and <a href="BlackBerry%2010">BlackBerry 10</a> operating systems.

</doc>
<doc id="90542" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90542" title="Candida">
Candida

Candida may refer to:

</doc>
<doc id="90544" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90544" title="Côte-d'Or">
Côte-d'Or

Côte-d'Or (; literally, "golden <a href="wiktionary%3Ac%C3%B4te%23French">slope</a>") is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the eastern part of France.
Côte-d'Or is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on 4 March 1790. It was formed from part of the former <a href="province%20of%20France">province</a> of <a href="Burgundy%20%28historical%20region%29">Burgundy</a>.
The department is part of the current <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Bourgogne-Franche-Comt%C3%A9">Bourgogne-Franche-Comté</a>. It is surrounded by the departments of <a href="Yonne">Yonne</a>, <a href="Ni%C3%A8vre">Nièvre</a>, <a href="Sa%C3%B4ne-et-Loire">Saône-et-Loire</a>, <a href="Jura%20%28department%29">Jura</a>, <a href="Aube">Aube</a>, and <a href="Haute-Marne">Haute-Marne</a>.
A chain of hills called the <a href="Plateau%20de%20Langres">Plateau de Langres</a> runs from north-east to south-west through the department to the north of Dijon and continues south-westwards as the <a href="C%C3%B4te%20d%27Or%20%28escarpment%29">Côte d'Or escarpment</a>, which takes its name from that of the department. It is the south-east facing slope of this <a href="escarpment">escarpment</a> which is the site of the celebrated <a href="Burgundy%20wine">Burgundy</a> <a href="vineyard">vineyard</a>s. To the west of the Plateau de Langres, towards <a href="Champagne%20%28province%29">Champagne</a>, lies the densely wooded district of <a href="Ch%C3%A2tillonais">Châtillonais</a>. To the south-east of the plateau and escarpment, the department lies in the broad, flat-bottomed valley of the middle course of the <a href="River%20Sa%C3%B4ne">Saône</a>.
Rivers include: 
The climate of the department is temperate, with abundant rain on the west side of the central range.
The President of the General Council is <a href="Fran%C3%A7ois%20Sauvadet">François Sauvadet</a> of the <a href="New%20Centre">New Centre</a>.
This is a premier <a href="wine-growing%20region">wine-growing region</a> of France. It produces what are arguably the world's finest, and definitely most expensive <a href="Pinot%20noir">Pinot noir</a> and <a href="Chardonnay">Chardonnay</a> wines from some of the most rigorously and painstakingly (thanks to the region's many monasteries) classified vineyards in the world. Wine from the Côte-d'Or was a favorite of the emperor Charlemagne. Other crops include cereal grains and potatoes. Sheep and cattle are also raised in the department. The region is famous for its <a href="Dijon">Dijon</a> <a href="Mustard%20%28condiment%29">mustard</a>.
There are coal mines and heavy industry, including steel, machinery, and earthenware.
The industries most developed in Côte-d'Or are
The big works are generally in the conurbation of Dijon although biggest (CEA Valduc) is at <a href="Salives">Salives</a> in the Plateau de Langres. There is also the SEB metal works at Selongey below the plateau on the margin of the Saône plain and the Valourec metalworking group at <a href="Montbard">Montbard</a> in the west of the department on the River Brenne near its confluence with the Armançon.
The <a href="Pharmaceutical%20industry">Pharmaceutical industry</a> has shown the greatest growth in recent years.
However, since the Dijon employment statistics zone includes the urban and administrative centre of the <a href="Bourgogne">Burgundy region</a>, the <a href="service%20sector">service sector</a> is proportionately bigger there in relation to the industrial, than in the other three zones of Côte-d'Or.
The inhabitants of the department are called "Costaloriens".
Some of the major tourist attractions are the Gothic abbey church of <a href="Saint-Seine-l%27Abbaye">Saint-Seine-l'Abbaye</a> and the Romanesque abbey church at <a href="Saulieu">Saulieu</a>, as well the Château de Bussy Rabutin at <a href="Bussy-le-Grand">Bussy-le-Grand</a>. The <a href="Abbey%20of%20C%C3%AEteaux">Abbey of Cîteaux</a>, headquarters of the <a href="Cistercian%20Order">Cistercian Order</a>, lies to the east of <a href="Nuits-Saint-Georges">Nuits-Saint-Georges</a> in the south of the department.

</doc>
<doc id="90549" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90549" title="John Kennedy (disambiguation)">
John Kennedy (disambiguation)

<a href="John%20F.%20Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> (1917–1963) was the 35th President of the United States (1961–1963).
John Kennedy may also refer to:

</doc>
<doc id="90550" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90550" title="Robin">
Robin

Robin may refer to:
Other "robins" are unrelated red-breasted songbirds:

</doc>
<doc id="90551" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90551" title="Creuse">
Creuse

Creuse (; ) is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in central France named after the <a href="Creuse%20River">Creuse River</a>.
Creuse is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on 4 March 1790. It was created from the former <a href="provinces%20of%20France">province</a> of <a href="County%20of%20Marche">La Marche</a>.
The County of Marche () was a <a href="France%20in%20the%20Middle%20Ages">medieval French county</a>, approximately corresponding to the modern "département" of Creuse. Marche first appeared as a separate fief about the middle of the 10th century, when <a href="William%20III%2C%20Duke%20of%20Aquitaine">William III, Duke of Aquitaine</a>, gave it to one of his vassals named Boso, who took the title of count. In the 12th century, the countship passed to the family of <a href="Lusignan">Lusignan</a>. They also were sometimes <a href="Counts%20and%20dukes%20of%20Angoul%C3%AAme">counts of Angoulême</a> and counts of <a href="Limousin%20%28province%29">Limousin</a>. With the death of the childless Count Guy in 1308, his possessions in La Marche were seized by <a href="Philip%20IV%20of%20France">Philip IV of France</a>. In 1316 the king made La Marche an "<a href="appanage">appanage</a>" for his youngest son the Prince, afterwards <a href="Charles%20IV%20of%20France">Charles IV</a>. Several years later in 1327, La Marche passed into the hands of the <a href="House%20of%20Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a>. The family of <a href="House%20of%20Armagnac">Armagnac</a> held it from 1435 to 1477, when it reverted to the Bourbons. In 1527 La Marche was seized by <a href="Francis%20I%20of%20France">Francis I</a> and became part of the domains of the French crown. It was divided into "Haute Marche" and "Basse Marche", the estates of the former continuing until the 17th century. From 1470 until the Revolution, the province was under the jurisdiction of the <a href="parlement%20of%20Paris">parlement of Paris</a>.
In 1886 , located in a remote part of Creuse, became somewhat improbably the third town in France to receive a public electricity supply. Three years later, in 1889, the construction of a primitive hydro-electric factory at on the little at <a href="Saint-Martin-Ch%C3%A2teau">Saint-Martin-Château</a>, away, established a more reliable electricity supply for the little town. The creation of a power line from the plant to Bourganeuf was supervised by a pioneering engineer called <a href="Marcel%20Deprez">Marcel Deprez</a>: this was the first time that a power line over such a long distance had been constructed in France. The achievement was crowned with the region's first telephone line, installed in order to permit instant communication between the generating station and the newly illuminated town.
Creuse is part of the <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Aquitaine-Limousin-Poitou-Charentes">Aquitaine-Limousin-Poitou-Charentes</a> and is surrounded by the departments of <a href="Corr%C3%A8ze">Corrèze</a>, <a href="Haute-Vienne">Haute-Vienne</a>, <a href="Allier">Allier</a>, <a href="Puy-de-D%C3%B4me">Puy-de-Dôme</a>, <a href="Cher%20%28d%C3%A9partement%29">Cher</a>, and <a href="Indre">Indre</a>. 
It is in the <a href="Massif%20Central">Massif Central</a> and permeated by the <a href="Creuse%20River">Creuse River</a> and its tributaries. The river is dammed at several locations both for water supply and <a href="hydroelectricity">hydroelectricity</a> generation. As is typical for an inland area of continental Europe, Creuse has relatively cold winters with some snowfall into April, but also hot summers. Rain falls throughout the year because of the relatively high elevation. 
The topography is principally rolling hills intersected by often steep valleys. The terrestrial ecology is typically cool <a href="temperate">temperate</a> with a species mix common in the western UK: with <a href="oak">oak</a>, <a href="Ash%20tree">ash</a>, <a href="chestnut">chestnut</a>, <a href="hazel">hazel</a> and "<a href="Prunus">Prunus</a>" species dominating the woodlands. There are no commercial <a href="vineyard">vineyard</a>s. Much of the farming is beef cattle: <a href="Charolais%20cattle">Charolais</a> and <a href="Limousin%20%28cattle%29">Limousin</a>, and also sheep.
The inhabitants of the department are called "Creusois". 
The population peaked at 287,075 in 1851, after which it declined gently until the First World War. During and after the war, the decline in population became much more rapid both because of the death and disruption that characterised the war years and because of the higher wages available to any workers with marketable skills in the economically more dynamic towns and cities outside Creuse. By 1921 the registered population had slumped by almost 38,000 (approximately 14%) in ten years to 228,244, and the decline continued throughout the twentieth century.
Over the last four decades of the twentieth century Creuse experienced the greatest proportional population decline of any French department, from 164,000 in 1960 to 124,000 in 1999 – a decrease of 24%.
The President of the General Council is <a href="Jean-Jacques%20Lozach">Jean-Jacques Lozach</a> of the <a href="Socialist%20Party%20%28France%29">Socialist Party</a>. 
A historically rich and traditionally rural rather lightly populated area with beautiful preserved landscapes, ancient and typical "art de vivre", original stone architecture, no major urban center and many heritage site such as <a href="castles">castles</a>, <a href="abbeys">abbeys</a> and <a href="Dolmen">Celtic stone monuments</a>: the Creuse department has become a <a href="Green%20tourism">Green tourism</a> destination since the late 1990s. Creuse enjoyed a <a href="temperate%20climate">temperate climate</a> with mild springs and autumns, rather cold and snowy but sunny winters, and relatively warm and sunny summers, but not as hot as in the southern parts of France. Thanks to its preserved forested landscape, little pollution and wonderful stone buildings, many foreigners (notably British and Dutch, but also German and Belgian) have sought to buy holiday homes in Creuse.
The major tourist attractions are the <a href="tapestry">tapestry</a> museum in <a href="Aubusson%2C%20Creuse">Aubusson</a> and the many castles, notably those of Villemonteix, <a href="Boussac%2C%20Creuse">Boussac</a>, and Banizette. The monastery of <a href="Moutier-d%27Ahun">Moutier-d'Ahun</a> has exceptional wood carvings from the 17th century. (). After World War 1, some towns in France set up pacifist war memorials. Instead of commemorating the glorious dead, these memorials denounce war with figures of grieving widows and children rather than soldiers. Such memorials provoked anger among veterans and the military in general. The most famous is at <a href="Gentioux-Pigerolles">Gentioux-Pigerolles</a> in the department (see picture on the left). Below the column which lists the name of the fallen, stands an orphan in bronze pointing to an inscription ‘Maudite soit la guerre’ (Cursed be war). Feelings ran so high that the memorial was not officially inaugurated until 1990 and soldiers at the nearby army camp were under orders to turn their heads when they walked past. 
<a href="Gu%C3%A9ret">Guéret</a>, Creuse is also home to a large nearby animal park named <a href="http%3A//www.loups-chabrieres.com/">Les Loups de Chabrières</a> containing some of France's few remaining wolves, held in semi-captivity. It includes 24 European Grey Wolves , two Canadian White Wolves and two Canadian Black Wolves in five distinct enclosures 
Motor racing Mas du Clos It is twelve kilometers from Aubusson at the foot of the family castle of <a href="Saint-Avit-de-Tardes">Saint-Avit-de-Tardes</a> Pierre Bardinon creates all pieces in 1963.

</doc>
<doc id="90554" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90554" title="Suppletion">
Suppletion

In <a href="linguistics">linguistics</a> and <a href="etymology">etymology</a>, suppletion is traditionally understood as the use of one word as the <a href="inflection">inflected</a> form of another word when the two words are not <a href="cognate">cognate</a>. For those learning a language, suppletive forms will be seen as "irregular" or even "highly irregular". The term "suppletion" implies that a gap in the paradigm was filled by a form "supplied" by a different paradigm. Instances of suppletion are overwhelmingly restricted to the most commonly used <a href="lexical%20item">lexical item</a>s in a language.
An irregular paradigm is one in which the derived forms of a word cannot be deduced by simple rules from the base form. For example, someone who knows only a little English can deduce that the plural of "girl" is "girls" but cannot deduce that the plural of "man" is "men". Language learners are often most aware of <a href="irregular%20verb">irregular verb</a>s, but any part of speech with inflections can be irregular. For most synchronic purposes — first-language acquisition studies, <a href="psycholinguistics">psycholinguistics</a>, language-teaching theory — it suffices to note that these forms are irregular. However, historical linguistics seeks to explain how they came to be so and distinguishes different kinds of irregularity according to their origins. Most irregular paradigms (like "man:men") can be explained by philological developments that affected one form of a word but not another (in this case, <a href="Germanic%20umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a>). In other cases, the historical antecedents of the current forms once constituted a regular paradigm. Historical linguists adopted the term "suppletion"
to distinguish irregularities like "person:people" or "<a href="cattle">cow:cattle</a>" that cannot be so explained because the parts of the paradigm have not evolved out of a single form.
Most of the examples below are from <a href="Indo-European%20languages">Indo-European languages</a>, but suppletion is hardly restricted to these languages. For example, in <a href="Georgian%20language">Georgian</a>, the paradigm for the verb "to come" is composed of four different roots ("di-" / "-val-" / "-vid-" / "-sul-"). Similarly, in <a href="Modern%20Standard%20Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a>, the verb "jāʾ" "come" usually uses the form "taʿāl" for its imperative, and the plural of "marʾah" "woman" is "nisāʾ" (related to "nās" "people"). Nonetheless, some of the more archaic Indo-European languages are particularly known for suppletion. <a href="Ancient%20Greek">Ancient Greek</a>, for example, has some 20 verbs with suppletive paradigms, many with 3 separate roots. (See <a href="Ancient%20Greek%20verbs%23Suppletive%20verbs">Ancient Greek verbs#Suppletive verbs</a>.)
^ *"z", "przy", "w", and "wy" are <a href="prefix">prefix</a>es and are not part of the root
Strictly speaking, suppletion occurs when different "inflections" of a lexeme (i.e., with the same <a href="lexical%20category">lexical category</a>) have etymologically "unrelated" stems. The term is also used in looser senses, albeit less formally.
The term "suppletion" is also used in the looser sense when there is a semantic link between words but not an etymological one; unlike the strict inflectional sense, these may be in different <a href="lexical%20category">lexical categories</a>, such as noun/verb.
English noun/adjective pairs such as father/paternal or cow/bovine are also referred to as <a href="collateral%20adjectives">collateral adjectives</a>. In this sense of the term, father/fatherly is non-suppletive. "Fatherly" is <a href="Derivation%20%28linguistics%29">derived</a> from "father", while father/paternal is suppletive. Likewise cow/cowy is non-suppletive, while cow/bovine is suppletive.
In these cases, father/pater- and cow/bov- are cognate via <a href="Proto-Indo-European%20language">Proto-Indo-European</a>, but 'paternal' and 'bovine' are borrowings into English (via Old French and Latin). The pairs are distantly etymologically related, but the words are not from a single Modern English stem.
The term "weak suppletion" is sometimes used in contemporary synchronic morphology in regard to sets of stems (or affixes) whose alternations cannot be accounted for by current phonological rules. For example, stems in the word pair "oblige/obligate" are related by meaning but the stem-final alternation is not related by any synchronic phonological process. This makes the pair appear to be suppletive, except that they are related etymologically. In historical linguistics "suppletion" is sometimes limited to reference to etymologically unrelated stems. Current usage of the term "weak suppletion" in synchronic morphology is not fixed.

</doc>
<doc id="90558" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90558" title="Corn Laws">
Corn Laws

The Corn Laws were measures enforced in the <a href="United%20Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> between 1815 and 1846, which imposed restrictions and <a href="trade%20barrier">tariffs</a> on imported <a href="grain">grain</a>. They were designed to keep grain prices high to favour domestic producers. The laws did indeed raise food prices and became the focus of opposition from urban groups who had far less political power than rural Britain. The Corn Laws imposed steep <a href="import%20duties">import duties</a>, making it too expensive to import grain from abroad, even when food supplies were short. The laws were supported by <a href="Conservative%20Party%20%28UK%29">Conservative</a> landowners and opposed by <a href="Whigs%20%28British%20political%20party%29">Whig</a> industrialists and workers. The <a href="Anti-Corn%20Law%20League">Anti-Corn Law League</a> was responsible for turning public and elite opinion against the laws. It was a large, nationwide middle-class moral crusade with a Utopian vision, according to historian <a href="Asa%20Briggs">Asa Briggs</a>; its leading advocate <a href="Richard%20Cobden">Richard Cobden</a> promised that repeal would settle four great problems simultaneously:
First, it would guarantee the prosperity of the manufacturer by affording him outlets for his products. Second, it would relieve the <a href="Condition%20of%20England%20question">Condition of England question</a> by cheapening the price of food and ensuring more regular employment. Third, it would make English agriculture more efficient by stimulating demand for its products in urban and industrial areas. Fourth, it would introduce through mutually advantageous international trade a new era of international fellowship and peace. The only barrier to these four beneficent solutions was the ignorant self-interest of the landlords, the "bread-taxing oligarchy, unprincipled, unfeeling, rapacious and plundering."
The first two years of the <a href="Great%20Famine%20%28Ireland%29">Irish famine</a> of 1845–1852 forced a resolution because of the urgent need for new food supplies. Prime Minister Sir <a href="Robert%20Peel">Robert Peel</a>, a Conservative, achieved repeal with the support of the Whigs in Parliament, overcoming the opposition of most of his own party.
"<a href="Corn%20%28disambiguation%29%23Cereals">Corn</a>" included any grain that requires grinding, especially wheat. The laws were introduced by the Importation Act 1815 (55 Geo. 3 c. 26) and repealed by the Importation Act 1846 (9 & 10 Vict. c. 22). The laws are often considered examples of British <a href="mercantilism">mercantilism</a>.
The economic issue was food prices. The price of grain was central to the price of the most important <a href="staple%20food">staple food</a>, bread, and the working man spent much of his wages on bread.
The political issue was a dispute between landowners (a long-established class, who were heavily over-represented in Parliament) and the new class of manufacturers and industrial workers (who were under-represented). The former desired to maximise their profits from agriculture by keeping the price at which they could sell their grain high. The latter wished to maximise their profits from manufacture by reducing the wages they paid to their factory workers—the difficulty being that men could not work in the factories if a factory wage was not enough to feed them and their families; hence, in practice, high grain prices kept factory wages high also.
The Corn Laws enhanced the profits and political power associated with <a href="land%20ownership">land ownership</a>. Their abolition saw a significant increase of <a href="free%20trade">free trade</a>.
In 1689, traders were provided <a href="Export%20subsidy">bounties for exporting</a> <a href="rye">rye</a>, <a href="malt">malt</a> and <a href="wheat">wheat</a> (all classified as corn at the time), and the same commodities were taxed when imported into England. 
In 1813, a <a href="British%20House%20of%20Commons">House of Commons</a> Committee recommended excluding foreign-grown corn until the price of domestically grown corn increased to 80 shillings (£4) (2010 equivalent: £202.25) per quarter (1 quarter = 28lb). The political economist <a href="Thomas%20Malthus">Thomas Malthus</a> believed this to be a <a href="fair%20price">fair price</a>, and that it would be dangerous for Britain to rely on imported corn because lower prices would reduce labourers' <a href="wages">wages</a>, and manufacturers would lose out due to the decrease of purchasing power of landlords and farmers.
Nevertheless, the ceiling price of 80 shillings a quarter for domestic grain was so high that, between 1815 and 1848, it was never reached. <a href="David%20Ricardo">David Ricardo</a>, however, espoused <a href="free%20trade">free trade</a> so that Britain could use its capital and population to its <a href="comparative%20advantage">comparative advantage</a>. With the advent of peace in 1814, corn prices decreased, and the <a href="Conservative%20Party%20%28UK%29">Tory</a> government of <a href="Robert%20Jenkinson%2C%202nd%20Earl%20of%20Liverpool">Lord Liverpool</a> passed the 1815 Corn Law to keep bread prices high. This resulted in serious rioting in London.
Soon afterwards, repercussions of the 10 April <a href="1815%20eruption%20of%20Mount%20Tambora">1815 eruption of Mount Tambora</a> in Indonesia, compounded by <a href="Year%20Without%20a%20Summer%23Causes">four preceding big eruptions</a>, caused the 1816 <a href="Year%20Without%20a%20Summer">Year Without a Summer</a> and caused famine by disastrously reducing crop yields.
In 1820, the Merchants' Petition, written by <a href="Thomas%20Tooke">Thomas Tooke</a>, was presented to the House of Commons. The petition demanded free trade and an end to protective tariffs. The Prime Minister, Lord Liverpool, who (falsely) claimed to be in favour of free trade, blocked the petition. He argued, speciously, that complicated restrictions made it difficult to repeal protectionist laws. He added, though, that he believed Britain's economic dominance grew in spite of, not because of, the protectionist system. In 1821 the <a href="President%20of%20the%20Board%20of%20Trade">President of the Board of Trade</a>, <a href="William%20Huskisson">William Huskisson</a>, composed a Commons Committee report which recommended a return to the "practically free" trade of the pre-1815 years.
The Importation Act 1822 decreed that corn could be imported when the price of domestically harvested corn rose to <a href="shilling">80/-</a> per quarter but that the import of corn would again be prohibited when the price fell to 70/- per quarter. After this Act was passed, the corn price never rose to 80/- until 1828. In 1827 the landlords rejected Huskisson's proposals for a sliding scale, and during the next year Huskisson and the new <a href="Prime%20Minister%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom">Prime Minister</a>, the <a href="Arthur%20Wellesley%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Wellington">Duke of Wellington</a>, devised a new sliding scale for the Importation of Corn Act of 1828 whereby, when domestic corn was 52/- per quarter or less, the duty would be 34/8, and when the price increased to 73/-, the duty decreased to 1/-.
The <a href="British%20Whig%20Party">Whig</a> governments, in power for most of the years between 1830 and 1841, decided not to repeal the Corn Laws. However the Liberal Whig MP <a href="Charles%20Pelham%20Villiers">Charles Pelham Villiers</a> proposed motions for repeal in the House of Commons every year from 1837 to 1845. In 1842 the majority against repeal was 303; by 1845 this had fallen to 132. Although he had spoken against repeal until 1845, <a href="Robert%20Peel">Robert Peel</a> voted in favour in 1846. In 1853, when Villiers was made a <a href="Privy%20Counsellor">Privy Counsellor</a>, "<a href="The%20Times">The Times</a>" stated that "it was Mr Charles Villiers who practically originated the Free Trade movement".
In 1838, Villiers spoke at a meeting of 5,000 "working class men" in Manchester. In 1840, under Villiers' direction, the Committee on Import Duties published a <a href="Blue%20book">Blue book</a> examining the effects of the Corn Laws. Tens of thousands of copies were printed in pamphlet form by the <a href="Anti-Corn%20Law%20League">Anti-Corn Law League</a>, founded in 1838. The report was quoted in the major newspapers, reprinted in America, and published in an abridged form by "<a href="The%20Spectator">The Spectator</a>".
In the <a href="United%20Kingdom%20general%20election%2C%201841">1841 election</a> Sir <a href="Robert%20Peel">Robert Peel</a> became Prime Minister and <a href="Richard%20Cobden">Richard Cobden</a>, a major proponent of free trade, was elected for the first time. Peel had studied the works of <a href="Adam%20Smith">Adam Smith</a>, <a href="David%20Hume">David Hume</a> and <a href="David%20Ricardo">David Ricardo</a>, and proclaimed in 1839: "I have read all that has been written by the gravest authorities on political economy on the subject of rent, wages, taxes, tithes". Nevertheless, he voted against repeal each year from 1837 to 1845. In 1842, in response to the Blue book published by Villiers' 1840 Committee on Import Duties, Peel offered a concession by modifying the sliding scale. He reduced the maximum duty to 20/- if the price were to fall to 51/- or less. In 1842, Peel's fellow-Conservative <a href="Richard%20Monckton%20Milnes%2C%201st%20Baron%20Houghton">Monckton Milnes</a> said, at the time of this concession, that Villiers was "the solitary <a href="Robinson%20Crusoe">Robinson Crusoe</a> sitting on the rock of Corn Law repeal".
The landlords claimed that manufacturers like Cobden wanted cheap food so that they could reduce wages and thus maximise their profits, an opinion shared by socialist <a href="Chartism">Chartists</a>. <a href="Karl%20Marx">Karl Marx</a> said: "The campaign for the abolition of the Corn Laws had begun and the workers' help was needed. The advocates of repeal therefore promised, not only a Big Loaf (which was to be doubled in size) but also the passing of the Ten Hours Bill" (to reduce working hours).
The Anti-Corn Law League was agitating peacefully for repeal. They funded writers like <a href="William%20Cooke%20Taylor">William Cooke Taylor</a> to travel the manufacturing regions of northern England to research their cause. Taylor published a number of books as an Anti-Corn Law propagandist, most notably, "The Natural History of Society" (1841), "Notes of a tour in the manufacturing districts of Lancashire" (1842), and "Factories and the Factory System" (1844). Cobden and the rest of the Anti-Corn Law League believed that cheap food meant greater real wages and Cobden praised a speech by a working man who said:
When provisions are high, the people have so much to pay for them that they have little or nothing left to buy clothes with; and when they have little to buy clothes with, there are few clothes sold; and when there are few clothes sold, there are too many to sell, they are very cheap; and when they are very cheap, there cannot be much paid for making them: and that, consequently, the manufacturing working man's wages are reduced, the mills are shut up, business is ruined, and general distress is spread through the country. But when, as now, the working man has the said 25"s". left in his pocket, he buys more clothing with it (ay, and other articles of comfort too), and that increases the demand for them, and the greater the demand...makes them rise in price, and the rising price enables the working man to get higher wages and the masters better profits. This, therefore, is the way I prove that high provisions make lower wages, and cheap provisions make higher wages.
The magazine "<a href="The%20Economist">The Economist</a>" was founded in September 1843 by politician <a href="James%20Wilson%20%28UK%20politician%29">James Wilson</a> with help from the Anti-Corn Law League; his son-in-law <a href="Walter%20Bagehot">Walter Bagehot</a> later became its editor.
In February 1844, the <a href="Charles%20Gordon-Lennox%2C%205th%20Duke%20of%20Richmond">Duke of Richmond</a> initiated the <a href="Central%20Agricultural%20Protection%20Society">Central Agricultural Protection Society</a> (CAPS, commonly known as the "Anti-League") to campaign in favour of the Corn Laws.
In 1844, the agitation subsided as there were fruitful harvests. The situation changed in late 1845 with poor harvests and the <a href="Great%20Famine%20%28Ireland%29">Great Famine</a> in Ireland; Britain experienced scarcity and Ireland starvation. Peel argued in <a href="Cabinet%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom">Cabinet</a> that tariffs on grain should be rescinded by <a href="Order%20in%20Council">Order in Council</a> until <a href="Parliament%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom">Parliament</a> assembled to repeal the Corn Laws. His colleagues resisted this. Soon afterwards the Whig leader <a href="John%20Russell%2C%201st%20Earl%20Russell">Lord John Russell</a> declared in favour of repeal.
On 4 December 1845 an announcement appeared in "<a href="The%20Times">The Times</a>" that the government had decided to recall Parliament in January 1846 to repeal the Corn Laws. <a href="Edward%20Smith-Stanley%2C%2014th%20Earl%20of%20Derby">Lord Stanley</a> resigned from the Cabinet in protest. The next day Peel resigned as Prime Minister because he did not believe he could implement his policy and so the <a href="Victoria%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom">Queen</a> sent for Russell to form a government. Russell offered Cobden the post of <a href="Vice-President%20of%20the%20Board%20of%20Trade">Vice-President of the Board of Trade</a> but he refused, preferring to remain an advocate of free trade outside the government. By 20 December Russell was unable to form a ministry and so Peel remained Prime Minister.
After Parliament was recalled the CAPS started a campaign of resistance. In the rural <a href="Counties%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom">counties</a> the CAPS was practically supplanting the local Conservative associations and in many areas the independent <a href="Freehold%20%28English%20law%29">free holding</a> farmers were resisting the most fiercely.
In 1845 and 1846, the first two years of <a href="Great%20Famine%20%28Ireland%29">Great Famine</a> in Ireland, there was a disastrous fall in food supplies. Prime Minister Peel called for repeal despite the opposition of most of his Conservative Party. The Anti-Corn Law League played a minor role in the passage of legislation—it had paved the way through its agitation but was now on the sidelines. On 27 January 1846, Peel gave his government's plan. He said that the Corn Laws would be abolished on 1 February 1849 after three years of gradual reductions of the tariff, leaving only a 1 shilling duty per quarter. <a href="Benjamin%20Disraeli%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Beaconsfield">Benjamin Disraeli</a> and <a href="Lord%20George%20Bentinck">Lord George Bentinck</a> emerged as the most forceful opponents of repeal in Parliamentary debates, arguing that repeal would weaken landowners socially and politically and therefore destroy the "territorial constitution" of Britain by empowering commercial interests.
On the <a href="Reading%20%28legislature%29">third reading</a> of Peel's Bill of Repeal (Importation Act 1846) on 15 May, <a href="Member%20of%20Parliament">MPs</a> voted 327 votes to 229 (a majority of 98) to repeal the Corn Laws. On 25 June the Duke of Wellington persuaded the <a href="House%20of%20Lords">House of Lords</a> to pass it. On that same night Peel's <a href="Irish%20Coercion%20Bill">Irish Coercion Bill</a> was defeated in the Commons by 292 to 219 by "a combination of Whigs, <a href="Radicals%20%28UK%29">Radicals</a>, and Tory protectionists". The latter defeat forced Peel to resign as Prime Minister. In his resignation speech he attributed the success of repeal to Cobden:
In reference to our proposing these measures, I have no wish to rob any person of the credit which is justly due to him for them. But I may say that neither the gentlemen sitting on the benches opposite, nor myself, nor the gentlemen sitting round me—I say that neither of us are the parties who are strictly entitled to the merit. There has been a combination of parties, and that combination of parties together with the influence of the Government, has led to the ultimate success of the measures. But, Sir, there is a name which ought to be associated with the success of these measures: it is not the name of the noble Lord, the member for London, neither is it my name. Sir, the name which ought to be, and which will be associated with the success of these measures is the name of a man who, acting, I believe, from pure and disinterested motives, has advocated their cause with untiring energy, and by appeals to reason, expressed by an eloquence, the more to be admired because it was unaffected and unadorned—the name which ought to be and will be associated with the success of these measures is the name of <a href="Richard%20Cobden">Richard Cobden</a>. Without scruple, Sir, I attribute the success of these measures to him.
As a result, the Conservative Party divided and the Whigs formed a government with Russell as PM. Those Conservatives who were loyal to Peel were known as the <a href="Peelite">Peelite</a>s and included the <a href="George%20Hamilton-Gordon%2C%204th%20Earl%20of%20Aberdeen">Earl of Aberdeen</a> and <a href="William%20Ewart%20Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a>. In 1859 the Peelites merged with the Whigs and the Radicals to form the <a href="Liberal%20Party%20%28UK%29">Liberal Party</a>. Disraeli became overall Conservative leader in 1868, although, when Prime Minister, he did not attempt to reintroduce protectionism.
Scholars have advanced several explanations to resolve the puzzle of why Peel made the seemingly irrational decision to sacrifice his government to repeal the Corn Laws, a policy which he had long opposed. Lusztig (1995) argues that his actions were sensible when considered in the context of his concern for preserving aristocratic government and a limited franchise in the face of threats from popular unrest. Peel was concerned primarily with preserving the institutions of government, and he considered reform as an occasional necessary evil to preclude the possibility of much more radical or tumultuous actions. He acted to check the expansion of democracy by ameliorating conditions which could provoke democratic agitation. He also took care to ensure that the concessions would represent no threat to the British constitution.
The price of corn during the two decades after 1850 averaged 52 shillings. <a href="Llewellyn%20Woodward">Llewellyn Woodward</a> argued that the high duty of corn mattered little because when British agriculture suffered from bad harvests, this was also true for foreign harvests and so the price of imported corn without the duty would not have been lower. However the threat to British agriculture came about twenty five years after repeal due to the development of cheaper shipping (both sail and steam), faster and thus cheaper transport by rail and steamboat, and the modernisation of agricultural machinery. The <a href="prairie">prairie</a> farms of North America were thus able to export vast quantities of cheap corn, as were peasant farms in the <a href="Russian%20Empire">Russian Empire</a> with simpler methods but cheaper labour. Every corn-growing country decided to increase tariffs in reaction to this, except Britain and <a href="Belgium">Belgium</a>. 
In 1877 the price of British-grown corn averaged 56 shillings and 9 pence a quarter and for the rest of the nineteenth century it never reached within 10 shillings of that figure. In 1878 the price fell to 46 shillings and 5 pence. By 1885 corn-growing land declined by a million acres (4,000 km²) (28½%) and in 1886 the corn price decreased to 31 shillings a quarter. Britain's dependence on imported grain during the 1830s was 2%; during the 1860s it was 24%; during the 1880s it was 45%, for corn it was 65%. The 1881 <a href="Census%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom">census</a> showed a decline of 92,250 in agricultural labourers since 1871, with an increase of 53,496 urban labourers. Many of these had previously been farm workers who migrated to the cities to find employment, despite agricultural labourers' wages being higher than those of Europe. Agriculture's contribution to the national income was about 17% in 1871; by 1911 it was less than 7%.
<a href="Robert%20Ensor">Robert Ensor</a> wrote that these years witnessed the ruin of British agriculture, "which till then had almost as conspicuously led the world, was thrown overboard in a storm like an unwanted cargo" due to "the sudden and overwhelming invasion...by American prairie-wheat in the late seventies". Previously, agriculture had employed more people in Britain than any other industry and until 1880 it "retained a kind of headship", with its technology far ahead of most European farming, its cattle breeds superior, its cropping the most scientific and its yields the highest, with high wages leading to higher standard of living for agricultural workers than in comparable European countries. However, after 1877 wages declined and "farmers themselves sank into ever increasing embarrassments; bankruptcies and auctions followed each other; the countryside lost its most respected figures", with those who tended the land with greatest pride and conscience suffering most as the only chance of survival came in lowering standards. "For twenty years," Ensor claimed, "the only chance for any young or enterprising person on the countryside was to get out of it". The decline of agriculture also led to a fall in rural rents, especially in areas with arable land. Consequently, landowners, who until 1880 had been the richest class in the nation, were dethroned from this position. After they lost their economic leadership, the loss of their political leadership followed.
The Prime Minister at the time, Disraeli, had once been a staunch upholder of the Corn Laws and had predicted ruin for agriculture if they were repealed. However, unlike most other European governments, his government did not revive tariffs on imported cereals to save their farms and farmers. Despite calls from landowners to reintroduce the Corn Laws, Disraeli responded by saying that the issue was settled and that protection was impracticable. Ensor claimed that the difference between Britain and the Continent was due to the latter having conscription; rural men were thought to be the best suited as soldiers. But for Britain, with no conscript army, this did not apply. He also claimed that Britain staked its future on continuing to be "the workshop of the world", as the leading manufacturing nation. <a href="Robert%20Blake%2C%20Baron%20Blake">Robert Blake</a> claimed that Disraeli was dissuaded from reviving protection due to the urban working class enjoying cheap imported food at a time of industrial depression and rising unemployment. Enfranchised by Disraeli in 1867, working men's votes were crucial in a general election and he did not want to antagonise them.
Although proficient farmers on good lands did well, farmers with mediocre skills or marginal lands were at a disadvantage. Many relocated to the cities, and unprecedented numbers emigrated. Many emigrants were small, undercapitalised grain farmers who were squeezed out by low prices and inability to increase production or adapt to the more complex challenge of raising livestock.
Similar patterns developed in Ireland, where cereal production was labour-intensive. The reduction of grain prices reduced the demand for agricultural labour in Ireland, and reduced the output of barley, oats, and wheat. These changes occurred at the same time that emigration was reducing the labour supply and increasing wage rates to levels too great for arable farmers to sustain.
Britain's reliance on imported food led to the danger of it being starved into submission during wartime. In 1914 Britain was dependent on imports for four-fifths of her wheat and 40% of her meat. During the <a href="World%20War%20I">First World War</a>, the Germans in their <a href="Atlantic%20U-boat%20campaign%20of%20World%20War%20I">U-boat campaign</a> attempted to take advantage of this by sinking ships importing food into Britain. They were eventually defeated. During the <a href="World%20War%20II">Second World War</a> in the <a href="Battle%20of%20the%20Atlantic">Battle of the Atlantic</a>, Germany tried again to starve Britain into surrender but as in the previous War they were unsuccessful.

</doc>
<doc id="90561" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90561" title="642 BC">
642 BC


</doc>
<doc id="90562" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90562" title="Trinity House">
Trinity House

The Corporation of Trinity House of Deptford Strond, known as Trinity House (formally The Master Wardens and Assistants of the Guild Fraternity or Brotherhood of the most glorious and undivided Trinity and of <a href="Pope%20Clement%20I">St. Clement</a> in the Parish of Deptford Strond in the County of Kent), is a private corporation governed under a <a href="Royal%20Charter">Royal Charter</a> (rather than a <a href="non-departmental%20public%20body">non-departmental public body</a>). It has three core functions: it is the official General Lighthouse Authority for England, Wales, the Channel Islands and Gibraltar, responsible for the provision and maintenance of navigational aids, such as <a href="lighthouse">lighthouse</a>s, <a href="lightvessel">lightvessel</a>s, <a href="buoy">buoy</a>s, and maritime radio/satellite communication systems. Trinity House is also an official deep sea <a href="Maritime%20pilot">pilotage</a> authority, providing expert navigators for ships trading in Northern European waters. It is also a maritime charity, dispersing funds for the welfare of retired seamen, the training of young cadets and the promotion of safety at sea; for the financial year ending in March 2013 it spent approximately £6.5 million in furtherance of its charitable objectives. Funding for the work of the lighthouse service comes from "<a href="light%20dues">light dues</a>" levied on commercial vessels calling at ports in the British Isles, based on the net registered tonnage of the vessel. The rate is set by the Department of Transport, and annually reviewed. Funding for the maritime charity is generated separately. After the corporation was founded in 1514, the first master was <a href="Thomas%20Spert">Thomas Spert</a> (later Sir), sailing master of Henry VII's flagship "<a href="Mary%20Rose">Mary Rose</a>" and of "<a href="Henry%20Grace%20%C3%A0%20Dieu">Henry Grace à Dieu</a>."
The Master of the Corporation (now an honorary title) is the <a href="Anne%2C%20Princess%20Royal">Princess Royal</a>. Previous Masters of Trinity House have included Sir <a href="Thomas%20Spert">Thomas Spert</a>, master of the warship "Henry Grace a Dieu" under Henry VIII; the diarist <a href="Samuel%20Pepys">Samuel Pepys</a>, <a href="William%20Pitt%20the%20Younger">William Pitt the Younger</a>, <a href="Arthur%20Wellesley%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Wellington">Duke of Wellington</a>, and <a href="William%20Penn%20%28admiral%29">Admiral William Penn</a> (father of <a href="William%20Penn">William Penn</a>, founder of <a href="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>). 
Other prominent individuals in Britain, often connected with commercial shipping or the Admiralty, have been associated with Trinity House, including <a href="Winston%20Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>. He gained his status as an Elder Brother of Trinity House as a result of his position as First Lord of the Admiralty before and during World War I. Often, especially on naval-related forays during the Second World War, Churchill was seen in Trinity House cap or uniform. Winston Churchill also had a Trinity House vessel (THV) named after him, THV "Winston Churchill".
Trinity House is ruled by a court of thirty-one Elder Brethren, presided over by a Master, at present HRH the Princess Royal. These are appointed from 300 Younger Brethren who act as advisors and perform other duties as needed. The Younger Brethren are appointed from lay people with maritime experience, mainly naval officers and <a href="Captain%20%28nautical%29">ships' master</a>s, but also <a href="harbourmaster">harbourmaster</a>s, <a href="Harbour%20pilot">pilot</a>s, yachtsmen and anyone with useful experience.
The headquarters of the corporation is the present Trinity House, which was designed by architect <a href="Samuel%20Wyatt">Samuel Wyatt</a> and built in 1796. It has a suite of five state rooms with views over Trinity Square, The Tower of London and The River Thames.
The Corporation came into being in 1514 by <a href="Royal%20Charter">Royal Charter</a> granted by <a href="Henry%20VIII%20of%20England">Henry VIII</a> under the name "The Master, Wardens, and Assistants of the Guild, Fraternity, or Brotherhood of the most glorious and undivided Trinity, and of <a href="Pope%20Clement%20I">St. Clement</a> in the Parish of Deptford-Strond in the County of Kent." 
The charter came as a result of a petition put forward on 19 March 1513 by a guild of <a href="Deptford">Deptford</a>-based mariners. They were troubled by the poor conduct of unregulated pilots on the Thames and asked the king for license to regulate pilotage. The first Master was <a href="Thomas%20Spert">Thomas Spert</a> (later Sir), sailing master of Henry’s flagship "<a href="Mary%20Rose">Mary Rose</a>" and the "<a href="Henry%20Grace%20%C3%A0%20Dieu">Henry Grace à Dieu</a>". The name of the guild derives from the Holy Trinity and St. Clement, the patron saint of mariners.
As John Whormby, a Clerk to the Corporation, wrote in 1746, their general business was
In 1566 Queen Elizabeth I's Seamarks Act enabled Trinity House
With the increasing number of ships lost along the Newcastle to London coal route, Trinity House established the <a href="Lowestoft%20Lighthouse">Lowestoft Lighthouse</a> in 1609, a pair of wooden towers with candle illuminants. Until the late 18th century, candle, coal or wood fires were used as lighthouse illuminants, improved in 1782 with the circular-wick oil-burning Argand lamp, the first ‘catoptric’ mirrored reflector in 1777, and <a href="Fresnel">Fresnel</a>’s ‘dioptric’ lens system in 1823. <a href="Nore">The Nore</a> <a href="Lightvessel">lightship</a> was established as the world's first floating light in 1732.
In 1836 Trinity House accepted powers to levy out the last private lighthouse owners and began refurbishing and upgrading its lighthouse estate.
In 1803 the Corporation established the Blackwall Depot as a buoy workshop, and six district depots were later established at Harwich, Great Yarmouth, East Cowes, Penzance, Holyhead and Swansea. In December 2002 Trinity House announced that the Great Yarmouth, Penzance and East Cowes depots would close. Today Trinity House's operational headquarters is in <a href="Harwich">Harwich</a>, supported by depots in <a href="Swansea">Swansea</a> and a flight operations base at <a href="St%20Just%20in%20Penwith">St Just</a> in Cornwall. Its operations are also supported by three vessels; the two large tenders THV "Patricia" and THV "Galatea", and the Rapid Intervention Vessel THV "Alert". A small secretariat is based at <a href="Tower%20Hill">Tower Hill</a>.
During the First World War, the Corporation served a number of functions: it buoyed shipping lanes and naval operations, moved lightvessels and laid hundreds of buoys. During the Second World War, Trinity House kept sea lanes marked and lighted for Allied convoys. The Pilotage Service guided ships to their ports under hazardous conditions; at the time of the <a href="Dunkirk%20evacuation">Dunkirk evacuation</a> a number of pilots helped in piloting vessels to and from the beaches. Trinity House laid 73 lighted buoys and two lightvessels to indicate a safe route for the <a href="D-Day">D-Day</a> landings, with Trinity House pilots responsible for all commercial vessels and many of the service vessels. In the month following D-Day, nearly 3,000 vessels were handled by 88 river pilots and nearly 2,000 ships by 115 sea pilots working day and night.
On the night of 29 December 1940, Trinity House was destroyed by the most severe of the air attacks on London; the interiors were completely gutted and many archives and treasures were lost. The restored house was reopened by HM Queen Elizabeth on 21 October 1953.
In 1969 Trinity House initiated the debut of helicopter reliefs to and from offshore lighthouses, succeeding the boat reliefs. These had been susceptible to being delayed by months during inclement weather. Trinity House played a major part in the design of the IALA Maritime Buoyage System, laying the first buoy off Dover, watched over by representatives of 16 nations on 15 April 1977.
By the 1960s Trinity House licensed about 500 pilots, of whom about 350 were in the London District, handling an estimated 60% of the nation’s piloted tonnage. The 1987 Pilotage Act authorized Trinity House to pass its District Pilotage responsibilities to various local harbour authorities, becoming instead a licensing authority for deep sea pilotage.
The completion of the lighthouse automation programme came with a ceremony held at the North Foreland Lighthouse on 26 November 1998, attended by the last six keepers and Master HRH The Duke of Edinburgh. On 9 June 1989 the last manned lightvessel was towed from the Channel lightvessel station to Harwich.
As a charitable body, the Corporation has owned a number of properties for benevolent purposes, chief among them the estate at <a href="Newington%2C%20London">Newington</a> (now rebranded as Trinity Village) and almshouses at <a href="Deptford">Deptford</a>, Mile End and <a href="Walmer">Walmer</a>; the latter estate was built in 1958 and is in use by the corporation today.
In 2011 HRH Princess Royal succeeded HRH The Duke of Edinburgh as Master. Her Royal Highness was aboard "Trinity House Motor Boat No.1" during the Diamond Jubilee procession.
In 2014 the <a href="Royal%20Mint">Royal Mint</a> issued a <a href="Two%20pounds%20%28British%20coin%29">two pound coin</a> commemorating the 500th anniversary of the granting of Trinity House's Royal Charter.
Trinity House has three main functions:
The Corporation also inspects buoys provided by local harbour authorities. It no longer provides local pilots for entering ports. Contrary to popular belief, Trinity House is not (and never has been) part of <a href="Her%20Majesty%27s%20Coastguard">HM Coastguard</a>, although it does work closely with the <a href="Maritime%20and%20Coastguard%20Agency">Maritime and Coastguard Agency</a>.
Trinity House's activities as a lighthouse authority are financed from “<a href="light%20dues">light dues</a>” levied on commercial shipping calling at ports in the United Kingdom.
Trinity House maintains 65 lighthouses ranging from isolated rock towers like the <a href="Eddystone%20Lighthouse">Eddystone</a> to mainland towers like <a href="Southwold%20lighthouse">Southwold lighthouse</a>.
All Trinity House lighthouses have been automated since November 1998, when the UK's last manned lighthouse, <a href="North%20Foreland">North Foreland</a> in Kent, was converted to automatic operation. Lighthouse automation began as long ago as 1910, thanks to an invention of <a href="Gustaf%20Dal%C3%A9n">Gustaf Dalén</a>. His <a href="sun%20valve">sun valve</a> was fitted in a number of lighthouses powered by <a href="acetylene">acetylene</a> gas. The vital component was a black metal rod, which was suspended vertically and connected to the gas supply. As it absorbed the sun's heat, the rod expanded downwards, cutting off the gas during the day.
Automation in the modern context began in the early 1980s, made possible firstly by the construction of lantern-top helipads at remote rock lighthouses, to enable the rapid transfer of technicians to a lighthouse in the event of a breakdown, and secondly, by the development of remote control technology, which enables all lighthouses and lightvessels to be monitored and controlled from the Trinity House Operations and Planning Centre, in Harwich, Essex.
The other General Lighthouse Authorities in other parts of the British Isles:
Trinity House operates three vessels around the coast of England, Wales and the Channel Islands.
Trinity House operates a number of small boats, mostly functioning as <a href="ship%27s%20tender">ship's tender</a>s to the vessels in the section above. The historic right of Trinity House to escort the <a href="monarch">Sovereign</a> when travelling by ship in <a href="territorial%20waters">territorial waters</a> is still exercised on ceremonial occasions. On the River Thames and inland waterways the duty is carried out by the vessel "Trinity House No 1 Boat". The name is in practice a designation of any boat assigned to this duty, rather than the name of a specific vessel, and at present a tender of THV "Galatea" is used for such ceremonial duties. However, for the <a href="Thames%20Diamond%20Jubilee%20Pageant">Thames Diamond Jubilee Pageant</a> on 3 June 2012 this boat had the name "T.H. No 1 Boat" painted onto the bow (left and right sides) whilst carrying the Master (HRH the Princess Royal) in the jubilee flotilla. On 8 November 2014, Trinity House entered a float into the annual <a href="Lord%20Mayor%27s%20Show">Lord Mayor's Show</a> in the <a href="City%20of%20London">City of London</a>, consisting of a heavy low-loader lorry, with the "Trinity House No 1 Boat" mounted on the low-loader trailer as an exhibit.
In addition to the maritime assets, the Corporation of Trinity House also owns two listed estates: one of predominantly residential buildings at Trinity Village in <a href="Borough%2C%20London">Borough, London</a>; and a working farm at <a href="Goxhill">Goxhill</a>, Lincolnshire. The rents from these properties form a substantial part of the corporation's income.
Amongst other significant assets, Trinity House operates a helicopter capable of landing on lighthouse and ship landing pads. Since May 2011 the aircraft in principal use has been an <a href="MD%20Helicopters%20MD%20Explorer">MD Helicopters MD Explorer 902</a>. The aircraft is operated by Trinity House and liveried for Trinity House, but is owned by Police Aviation Services (PAS) and operated under lease. The terms of the arrangement also provide for a reserve aircraft.
The Ensign of Trinity House is a British <a href="Red%20Ensign">Red Ensign</a> defaced with the shield of the coat of arms (a <a href="St%20George%27s%20Cross">St George's Cross</a> with a sailing ship in each quarter). The Master and Deputy Master each have their own flags.

</doc>
<doc id="90564" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90564" title="Eure">
Eure

Eure () is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the north of <a href="France">France</a> named after the river <a href="Eure%20%28river%29">Eure</a>.
Eure is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on 4 March 1790. It was created from part of the former <a href="provinces%20of%20France">province</a> of <a href="Normandy">Normandy</a>.
After the allied victory at <a href="Battle%20of%20Waterloo">Waterloo</a>, Eure was occupied by <a href="Prussia">Prussia</a>n <a href="Prussian%20army">troops</a> between June 1815 and November 1818.
In the wake of <a href="Louis-Napol%C3%A9on">Louis-Napoléon</a>s <a href="French%20coup%20of%201851">December coup</a> of 1851, Eure was one of the departments placed under a in order to avert resistance to the <a href="Second%20French%20Empire">post-republican</a> régime. In the event fewer than 100 government opponents in Eure were arrested.
Eure is part of the current <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Normandy%20%28French%20region%29">Normandy</a> and is surrounded by the departments of <a href="Seine-Maritime">Seine-Maritime</a>, <a href="Oise">Oise</a>, <a href="Val-d%27Oise">Val-d'Oise</a>, <a href="Yvelines">Yvelines</a>, <a href="Eure-et-Loir">Eure-et-Loir</a>, <a href="Orne">Orne</a>, and <a href="Calvados">Calvados</a>.
The department is a largely wooded plateau intersected by the valleys of the <a href="Seine%20River">Seine River</a> and its tributaries.
The altitude varies from <a href="sea%20level">sea level</a> in the north to 248 metres above it in the south.
The President of the General Council is <a href="Jean-Louis%20Destans">Jean-Louis Destans</a> of the <a href="Socialist%20Party%20%28France%29">Socialist Party</a>. 
The main tourist attraction is <a href="Giverny">Giverny</a> ( from Vernon) where <a href="Claude%20Monet">Claude Monet</a>'s house and garden can be seen, as well as other places of interest (see external links, below).
The <a href="Abbey%20of%20Bec">Abbey of Bec</a> and the <a href="Ch%C3%A2teau-Gaillard">Château-Gaillard</a> near Les Andelys are other important tourist attractions.
The Château of Buisson de May was built by the royal architect <a href="Jacques%20Denis%20Antoine">Jacques Denis Antoine</a> from 1781 to 1783.

</doc>
<doc id="90565" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90565" title="Eure-et-Loir">
Eure-et-Loir

Eure-et-Loir () is a <a href="France">French</a> <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a>, named after the <a href="Eure%20River">Eure</a> and <a href="Loir%20River">Loir</a> rivers.
Eure-et-Loir is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on March 4, 1790 pursuant to the Act of December 22, 1789. It was created mainly from parts of the former provinces of <a href="Orl%C3%A9anais">Orléanais</a> (Beauce) and Maine (<a href="Perche">Perche</a>), but also parts of Île-de-France (Drouais, <a href="Thimerais">Thimerais</a>, Valley of the Avre, Hurepoix).
The current department corresponds to the central part of the land of the <a href="Carnutes">Carnutes</a> who had their capital at <a href="Chartres">Autricum (Chartres)</a>. The Carnutes are known for their commitment, real or imagined, to the ancient <a href="Celtic%20mythology">Druidic religion</a>. A holy place in the "Forest of the Carnutes" used to host the annual <a href="Druid">Druid</a>ic assembly. In the north of the department another pre-Roman people, the little-known Durocasses, had their capital at <a href="Dreux">Dreux</a>.
Eure-et-Loir comprises the main part of the region of <a href="Beauce">Beauce</a>, politically it belongs to the current <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Centre-Val%20de%20Loire">Centre-Val de Loire</a> and is surrounded by the departments of <a href="Loir-et-Cher">Loir-et-Cher</a>, <a href="Loiret">Loiret</a>, <a href="Essonne">Essonne</a>, <a href="Yvelines">Yvelines</a>, <a href="Eure">Eure</a>, <a href="Orne">Orne</a>, and <a href="Sarthe">Sarthe</a>.
The inhabitants of the department are called "Euréliens".
The Eure-et-Loir is a department of agricultural tradition (Beauce), but also at the forefront in three economic sectors :
The department is a major economic player in the production of grain and oilseed in France. Its agricultural economy is still heavily dependent on economic and regulatory environment of the markets for crops. The Eure-et-Loir region is the first grain producer of France. It is also the national leader in the production of rapeseed and peas. 
Wheat production is by far the most dominant in the area. Nearly 40% of all farmland is devoted to the cultivation of wheat, which has generated an average of 29% of the commercial agricultural production of the department over the last 5 years.
Agriculture in the department is also promoted by the "Pôle AgroDynamic", a groupment of subsidiaries providing added values in different sectors: agro-energy, agribusiness, agricultural materials, Agrohealth.
The department also has the lead in renewable energy. Already ranked second nationally in terms of power generation through its wind farms located in particular in the Beauce region of Eure-et-Loir in 2012 will be the largest producer of electricity with photovoltaic French original creation on the airbase <a href="NATO">NATO</a> disused Crucey-Villages near Brezolles in the region's natural Thymerais, the largest photovoltaic park in France. Given in February 2011 by the General Council to the operator, <a href="EDF%20Energies%20Nouvelles">EDF Energies Nouvelles</a>, the park will cover 245 ha of the military base and produce the equivalent output of 160 wind turbines.
The President of the General Council is <a href="Alb%C3%A9ric%20de%20Montgolfier">Albéric de Montgolfier</a> of the <a href="Union%20for%20a%20Popular%20Movement">Union for a Popular Movement</a>.
The media in Eure-et-Loir include the following:

</doc>
<doc id="90566" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90566" title="Gard">
Gard

Gard (; ) is a <a href="Departments%20of%20France">department</a> in <a href="Southern%20France">southern</a> <a href="France">France</a> in the <a href="Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es">Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyrénées</a> <a href="Regions%20of%20France">region</a>.
The department is named after the River <a href="Gardon">Gardon</a>, and the <a href="Occitan">Occitan</a> name of the river has been replacing the French name of the department in recent decades, even among French speakers.
"See also: "<br>
The Gard area was settled by the <a href="Ancient%20Rome">Romans</a> in classical times. It was crossed by the <a href="Via%20Domitia">Via Domitia</a>, which was constructed in 118 BC.
Gard is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on March 4, 1790. It was created from the <a href="Provinces%20of%20France">ancient province</a> of <a href="Languedoc">Languedoc</a>.
It was originally intended to include the canton of <a href="Ganges%2C%20H%C3%A9rault">Ganges</a> in the department which would have been geographically logical, but Ganges was transferred to the neighbouring department of <a href="H%C3%A9rault">Hérault</a> at the outset. In return, Gard received from Hérault the fishing port of <a href="Aigues%20Mortes">Aigues Mortes</a> which gave the department its own outlet to the <a href="Gulf%20of%20Lion">Gulf of Lion</a>.
During the middle of the nineteenth century <a href="N%C3%AEmes">the prefecture</a>, traditionally a centre of commerce with a manufacturing sector focused on textiles, was an early beneficiary of railway development, becoming an important railway junction. Several luxurious hotels were built, and the improved market access provided by the railways also encouraged, initially, a rapid growth in wine growing: however, many of the department's viticulturalists were ruined by the arrival in 1872 of <a href="phylloxera">phylloxera</a>.
Gard is part of the <a href="Regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es">Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyrénées</a> and is surrounded by the departments of <a href="H%C3%A9rault">Hérault</a>, <a href="Loz%C3%A8re">Lozère</a>, <a href="Aveyron">Aveyron</a>, <a href="Bouches-du-Rh%C3%B4ne">Bouches-du-Rhône</a>, <a href="Vaucluse">Vaucluse</a>, and <a href="Ard%C3%A8che">Ardèche</a>. The highest point in the department is the <a href="Mont%20Aigoual">Mont Aigoual</a>. Serious <a href="flood">flood</a>ing has occurred in the department in recent years.
The President of the General Council is <a href="Damien%20Alary">Damien Alary</a> of the <a href="Socialist%20Party%20%28France%29">Socialist Party</a>.
In the closely contested first round of the 2012 French Presidential elections, Gard was the only department to vote in the <a href="National%20Front%20%28France%29">National Front</a> candidate <a href="Marine%20Le%20Pen">Marine Le Pen</a> by a slim <a href="relative%20majority">relative majority</a>, with 25.51% of the vote. The incumbent President <a href="Sarkozy">Sarkozy</a> of the <a href="Union%20for%20a%20Popular%20Movement">Union for a Popular Movement</a> party received 24.86% of the vote, while <a href="Socialist%20Party%20%28France%29">Socialist Party</a> candidate <a href="Fran%C3%A7ois%20Hollande">François Hollande</a> received 24.11% of the vote share.
The inhabitants of Gard are called "Gardois". In 2012, the population of Gard was with 8 towns having more than inhabitants :
Gard contains a part of the <a href="C%C3%A9vennes%20National%20Park">Cévennes National Park</a>.
There are important <a href="Roman%20architecture">Roman architectural</a> remains in <a href="N%C3%AEmes">Nîmes</a>, as well as the famous <a href="Roman%20aqueduct">Roman aqueduct</a>, the <a href="Pont%20du%20Gard">Pont du Gard</a>.
Gard is also home to the source of <a href="Perrier">Perrier</a>, a carbonated mineral water sold both in France and internationally on a large scale. The spring and facility are located just south-east of the commune of <a href="Verg%C3%A8ze">Vergèze</a>.

</doc>
<doc id="90574" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90574" title="Gers">
Gers

The Gers (<a href="French%20language">French</a>: "le Gers", or ; <a href="Gascon%20language">Gascon</a>: "Gers") is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the <a href="Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es">Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyrénées</a> <a href="Regions%20of%20France">region</a> in the <a href="South%20West%20France%20%28wine%20region%29">southwest of France</a> named after the <a href="Gers%20River">Gers River</a>.
Inhabitants are called les "Gersois".
In the <a href="Middle%20Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the <a href="Lordship%20of%20L%27Isle-Jourdain">Lordship of L'Isle-Jourdain</a> was nearby.
The Gers is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on 4 March 1790. It was created from parts of the <a href="provinces%20of%20France">former provinces</a> of <a href="Guyenne">Guyenne</a> and <a href="Gascony">Gascony</a>.
In 1808 it lost <a href="Lavit">Lavit</a> on its north-eastern side to the newly created department of <a href="Tarn-et-Garonne">Tarn-et-Garonne</a>.
The culture is largely agricultural, with great emphasis on the local <a href="gastronomy">gastronomical</a> specialties such as:
Also, some prominent cultivated crops are <a href="Maize">corn</a>, <a href="colza">colza</a>, <a href="sunflowers">sunflowers</a> and <a href="grain">grain</a>.
The <a href="Gascon%20language">Gascon language</a> is a dialect of <a href="Occitan">Occitan</a>, but it is not widely spoken. The department is characterised by sleepy <a href="bastide">bastide</a> villages and rolling hills with the Pyrenees visible to the south.
<a href="Alexandre%20Dumas%2C%20p%C3%A8re">Alexandre Dumas, père</a> created the famous Gersois <a href="d%27Artagnan">d'Artagnan</a>, the fourth <a href="musketeer">musketeer</a> of "<a href="The%20Three%20Musketeers">The Three Musketeers</a>". A museum to d'Artagnan is found in the Gersois village of <a href="Lupiac">Lupiac</a>.
The President of the General Council is <a href="Jean-Pierre%20Pujol">Jean-Pierre Pujol</a> of the <a href="Socialist%20Party%20%28France%29">Socialist Party</a>.
Located in <a href="South%20West%20France%20%28wine%20region%29">southwestern</a> France, the Gers is part of the <a href="Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es">Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyrénées</a> region. It is surrounded by the departments of <a href="Hautes-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es">Hautes-Pyrénées</a>, <a href="Haute-Garonne">Haute-Garonne</a>, <a href="Tarn-et-Garonne">Tarn-et-Garonne</a>, <a href="Lot-et-Garonne">Lot-et-Garonne</a>, <a href="Landes%20%28department%29">Landes</a>, and <a href="Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es-Atlantiques">Pyrénées-Atlantiques</a>. The Gers is often referred to as amongst the least densely populated, or most rural, areas in all of <a href="Western%20Europe">Western Europe</a>.
List of the 10 most important cities of the département:
The annual rain varies from more than 900 mm in the south-west of the department, to less than 700 mm in the North-East (<a href="Auch">Auch</a>, <a href="Condom%2C%20Gers">Condom</a>, <a href="Lectoure">Lectoure</a>).
The winters vary, with only occasional freezing temperatures, but the climate remains mild and dry, the departement is one of sunniest in France.
The summers are very hot and dry, the temperatures often is exceeding 40°. <a href="Auch">Auch</a> is together with <a href="Toulouse">Toulouse</a> and <a href="Millau">Millau</a> one of the hottest cities of France, with often more than 300 sunny days in the year.
According to recent data tourism represents annually:

</doc>
<doc id="90575" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90575" title="Ille-et-Vilaine">
Ille-et-Vilaine

Ille-et-Vilaine (; ) is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> of <a href="France">France</a>, located in the <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Brittany%20%28administrative%20region%29">Brittany</a> in the northwest of the country.
Ille-et-Vilaine is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on March 4, 1790. It was created from part of the <a href="provinces%20of%20France">province</a> of <a href="Brittany">Brittany</a>.
Ille-et-Vilaine is a part of the current region of Brittany and is bordered by the departments of <a href="Manche">Manche</a> to the north-east, <a href="Mayenne">Mayenne</a> to the east, <a href="Maine-et-Loire">Maine-et-Loire</a> to the south-east, <a href="Loire-Atlantique">Loire-Atlantique</a> to the south, <a href="Morbihan">Morbihan</a> to the south-west, and <a href="C%C3%B4tes-d%27Armor">Côtes-d'Armor</a> to the west and north-west. Also the <a href="English%20Channel">English Channel</a> ("la Manche" in French) borders the department to the north.
The department is named after its two main rivers, the <a href="Ille">Ille</a> and the <a href="Vilaine">Vilaine</a>, whose confluence is in <a href="Rennes">Rennes</a>, the capital of the department and of the region. Other important rivers include :
The department is moderately elevated above the level of the sea, with many hills; however the central part has a dense network of many tributaries to the Ille or the Vilaine from all around the large basin of Rennes. The elevated hills bordering this basin are covered by several old forests now exploited by men for the production of wood. The basin itself is a rich agriculture area, as well as the north-west of the department near the Rance.
In the extreme south of the department the Vilaine goes through a slower decrease in elevation in a small corridor in the area of the city of <a href="Redon">Redon</a>; in this area, the Vilaine is known for its frequent floods during its recent history, often because of too-intensive draining of agricultural areas around Rennes (some floods also affected some parts of Rennes up to the 1980s due to incorrect management of old equipment of the canal of Ille-et-Rance). To avoid these hazards within inhabited cities, some natural fields bordering the Vilaine in the south of the department are now left floodable, and works for regulating the level have been done including, small artificial lakes with derivation channels, replanting trees in the basin, better management of forests, and regulating the artificial drains made for agriculture.
The population has grown rapidly over the last few decades and was estimated at 945,851 in January 2009.
<a href="Gallo%20language">Gallo</a> is a historic minority language spoken in eastern Brittany. Gallo and <a href="Breton%20language">Breton</a> are both studied at the University of Rennes.
Historically, the Breton language was little spoken in the eastern part of Brittany, and this was one of the first regions where the language disappeared such that Breton was not spoken for many centuries.
Today, Breton is again spoken due to schools teaching Breton, and due to a small immigration from Western Brittany to Eastern Brittany, where there are more cities with growing industries and external investment and therefore more work. A recent study shows that Breton speakers in this region represent 3.3% of the total number of Breton speakers. The Breton speakers aged 18–30 in this region represent 12.7% of the total number of Breton speakers of that age group. This is because there are relatively few elder speakers but many people are learning the language. The study says that about 1,800 people are learning it (this includes one <a href="Diwan%20%28school%29">Diwan</a> school in <a href="Rennes">Rennes</a>, some bilingual public and catholic schools, and evening courses).
The President of the General Council is the <a href="Socialist%20Party%20%28France%29">Socialist</a> <a href="Jean-Louis%20Tourenne">Jean-Louis Tourenne</a> since the <a href="French%20cantonal%20elections%2C%202004">French cantonal elections, 2004</a>.
The city of <a href="Rennes">Rennes</a> and its suburbs are the original base of the rapid Socialist growth in the department. The city has been governed by Socialist Mayors since 1977, notably by <a href="Edmond%20Herv%C3%A9">Edmond Hervé</a> between 1977 and 2008. Since then, the growth of <a href="middle-class">middle-class</a> suburbs have helped the Socialists, who have been rapidly gaining strength in those formerly right-leaning areas.
The right remains strong in a strongly <a href="Catholic">Catholic</a> (<a href="cleric">cleric</a>al) area from outside <a href="Redon">Redon</a> to <a href="Vitr%C3%A9%2C%20Ille-et-Vilaine">Vitré</a> or <a href="Foug%C3%A8res">Fougères</a>. In addition, the right is strong in the wealthy coastal area of <a href="Saint-Malo">Saint-Malo</a> and <a href="Dinard">Dinard</a>.

</doc>
<doc id="90576" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90576" title="Indre">
Indre

Indre () is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the centre of France named after the river <a href="Indre%20%28river%29">Indre</a>. The inhabitants of the department are called "Indriens". Indre is part of the current <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Centre-Val%20de%20Loire">Centre-Val de Loire</a> and is surrounded by the departments of <a href="Indre-et-Loire">Indre-et-Loire</a>, Loir-et-Cher, <a href="Cher%20%28department%29">Cher</a>, Creuse, <a href="Vienne">Vienne</a>, and <a href="Haute-Vienne">Haute-Vienne</a>. The <a href="Prefectures%20in%20France">préfecture</a> (capital) is <a href="Ch%C3%A2teauroux">Châteauroux</a> and there are five districts with <a href="Subprefectures%20in%20France">subpréfectures</a> at <a href="Le%20Blanc">Le Blanc</a>, <a href="La%20Ch%C3%A2tre">La Châtre</a>, <a href="Issoudun">Issoudun</a>, <a href="Argenton-sur-Creuse">Argenton-sur-Creuse</a> and <a href="Ch%C3%A2tillon-sur-Indre">Châtillon-sur-Indre</a>.
Indre is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on 4 March 1790, by order of the <a href="National%20Constituent%20Assembly">National Constituent Assembly</a>. The new departments were to be uniformly administered and approximately equal in size and population to one another. The department was created from part of the former province of <a href="Berry%20%28province%29">Berry</a>.
Before the Roman conquest, the Celtic <a href="Bituriges">Bituriges</a> tribe occupied an area that included Indre, Cher, and part of <a href="Limousin">Limousin</a>. Their capital was Avaricum (<a href="Bourges">Bourges</a>), and another important settlement was at <a href="Argenton-sur-Creuse">Argenton-sur-Creuse</a>. The area then became part of <a href="Roman%20Gaul">Roman Gaul</a> after its conquest by <a href="Julius%20Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> around 58 BC, and enjoyed a period of stability. Following the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, the Frankish tribes living in Gaul were united under the <a href="Merovingian%20dynasty">Merovingians</a>, and succeeded in conquering most of the country in the sixth century AD. From this time, the <a href="Francia">Franks</a> controlled most of Gaul and the <a href="Carolingian%20Empire">Carolingian Empire</a> was the last stage of their rule. The Carolingian dynasty reached its peak with the crowning of <a href="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> and after his death in 814, it began to fragment. The Carolingian territories were divided into three sections in 843 at the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Verdun">Treaty of Verdun</a>, and the area that is now the department of Indre, became part of <a href="West%20Francia">West Francia</a>. In 869, the king of <a href="Middle%20Francia">Middle Francia</a> died without leaving a legitimate heir, and eventually part of that kingdom was added to West Francia to effectively form the medieval <a href="Kingdom%20of%20France">Kingdom of France</a>.
A castle was built at Châteauroux in the late tenth century. In the eleventh century, the lords of Châteauroux were powerful in the region; their "principality" covered two thirds of the current Department of Indre and they had their own coinage.
Indre is a department in central France and is part of the region of <a href="Centre-Val%20de%20Loire">Centre-Val de Loire</a>. The capital and largest town in the department is <a href="Ch%C3%A2teauroux">Châteauroux</a>. To the north of Indre lies <a href="Loir-et-Cher">Loir-et-Cher</a>, to the east <a href="Cher%20%28department%29">Cher</a>, to the south lies <a href="Creuse">Creuse</a> and <a href="Haute-Vienne">Haute-Vienne</a>, to the southwest lies <a href="Vienne">Vienne</a>, and to the northwest lies <a href="Indre-et-Loire">Indre-et-Loire</a>. Most of the department is relatively level plains in the broad Loire Valley.
The area of the department is and it is some from north to south and some wide. The land is undulating and slopes gently towards the northwest. The main rivers are the <a href="Creuse%20%28river%29">Creuse</a>, the <a href="Claise%20%28river%29">Claise</a> and the <a href="Indre%20%28river%29">Indre</a>. The Creuse, a tributary of the <a href="Vienne%20%28river%29">Vienne</a>, is long and has been impounded in several places; at the time it was built in 1926, the <a href="Eguzon%20Dam">Eguzon Dam</a> was the largest dam in Europe. The Claise is long and is a tributary of the Creuse. The Indre is a longer waterway and flows centrally through the department from south to north, through the major towns of <a href="La%20Ch%C3%A2tre">La Châtre</a>, <a href="Ch%C3%A2teauroux">Châteauroux</a> and <a href="Loches">Loches</a>. It is a tributary of the <a href="Loire">Loire</a>, joining it at <a href="Chinon">Chinon</a> in the neighbouring department of Loir-et-Cher.
Indre is divided into four natural regions; North Boischaut is undulating land with an altitude between and occupies the northeast of the department, South Boischaut is hilly and lies in the south and southeast, a marshy tract of land known as Brenne is in the southwestern part of the department, and the flat, dry, flinty limestone plateau of Champagne berrichonne is in the east and continues into Cher. The highest point of the department is near the town of <a href="Pouligny-Notre-Dame">Pouligny-Notre-Dame</a> where the land rises to above sea level. The department is made up of of land of which are under arable cropping, are grassland, are woodland, are under grapes and are gardens and orchards. The remaining land is heathland, urban land and waterways.
The economy is mostly agricultural. In the past many sheep were raised in the department and woollen yarn was the main manufactured product. There is also a linen industry as well as the manufacture of hosiery and paper. The department has some minerals in the form of coal, iron, stone, marble and clay.
The President of the General Council is <a href="Louis%20Pinton">Louis Pinton</a> of the <a href="Union%20for%20a%20Popular%20Movement">Union for a Popular Movement</a>.
Châteauroux, the capital of the department, is a historic town. It was originally called "Château Raoul", the present day château which now houses the préfecture being built on the site of a castle constructed in the tenth century by Raoul le Large, lord of <a href="D%C3%A9ols">Déols</a>. In 1188 the castle was held by Philippe Auguste who was concerned in protecting the drapery business centred in the town and along the banks of the River Indre from fraud. From 1612 to 1736 it was a duchy of the <a href="Princes%20of%20Cond%C3%A9">House of Condé</a> and from 1742 to 1744 was under the control of the Marquise de la Tournelle. 
The Indre department has two villages which have been classified among the <a href="Les%20Plus%20Beaux%20Villages%20de%20France">most beautiful villages of France</a>: <a href="Saint-Beno%C3%AEt-du-Sault">Saint-Benoît-du-Sault</a> and <a href="Gargilesse-Dampierre">Gargilesse-Dampierre</a>.

</doc>
<doc id="90577" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90577" title="Jura (department)">
Jura (department)

Jura () is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the east of <a href="France">France</a> named after the <a href="Jura%20mountains">Jura mountains</a>.
Historically, Jura belonged to the <a href="County%20of%20Burgundy">Free County of Burgundy</a>, known in French as the <a href="Franche-Comt%C3%A9">Franche-Comté</a>. <a href="Dole%2C%20Jura">Dole</a> was the capital until the region was conquered by <a href="Louis%20XIV%20of%20France">Louis XIV</a> and the capital was moved to <a href="Besan%C3%A7on">Besançon</a>. Dole is now a "sous-préfecture" of Jura. 
As early as the 13th century, inhabitants of the southern 2/3 of Jura spoke a dialect of <a href="Arpitan">Arpitan</a> language. It continued to be spoken in rural areas into the 20th century.
Jura is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on March 4, 1790. It was created from part of the <a href="provinces%20of%20France">former province</a> of <a href="Franche-Comt%C3%A9">Franche-Comté</a>. The <a href="Prefectures%20in%20France">prefecture</a> (capital) is <a href="Lons-le-Saunier">Lons-le-Saunier</a>.
Jura is one of eight departments of the <a href="Bourgogne-Franche-Comt%C3%A9">Bourgogne-Franche-Comté</a> region and is surrounded by the French departments of <a href="Doubs%20%28department%29">Doubs</a>, <a href="Haute-Sa%C3%B4ne">Haute-Saône</a>, <a href="C%C3%B4te-d%27Or">Côte-d'Or</a>, <a href="Sa%C3%B4ne-et-Loire">Saône-et-Loire</a>, and <a href="Ain">Ain</a>, as well as the Swiss canton of <a href="Vaud">Vaud</a> on the east.
The Jura mountains are wooded and rolling, not craggy and rocky like the <a href="Alps">Alps</a>.
Many lakes can be found throughout the Jura - the largest natural lake being <a href="Lac%20de%20Chalain">Lac de Chalain</a>, measuring 3 km long and 1 km wide. <a href="Lac%20de%20Vouglans">Lac de Vouglans</a> was formed after the building of a hydro-electric dam. It is one of the largest man-made lakes in France.
The President of the General Council is <a href="Jean%20Raquin">Jean Raquin</a> (<a href="Miscellaneous%20Right">Miscellaneous Right</a>). 
The climate of the Jura varies greatly by elevation. The lower <a href="valleys">valleys</a> are temperate and pleasant, but the high mountain valleys have bitterly cold winters.
Jura is a <a href="wine">wine</a>-growing region. The <a href="Jura%20wine">Jura wine</a>s are very distinctive and unusual wines, such as <a href="vin%20jaune">vin jaune</a>, which is made by a similar process to <a href="sherry">sherry</a>, developing under a <a href="flor">flor</a> of <a href="yeast">yeast</a>. This is made from the local <a href="Savagnin">Savagnin</a> grape variety. Other grape varieties include <a href="Poulsard">Poulsard</a>, <a href="Trousseau%20%28grape%29">Trousseau</a>, and <a href="Chardonnay">Chardonnay</a>.
The department contains no industrial cities: the few towns function as administrative and commercial centres serving Jura's rural economy. In the absence of large-scale industrial enterprises, small artisanal businesses play an important role. The Jura CFA "(Centre for apprenticeship and training)" recently recorded 752 current apprenticeships in trades such as building, baking, butchery, hair dressing, car repairing, sales and other non-factory based occupations.
The Jura mountains provide ample opportunities for hiking, skiing, and other winter sports.

</doc>
<doc id="90578" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90578" title="Haute-Loire">
Haute-Loire

Haute-Loire (; ) is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in south-central France named after the <a href="Loire%20River">Loire River</a>. Haute-Loire is part of the current <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Auvergne-Rh%C3%B4ne-Alpes">Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes</a> and is surrounded by the departments of <a href="Loire%20%28department%29">Loire</a>, <a href="Ard%C3%A8che">Ardèche</a>, <a href="Loz%C3%A8re">Lozère</a>, <a href="Cantal">Cantal</a>, and <a href="Puy-de-D%C3%B4me">Puy-de-Dôme</a>. The inhabitants of the department are called "Altiligériens" (English : Altiligerians).
The department covers the upper reaches of the Loire and consists of the Loire Valley and the surrounding mountains in the <a href="Massif%20Central">Massif Central</a>. It is one of the original 83 departments of France created in 1790 during the French Revolution. Parts of the department are included in the <a href="Livradois-Forez%20Regional%20Natural%20Park">Livradois-Forez Regional Natural Park</a>.
The first known inhabitants of this region were hunter-gatherers and it was later occupied by pastoralists, shepherds living in caves or simple huts. It later came under the control of a Gaulish tribe called <a href="Vellavi">Vellavi</a> and at the time of <a href="Julius%20Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>'s <a href="Gallic%20Wars">Gallic Wars</a>, this area lay on the border of <a href="Gallia%20Narbonensis">Gallia Narbonensis</a>. The area became a <a href="Roman%20province">Roman province</a> in 121 BC, originally under the name "Gallia Transalpina" (Transalpine Gaul). The name distinguished it from <a href="Cisalpine%20Gaul">Cisalpine Gaul</a> on the near side of the Alps to Rome. In 40 BC, during the <a href="Second%20Triumvirate">Second Triumvirate</a>, <a href="Marcus%20Aemilius%20Lepidus%20%28triumvir%29">Lepidus</a> was given responsibility for Narbonese Gaul (along with Hispania and Africa), while <a href="Mark%20Antony">Mark Antony</a> was given the balance of Gaul.
The area was ravaged by barbarian invasions in the last years of the Roman Empire, and "Galla Narbonensis" and surrounding areas were incorporated into the <a href="Visigothic%20Kingdom">Visigothic Kingdom</a> between 462 and 477 AD, permanently ending the political control of Rome. After the Gothic takeover, the Visigothic dominions were generally known as <a href="Septimania">Septimania</a>. The king of the Visigoths, <a href="Alaric%20I">Alaric I</a> was killed at the <a href="Battle%20of%20Vouill%C3%A9">Battle of Vouillé</a> in 507, a battle won by <a href="Clovis%20I">Clovis I</a> and Velay came under Frankish rule. On Clovis' death in 511, his kingdom was divided among his four sons, and Velay was included in the part of the king of <a href="Austrasia">Austrasia</a>, then part of the French kingdom. These subdivisions were united under the auspices of his longest surviving son <a href="Chlothar%20I">Chlothar I</a>, only to be split again under his four sons at his death. It was reunited once more under <a href="Chlothar%20II">Chlothar II</a> who became the sole ruler of the Frankish people in 613.
In about 928, the area became a fiefdom of the <a href="Count%20of%20Toulouse">Count of Toulouse</a>, and later came under the control of the <a href="Count%20of%20Poitiers">Count of Poitiers</a>. In 1137, <a href="Eleanor%20of%20Aquitaine">Eleanor of Aquitaine</a> succeeded to the <a href="Duchy%20of%20Aquitaine">Duchy of Aquitaine</a> and her marriage to Henry, Duke of Normandy, who later became <a href="Henry%20II%20of%20England">Henry II of England</a>, brought Auvergne under English rule. By the end of the thirteenth century the area was known as the Dauphiné d’Auvergne.
Haute-Loire is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on 4 March 1790, by order of the <a href="National%20Constituent%20Assembly">National Constituent Assembly</a>. The new departments were to be uniformly administered and approximately equal to one another in size and population. Haute-Loire was formed from parts of the former provinces of <a href="Auvergne%20%28province%29">Auvergne</a>, <a href="Languedoc">Languedoc</a>, and <a href="Lyonnais">Lyonnais</a>. Two thirds of the department, centred on <a href="Le%20Puy-en-Velay">Le Puy-en-Velay</a>, used to be part of the former province of Languedoc and is known as Velay. The geographical distance from <a href="Toulouse">Toulouse</a> had allowed this region to enjoy a great deal of autonomy.
Haute-Loire is a department in south central France and is part of the region of <a href="Auvergne-Rh%C3%B4ne-Alpes">Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes</a>. The capital and largest town in the department is <a href="Le%20Puy-en-Velay">Le Puy-en-Velay</a>. To the north of Haute-Loire lie <a href="Puy-de-D%C3%B4me">Puy-de-Dôme</a> and <a href="Loire%20%28department%29">Loire</a>, to the east lies <a href="Ard%C3%A8che">Ardèche</a>, to the south lies <a href="Loz%C3%A8re">Lozère</a> and to the west lies <a href="Cantal">Cantal</a>. The river <a href="Loire">Loire</a> rises in the southern part of the department and flows northwards, creating a wide valley. On either side of this lie ranges of mountains in the <a href="Massif%20Central">Massif Central</a>. The north part of the department is part of the <a href="Livradois-Forez%20Regional%20Natural%20Park">Livradois-Forez Regional Natural Park</a>, a <a href="protected%20area">protected area</a> of traditionally-farmed agricultural land and woodland, covering a total area of .
The department has four mountain ranges running north and south. These are the Haut-Vivarais and its continuation, the Boutières range, the Massif du Mégal, the Velay Mountains and the Margeride Mountains.
Historically, Velay has been associated with the traditional region of <a href="Vivarais">Vivarais</a>, now part of Ardèche. The two regions share a common dialect which is similar to that spoken in <a href="Proven%C3%A7al%20dialect">Provence</a>, the reason probably being associated with the trade links between the two regions.
<a href="Claude-Jean%20Allouez">Claude-Jean Allouez</a> (1622–1689) was born in Saint-Didier-en-Velay. He was a <a href="Society%20of%20Jesus">Jesuit</a> missionary and explorer in <a href="North%20America">North America</a> who is said to have converted ten thousand <a href="Native%20Americans%20in%20the%20United%20States">Native Americans</a>. The town of <a href="Allouez%2C%20Wisconsin">Allouez, Wisconsin</a> is named after him. The de Polignac family has its historic seat in the department, and various descendants of <a href="Gilbert%20du%20Motier%2C%20Marquis%20de%20Lafayette">General Lafayette</a> were senators for this region in the nineteenth century.
The department has attractive landscapes and is popular with tourists. <a href="Le%20Puy-en-Velay">Le Puy-en-Velay</a> has a historic <a href="Le%20Puy%20Cathedral">cathedral</a> at which pilgrims gather before starting their journey to <a href="Santiago%20de%20Compostela">Santiago de Compostela</a>. The cathedral has been a <a href="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="World%20Heritage%20Site">World Heritage Site</a> since 1998, as part of the "<a href="World%20Heritage%20Sites%20of%20the%20Routes%20of%20Santiago%20de%20Compostela%20in%20France">Routes of Santiago de Compostela in France</a>". Another site of pilgrimage is at <a href="Saint%20Michel%20d%27Aiguilhe">Saint Michel d'Aiguilhe</a>, a twelfth century chapel on top of a rocky pinnacle approached by a flight of 268 steps.

</doc>
<doc id="90579" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90579" title="Loire-Atlantique">
Loire-Atlantique

Loire-Atlantique (; formerly "Loire-Inférieure") is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> on the west coast of <a href="France">France</a> named after the <a href="Loire%20River">Loire River</a> and the <a href="Atlantic%20Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>.
Loire-Atlantique is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on March 4, 1790. Originally, it was named Loire-Inférieure, but its name was changed in 1957 to Loire-Atlantique.
The area is part of the historical <a href="Duchy%20of%20Brittany">Duchy of Brittany</a>, and contains what many people still consider to be Brittany's capital, <a href="Nantes">Nantes</a>. However, when the system of <a href="Regions%20of%20France">French Regions</a> was reviewed by the Vichy Government, the department was excluded from the <a href="Brittany%20%28administrative%20region%29">Region of Brittany</a> and included in the newly created <a href="Pays%20de%20la%20Loire">Pays de la Loire</a> Region. Whilst these administrative changes were reversed after the war, they were re-implemented in the 1955 boundary changes intended to optimise the management of the regions. There has since been a series of campaigns reflecting a strong local mood to have the department reintegrated with Brittany.
Loire-Atlantique is part of the current region of <a href="Pays-de-la-Loire">Pays-de-la-Loire</a> and is surrounded by the department of <a href="Morbihan">Morbihan</a>, <a href="Ille-et-Vilaine">Ille-et-Vilaine</a>, <a href="Maine-et-Loire">Maine-et-Loire</a>, and <a href="Vend%C3%A9e">Vendée</a>, with the Atlantic on the west.
<a href="Upper%20Brittany">Upper Brittany</a>'s indigenous language is <a href="Gallo%20language">Gallo</a>, a romance language related to French. The number of Gallo language speakers has been in steady decline since the early 20th century. The language is neither official nor taught in primary or secondary education. The <a href="Breton%20language">Breton language</a>, a <a href="Celtic%20languages">Celtic language</a>, native to <a href="Lower%20Brittany">Lower Brittany</a>, was historically spoken in the western area of Loire-Atlantique, and up to 1920 in <a href="Batz-sur-Mer">Batz-sur-Mer</a>. This area (<a href="Gu%C3%A9rande">Guérande</a>, <a href="Le%20Croisic">Le Croisic</a>, and <a href="La%20Baule">La Baule</a>) has a rather Breton <a href="toponymy">toponymy</a>: for instance, "Guérande" originates from the Breton "Gwenn Rann" (white or pure place).
The folklore and musical traditions of eastern or Lower Brittany are generally similar to those of western or Upper Brittany.
The "département" operates the <a href="Lila%20network">Lila network</a> of interurban buses, which link its villages, towns and cities. The urban areas of <a href="Nantes">Nantes</a> and <a href="Saint-Nazaire">Saint-Nazaire</a> operate their own urban transport networks, known as <a href="Semitan">Tan</a> and <a href="Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9%20des%20Transports%20de%20l%27Agglom%C3%A9ration%20Nazairienne">Stran</a> respectively.
By rail, the regional trains and buses of the <a href="TER%20Pays%20de%20la%20Loire">TER Pays de la Loire</a> link major towns and cities of the <a href="Pays%20de%20la%20Loire">Pays de la Loire</a> and adjoining regions, including those of the "département". Nantes is on the <a href="TGV">TGV</a> network, with high speed trains running to <a href="Paris">Paris</a> by the <a href="LGV%20Atlantique">LGV Atlantique</a> in just over 2 hours.
<a href="Nantes%20Atlantique%20Airport">Nantes Atlantique Airport</a>, located 8 km to the southwest of the city of Nantes, serves the "département" and surrounding areas. It is the biggest airport in northwestern France, linking with several French, North African and European cities, as well as <a href="Montreal">Montreal</a> in Canada. It is currently planned that this airport will be replaced by a new <a href="A%C3%A9roport%20du%20Grand%20Ouest">Aéroport du Grand Ouest</a>, situated 30 km to the north-west of Nantes in the "commune" of <a href="Notre-Dame-des-Landes">Notre-Dame-des-Landes</a>. The €580 million project was approved in February 2008, with construction expected to start in 2012 and an opening date in 2015.

</doc>
<doc id="90580" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90580" title="Haute-Garonne">
Haute-Garonne

Haute-Garonne (; ; ) is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the southwest of <a href="France">France</a> named after the <a href="Garonne">Garonne</a> river. Its main city and capital is <a href="Toulouse">Toulouse</a>.
Haute-Garonne is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on 4 March 1790. It was created from part of the former province of <a href="Languedoc">Languedoc</a>.
The department was originally larger. The reduction in its area resulted from an <a href="Napoleon%20I">imperial</a> decree dated 21 November 1808 and which established the neighbouring department of <a href="Tarn-et-Garonne">Tarn-et-Garonne</a>, to the north. The new department, created in response to the pleadings of various locally powerful politicians, took territory from five surrounding departments including Haute-Garonne. The districts lost to Tarn-et-Garonne in 1808 were those of <a href="Montech">Montech</a> and <a href="Castelsarrasin">Castelsarrasin</a>.
Haute-Garonne is part of the current <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es">Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyrénées</a> and is surrounded by the departments of <a href="Hautes-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es">Hautes-Pyrénées</a>, <a href="Gers">Gers</a>, <a href="Tarn-et-Garonne">Tarn-et-Garonne</a>, <a href="Tarn%20%28department%29">Tarn</a>, <a href="Aude">Aude</a>, and <a href="Ari%C3%A8ge%20%28department%29">Ariège</a>. It also borders <a href="Spain">Spain</a> in the south (<a href="Lleida%20%28province%29">province of Lleida</a> and <a href="Huesca%20%28province%29">province of Huesca</a>).
The department is crossed by the upper course of the <a href="Garonne%20River">Garonne River</a> (hence the name) for nearly . The borders of the department follow the river. The Garonne enters France from Spain at the town of Fos, goes through <a href="Toulouse">Toulouse</a> and leaves the department The extreme south of the department lies in the <a href="Pyrenees">Pyrenees</a> mountain range and is very mountainous. The highest elevation is the Peak of Perdiguère, at above sea level.
This department was the political base of former Prime Minister <a href="Lionel%20Jospin">Lionel Jospin</a>.
The President of the General Council is <a href="Pierre%20Izard">Pierre Izard</a> of the <a href="Socialist%20Party%20%28France%29">Socialist Party</a>.
The inhabitants of the department are called "Haut-Garonnais". The greatest population concentration is around <a href="Toulouse">Toulouse</a>. The south of the department is quite sparsely populated. More than a million people inhabited the department at the last <a href="census">census</a> in 1999. Young people are well represented with 55% of the population under the age of 40 and of those, 16% are between the ages of 20 and 29. This is because <a href="Toulouse">Toulouse</a> is a <a href="university">university</a> town.
The largest towns are:
The department has four <a href="ski">ski</a> resorts.

</doc>
<doc id="90581" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90581" title="Loiret">
Loiret

Loiret () is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in north-central <a href="France">France</a>.
The department is named after the river <a href="Loiret%20%28river%29">Loiret</a>, a tributary of the <a href="River%20Loire">Loire</a>, and which is located wholly within the department. The capital of the department is <a href="Orl%C3%A9ans">Orléans</a>, which is about southwest of <a href="Paris">Paris</a>. As well as being the regional capital, it is a historic city on the banks of the Loire. It has a large central area with many historic buildings and mansions, and a cathedral dating back to the thirteenth century that was rebuilt after being destroyed by Protestant forces in 1568. The Loire Valley is famous for its stately châteaux.
Loiret is one of the original 83 departments that was created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on March 4, 1790 by order of the <a href="National%20Constituent%20Assembly">National Constituent Assembly</a>. The new departments were to be uniformly administered and approximately equal to one another in size and population. 
It was created from the former province of <a href="Orl%C3%A9anais">Orléanais</a> which was too large to continue in its previous form.
The Loire Valley was occupied in <a href="Palaeolithic">Palaeolithic</a> times as attested by numerous archaeological sites in the department. The Celts were here, bringing crafts and trades, and the <a href="Romans">Romans</a> occupied the area after the <a href="Gallic%20Wars">Gallic Wars</a>. They built roads and founded cities such as <a href="Cenabum">Cenabum</a>, on the site of present-day Orléans, and <a href="Sceaux-du-G%C3%A2tinais">Sceaux-du-Gâtinais</a>. Around 451, the Huns invaded the region but were repelled before reaching Cenabum. The <a href="Franks">Franks</a> reached the Loire and <a href="Clovis%20I">Clovis I</a> reigned in the area. A time of peace and prosperity ensued during the reign of <a href="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>.
The department of Loiret was historically in the province of Orléans in north central France, and along with the departments of <a href="Loir-et-Cher">Loir-et-Cher</a> and <a href="Eure-et-Loir">Eure-et-Loir</a> now forms the region <a href="Centre-Val%20de%20Loire">Centre-Val de Loire</a>. To the north of Loiret lie the departments of Eure-et-Loir, <a href="Essonne">Essonne</a> and <a href="Seine-et-Marne">Seine-et-Marne</a>, to the east lies <a href="Yonne">Yonne</a>, to the southeast <a href="Ni%C3%A8vre">Nièvre</a>, to the south <a href="Cher%20%28d%C3%A9partement%29">Cher</a>, and to the west <a href="Loir-et-Cher">Loir-et-Cher</a>.
The department consists of mostly flat low-lying land through which flows the <a href="River%20Loire">River Loire</a>. This river enters the department near <a href="Ch%C3%A2tillon-sur-Loire">Châtillon-sur-Loire</a> in the southeast, flows northwestwards to Orleans where it turns to flow south west, leaving the department near <a href="Beaugency">Beaugency</a>. The <a href="Canal%20d%27Orl%C3%A9ans">Canal d'Orléans</a> connects the Loire River at Orléans to a junction with the <a href="Canal%20du%20Loing">Canal du Loing</a> and the <a href="Canal%20de%20Briare">Canal de Briare</a> in the village of <a href="Buges">Buges</a> near <a href="Montargis">Montargis</a>. The River Loire and these canals formed important trading routes before the arrival of the railways. The <a href="River%20Loiret">River Loiret</a>, after which the department is named, is long and joins the Loire southwest of Orléans. Its source is at Orléans-la-Source, and its mouth at <a href="Saint-Hilaire-Saint-Mesmin">Saint-Hilaire-Saint-Mesmin</a>. Other rivers in the department, are the <a href="River%20Loing">River Loing</a>, a right-bank tributary of the Loire, and the <a href="Ouanne%20%28river%29">River Ouanne</a> which flows into the Loing.
The department has a total area of and is from west to east and from north to south. Large parts of the land are used for agriculture, and these are separated by low wooded hills and some forested areas. The northwestern part of the department is in the wheat-growing region known as <a href="Beauce">Beauce</a>, an undulating plateau with some of France's best agricultural land. This area was popular with the French aristocracy in the <a href="Middle%20Ages">Middle Ages</a> and <a href="the%20Renaissance">the Renaissance</a> period, and there are many historic <a href="ch%C3%A2teau">château</a>x in the department including <a href="Ch%C3%A2teau%20d%27Augerville">Château d'Augerville</a>, <a href="Ch%C3%A2teau%20de%20Bellegarde">Château de Bellegarde</a>, <a href="Ch%C3%A2teau%20de%20Gien">Château de Gien</a>, <a href="Ch%C3%A2teau%20du%20Hallier">Château du Hallier</a>, <a href="Ch%C3%A2teau%20de%20Meung-sur-Loire">Château de Meung-sur-Loire</a>, <a href="Ch%C3%A2teau%20de%20Sully-sur-Loire">Château de Sully-sur-Loire</a> and <a href="Ch%C3%A2teau%20de%20Trousse-Barri%C3%A8re">Château de Trousse-Barrière</a>.
The part of the department south of the River Loire is known as the <a href="Sologne">Sologne</a> and is an area of heathland and marshland, interspersed by hills where vines are grown. The eastern part of the department is known as <a href="G%C3%A2tinais">Gâtinais</a> and was part of a province of that name. Until the beginning of the 21st century, it used to be renowned for the production of <a href="saffron">saffron</a>, but the crop could not be mechanised, and production dwindled as the cost of production became too high.
Of the of land in the department, are arable, are vines, are pasture, are forested, are plantations and orchards and are unproductive moorland and heathland. The soil is in general fertile and productive; the Beauce is the main wheat-growing region, oats are widely cultivated and rye is also grown. Other crops include fruit, asparagus, saffron and herbs. Vines are cultivated and wine produced, and the area is noted for its fruit preservation. Bee-keeping also takes place and honey is produced. Loiret has little industrial development, and commerce is centred about the sale of corn, timber, cattle, chestnuts, cider, honey, flour, fruits, fish, salt, saffron and wool. The only minerals extracted are stone, limestone, marl and clay.
The department benefits from its proximity to Paris to which it has good transport links. Orléans does not yet have a <a href="TGV">TGV</a> but is connected to Paris via fast express trains. The <a href="A71%20autoroute">A71 autoroute</a> links Paris with Orléans and <a href="Clermont-Ferrand">Clermont-Ferrand</a>, the <a href="A10%20autoroute%20%28France%29">A10 autoroute</a> links Paris with Orléans and <a href="Bordeaux">Bordeaux</a>, and the <a href="Route%20nationale%2020">Route nationale 20</a> links Paris with Orléans, <a href="Limoges">Limoges</a>, <a href="Toulouse">Toulouse</a> and Spain.
Orléans is a popular <a href="tourist%20destination">tourist destination</a> and is associated with <a href="Joan%20of%20Arc">Joan of Arc</a>. The <a href="Orl%C3%A9ans%20Cathedral">Cathedral of Sainte-Croix</a> was built in the Gothic style between 1278 and 1329, destroyed by Protestant forces in 1568, and rebuilt between the 17th and 19th centuries.

</doc>
<doc id="90582" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90582" title="Lot-et-Garonne">
Lot-et-Garonne

Lot-et-Garonne (, ) is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the southwest of <a href="France">France</a> named after the <a href="Lot%20River">Lot</a> and <a href="Garonne">Garonne</a> rivers.
Lot-et-Garonne is one of the original eighty-three departments created on March 4, 1790, as a result of the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a>. It was created from part of the province of <a href="Guyenne">Guyenne</a> and <a href="Gascony">Gascony</a>; originally the territory of the ancient <a href="Agenais">county of Agenais</a> constituted nearly the whole.
Several of the original southeastern <a href="Canton%20in%20France">cantons</a> in the <a href="arrondissements">arrondissements</a> of <a href="Agen">Agen</a> and <a href="Villeneuve-sur-Lot">Villeneuve-sur-Lot</a> were separated from it in 1808 to become a part of the newly created department of <a href="Tarn-et-Garonne">Tarn-et-Garonne</a>.
Lot-et-Garonne is part of the current region of <a href="Aquitaine-Limousin-Poitou-Charentes">Aquitaine-Limousin-Poitou-Charentes</a> and is surrounded by the departments of <a href="Lot%20%28department%29">Lot</a>, <a href="Tarn-et-Garonne">Tarn-et-Garonne</a>, <a href="Gers">Gers</a>, <a href="Landes%20%28department%29">Landes</a>, <a href="Gironde">Gironde</a>, and <a href="Dordogne">Dordogne</a>.
The north of the department is composed by limestone hills. Between <a href="Lot%20%28river%29">Lot</a> and <a href="Garonne">Garonne</a>, there is a plateau carved by many valleys. In the west of the department, the <a href="Landes%20forest">Landes forest</a> is planted in the sand. It's composed by <a href="Maritime%20Pine">maritime pines</a>. Between the forest and <a href="Agen">Agen</a>, there is the <a href="Albret">Albret</a>, a country very hilly.
Food-processing, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals are all major industries of the department.
The inhabitants of the department are called "Lot-et-Garonnais".

</doc>
<doc id="90583" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90583" title="Meurthe-et-Moselle">
Meurthe-et-Moselle

Meurthe-et-Moselle () is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the <a href="Alsace-Champagne-Ardenne-Lorraine">Alsace-Champagne-Ardenne-Lorraine</a> <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="France">France</a>, named after the <a href="Meurthe%20%28river%29">Meurthe</a> and <a href="Moselle%20%28river%29">Moselle</a> rivers.
Meurthe-et-Moselle was created in 1871 at the end of the <a href="Franco-Prussian%20War">Franco-Prussian War</a> from the parts of the former departments of <a href="Moselle">Moselle</a> and <a href="Meurthe%20Department">Meurthe</a> which remained French territory.
The current boundary between Meurthe-et-Moselle and Moselle was the border between France and <a href="Germany">Germany</a> from 1871 to 1919 and again between 1940 and 1944. The only subsequent change took place in 1997 and involved the incorporation, for administrative reasons, of the little commune of <a href="Han-devant-Pierrepont">Han-devant-Pierrepont</a> which had previously fallen within the <a href="Meuse%20%28department%29">Meuse</a> department.
Meurthe-et-Moselle is part of the <a href="regions%20of%20France">administrative region</a> of <a href="Alsace-Champagne-Ardenne-Lorraine">Alsace-Champagne-Ardenne-Lorraine</a> and the traditional region of <a href="Lorraine%20%28region%29">Lorraine</a> and is surrounded by the departments of <a href="Meuse%20%28department%29">Meuse</a>, <a href="Vosges%20%28department%29">Vosges</a>, <a href="Bas-Rhin">Bas-Rhin</a>, and <a href="Moselle%20%28departement%29">Moselle</a>; and by the nations of <a href="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a> and <a href="Belgium">Belgium</a>. Parts of Meurthe-et-Moselle belong to the <a href="Lorraine%20Regional%20Natural%20Park">Lorraine Regional Natural Park</a>.
The department extends for 130 km from north to south and is between 7 and 103 km wide.
Its chief rivers are:
The economy was highly dependent on mining until the 1960s. There are iron, salt, and lime extraction sites. The urban area around <a href="Nancy%2C%20France">Nancy</a> has a very dynamic economy based largely on services, research, and higher education.
The inhabitants of the department <a href="demonym">are known as</a> "Meurthe-et-Mosellans". The area around Nancy has become highly urbanized, whereas the Saintois in the south is quite rural.

</doc>
<doc id="90584" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90584" title="Mayenne">
Mayenne

Mayenne () is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in northwest <a href="France">France</a> named after the <a href="Mayenne%20River">Mayenne River</a>. Mayenne is part of the current region of <a href="Pays%20de%20la%20Loire">Pays de la Loire</a> and is surrounded by the departments of <a href="Manche">Manche</a>, <a href="Orne">Orne</a>, <a href="Sarthe">Sarthe</a>, <a href="Maine-et-Loire">Maine-et-Loire</a>, and <a href="Ille-et-Vilaine">Ille-et-Vilaine</a>.
Mayenne is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on March 4, 1790. The northern two thirds correspond to the western part of the <a href="provinces%20of%20France">former province</a> of <a href="Maine%20%28province%29">Maine</a>. The southern third of Mayenne corresponds to the northern portion of the old province of <a href="Anjou%23In%20the%20Kingdom%20of%20France">Anjou</a>. The inhabitants of the department are called "Mayennais".
Like 82 other departments, Mayenne was created on March 4, 1790 during the early stages of the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> by order of the <a href="National%20Constituent%20Assembly">National Constituent Assembly</a>. The new departments were to be uniformly administered and approximately equal to one another in size and population. The former province of Maine was partitioned into two, Upper Maine, centred on <a href="Le%20Mans">Le Mans</a>, became the new department of Sarthe, and Lower Maine, centred on Laval became the new department of Mayenne. <a href="Anjou">Anjou</a>, to the south, being too big to form a single department, was reduced in size and became Maine-et-Loire. In this partition, Sarthe received the region of <a href="La%20Fl%C3%A8che">La Flèche</a>, and Mayenne received <a href="Ch%C3%A2teau-Gontier">Château-Gontier</a> and <a href="Craon%2C%20Mayenne">Craon</a>. <a href="Flax">Flax</a> was a feature of the Mayenne economy, and the southern limit for the cultivation of flax was used to determine the new border between Mayenne and Maine-et-Loire.
Mayenne is a department in northwestern France and is part of the region of <a href="Pays%20de%20la%20Loire">Pays de la Loire</a>. The department does not have a sea coast, but about thirty kilometres to the northwest is <a href="Mont%20Saint-Michel%20Bay">Mont Saint-Michel Bay</a>. The capital and largest town is <a href="Laval%2C%20Mayenne">Laval</a> in the centre of the department. To the north lies the department of <a href="Orne">Orne</a>, to the east lies <a href="Sarthe">Sarthe</a>, to the south lies <a href="Maine-et-Loire">Maine-et-Loire</a>, to the west lies <a href="Ille-et-Vilaine">Ille-et-Vilaine</a> and to the northwest lies <a href="Manche">Manche</a>. The department forms a roughly rectangular shape, being long by wide, with a total area of about . The <a href="Mayenne%20%28river%29">River Mayenne</a> flows centrally through it from north to south, passing through the towns of <a href="Mayenne%2C%20Mayenne">Mayenne</a>, Laval and Château-Gontier. After leaving the department, the river joins the <a href="Sarthe%20%28river%29">River Sarthe</a> to form the <a href="Maine%20%28river%29">River Maine</a> which later joins the <a href="Loire">River Loire</a>.
The department is varied in <a href="topography">topography</a>. Much of it is largely flat, but there are also hilly areas, some with steep-sided valleys and ravines. Of the total area of , some are arable, are grassland, are forests and woodland and are heathland and moorland. To the north lies the <a href="Armorican%20Massif">Armorican Massif</a>, a plateau that has been eroded over time, the highest summit of which, the Mont des Avaloirs, is the highest point in the department at above sea level. A branch range to the south of this plateau forms the ridge that divides the Mayenne Valley from the <a href="Vilaine">Vilaine Valley</a>.
The department is subdivided into three arrondissements, Mayenne, Laval and Château-Gontier, and along with the department of Sarthe, Mayenne forms part of the <a href="episcopal%20see">episcopal see</a> of the <a href="Roman%20Catholic%20Diocese%20of%20Le%20Mans">Roman Catholic Diocese of Le Mans</a>.
Mayenne has a diversity of habitat types such as forest, heathland, bog and farmland. Some 1445 species of plants, 63 species of mammals, 280 species of birds, 16 species of amphibians and 11 species of reptiles have been recorded, as well as thousands of species of <a href="invertebrate">invertebrate</a>s. The peat-lands and bogs are often fringed with woodlands of alder and ash, and in some places carnivorous plants such as <a href="sundew">sundew</a> and <a href="butterwort">butterwort</a> flourish, <a href="Fritillaria%20meleagris">fritillaries</a>, <a href="Comarum%20palustre">marsh cinquefoil</a> and <a href="Eriophorum%20angustifolium">cottongrass</a> grow and butterflies, dragonflies and spiders abound.
The woodlands are mostly small with the deciduous trees dominated by <a href="oak">oak</a>. Here <a href="roe%20deer">roe deer</a>, <a href="European%20badger">badger</a>, <a href="fire%20salamander">fire salamander</a>, <a href="Aesculapian%20snake">Aesculapian snake</a>, <a href="middle%20spotted%20woodpecker">middle spotted woodpecker</a>, <a href="little%20owl">little owl</a> and <a href="Limenitis%20camilla">white admiral</a> can be found and uncommon plants present including <a href="Aquilegia%20vulgaris">European columbine</a> and wild <a href="russet%20apple">russet apple</a>.
The dry grasslands, which cover the limestone and sandstone soils, are also rich in fauna and flora. They house the snake "<a href="Vipera%20aspis">Vipera aspis</a>", the <a href="Large%20blue">large blue butterfly</a>, the <a href="Oedipoda%20caerulescens">blue-winged grasshopper</a> and the <a href="bee%20orchid">bee orchid</a>. The heathland in the north of Mayenne is populated by <a href="Ulex%20minor">dwarf gorse</a> and <a href="Erica%20tetralix">cross-leaved heath</a> and there are plenty of spiders, <a href="nightjar">nightjar</a>s and <a href="warbler">warbler</a>s. The old quarries are the refuge of bats, amphibians, the <a href="Geranium%20lucidum">shining cranesbill</a> and <a href="Platanthera%20chlorantha">greater butterfly orchid</a>. Rivers and ponds are home to <a href="eel">eel</a>, <a href="northern%20crested%20newt">northern crested newt</a>, <a href="European%20otter">European otter</a>, <a href="kingfisher">kingfisher</a>, <a href="grass%20snake">grass snake</a>, <a href="common%20moorhen">common moorhen</a> and plants such as <a href="Ranunculus">spearwort</a>, <a href="Iris%20pseudacorus">yellow flag</a>, <a href="Sagittaria%20sagittifolia">arrowhead</a> and "<a href="Isopyrum%20thalictroides">Isopyrum thalictroides</a>", a small poisonous plant.
The department is largely rural with about 80% being used for agriculture, 8% being urban area and the remainder forest, heath and plantations. Livestock farming predominates, with the breeding of cattle, horses and pigs, and also bee-keeping being important. The soil is generally poor, but it is of better quality around Laval and Château-Gontier. In these parts corn is cultivated and there are plantings of hemp, flax, fruits and vines.
There are many apple orchards and large quantities of <a href="cider">cider</a> are made. The department is rich in mineral resources; iron and coal are mined and there are quarries for <a href="marble">marble</a>, <a href="slate">slate</a>, building stone, limestone and flint; the white sand deposits are used in the manufacture of glass. 
Industries include the manufacture of linen, paper and hemp, and cider-making is traditionally carried on in the department. Office furniture is manufactured in Château-Gontier, and Laval is active in the industrial sector, with dairy products, electronics and chemicals in a modern <a href="science%20park">science park</a>.

</doc>
<doc id="90585" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90585" title="Bacalou">
Bacalou

In <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Vodou</a>, Bacalou is a feared <a href="loa">loa</a>, represented by a skull and crossbones.

</doc>
<doc id="90586" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90586" title="Morbihan">
Morbihan

Morbihan (; , ) is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in <a href="Brittany%20%28administrative%20region%29">Brittany</a>, situated in the northwest of France. It is named after the Morbihan ("small sea" in <a href="Breton%20language">Breton</a>), the enclosed sea that is the principal feature of the coastline. It is noted for its <a href="Carnac%20stones">Carnac stones</a>, which predate and are more extensive than the more familiar <a href="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a>.
Morbihan is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on March 4, 1790. It was created from a part of the <a href="Duchy%20of%20Brittany">Duchy of Brittany</a>. It is the only French department whose name comes from the <a href="Breton%20language">Breton language</a>.
Morbihan is part of the current <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Brittany%20%28administrative%20region%29">Brittany</a> and is surrounded by the departments of <a href="Finist%C3%A8re">Finistère</a>, <a href="C%C3%B4tes-d%27Armor">Côtes-d'Armor</a>, <a href="Ille-et-Vilaine">Ille-et-Vilaine</a>, and <a href="Loire-Atlantique">Loire-Atlantique</a>, and the Atlantic Ocean on the southwest.
The <a href="Gulf%20of%20Morbihan">Gulf of Morbihan</a> has many islands: 365 according to legend, but, in reality, between 30 and 40, depending on how they are counted. There are also many islets which are too small to be built on. Of these islands, all but two are private: l'<a href="%C3%8Ele-aux-Moines">Île-aux-Moines</a> and l'<a href="%C3%8Ele-d%27Arz">Île-d'Arz</a>. The others are privately owned, some by movie stars or fashion designers.
In the department of Morbihan, but outside the Gulf, there are four inhabited islands:
The <a href="Breton%20language">Breton language</a> is an important issue, with many advocating bilingual education.
The painter <a href="Raymond%20Wintz">Raymond Wintz</a> (1884–1956) depicted locations around the Gulf of Morbihan.
As of 2014, the <a href="prefect">préfet</a> of Morbihan is Jean-François Savy, previously head of the Prefectures of <a href="Ardennes%20%28department%29">Ardennes</a> and of <a href="Hautes-Alpes">Hautes-Alpes</a>.

</doc>
<doc id="90587" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90587" title="Nièvre">
Nièvre

Nièvre () is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the region of <a href="Bourgogne-Franche-Comt%C3%A9">Bourgogne-Franche-Comté</a> in the centre of <a href="France">France</a> named after the <a href="Ni%C3%A8vre%20%28Loire%29">River Nièvre</a>.
Nièvre is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on 4 March 1790. It was created from the <a href="provinces%20of%20France">former province</a> of <a href="Nivernais">Nivernais</a>.
Nièvre is part of the current <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Bourgogne-Franche-Comt%C3%A9">Bourgogne-Franche-Comté</a>, although historically it was not part of the province of <a href="Duchy%20of%20Burgundy">Burgundy</a>. It is surrounded by the departments of <a href="Yonne">Yonne</a>, <a href="C%C3%B4te-d%27Or">Côte-d'Or</a>, <a href="Sa%C3%B4ne-et-Loire">Saône-et-Loire</a>, <a href="Allier">Allier</a>, <a href="Cher%20%28department%29">Cher</a>, and <a href="Loiret">Loiret</a>.
The département is crossed by the river <a href="Loire">Loire</a>, the longest river in France.
Nièvre is a rural department with about 50 inhabitants / km².
The main cities are : <a href="Nevers">Nevers</a>, <a href="Cosne-sur-Loire">Cosne-sur-Loire</a>, <a href="Varennes-Vauzelles">Varennes-Vauzelles</a>, <a href="Marzy">Marzy</a>, <a href="Decize">Decize</a>, <a href="Imphy">Imphy</a>, <a href="Clamecy%2C%20Ni%C3%A8vre">Clamecy</a> and <a href="La%20Charit%C3%A9">La Charité</a>. 
Only three cities reach 10 000 inhabitants. It indicates the characteristic of the département, which is predominantly rural.
Nièvre is also well known for its <a href="white%20wine">white wine</a>, <a href="Pouilly%20Fum%C3%A9">Pouilly Fumé</a>. The vineyards are scattered around villages including Pouilly-Sur-Loire, which lends its name to the appellation, Tracy sur Loire, Boisgibault, Saint Andelain. The word fumé is French for "smoky", and it's said the name comes from the smoky or flinty quality of these wines. The only grape allowed in the Pouilly-Fumé AC is <a href="Sauvignon%20blanc">Sauvignon blanc</a>, which produces wines that are generally crisp, tart, and somewhat grassy.
In common with most French wine-producing departments, Nièvre is traditionally a left-wing department. The results of the second round of voting in presidential elections reflect this consistently:
Nièvre's best-known political representative was <a href="Fran%C3%A7ois%20Mitterrand">François Mitterrand</a> who served as a Senator and a Deputy for the department, and as mayor of Chateau-Chinon for 22 years before his election to the presidency in 1981.

</doc>
<doc id="90588" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90588" title="Badessy">
Badessy

In <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Vodou</a>, and particularly in <a href="Haiti">Haiti</a>, Bedessy is a minor <a href="loa">loa</a> who holds the domain of the sky.

</doc>
<doc id="90590" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90590" title="Oise">
Oise

Oise () is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the north of <a href="France">France</a>. It is named after the river <a href="Oise%20%28river%29">Oise</a>.
Oise is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on March 4, 1790. It was created from part of the <a href="provinces%20of%20France">province</a> of <a href="%C3%8Ele-de-France">Île-de-France</a> and <a href="Picardy">Picardy</a>.
After the coalition victory at <a href="Battle%20of%20Waterloo">Waterloo</a>, the department was occupied by <a href="Great%20Britain">British</a> <a href="British%20army">troops</a> between June 1815 and November 1818.
Oise is part of the current <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Nord-Pas-de-Calais-Picardie">Nord-Pas-de-Calais-Picardie</a> and is situated 35 km north of <a href="Paris">Paris</a>. It is surrounded by the departments of <a href="Somme%20%28department%29">Somme</a>, <a href="Aisne">Aisne</a>, <a href="Seine-et-Marne">Seine-et-Marne</a>, <a href="Val-d%27Oise">Val-d'Oise</a>, <a href="Eure">Eure</a>, and <a href="Seine-Maritime">Seine-Maritime</a>.
Natives of the department are called "Isariens".
The major tourist attraction of the department is the <a href="Parc%20Ast%C3%A9rix">Parc Astérix</a>, which opened in 1989. Another very interesting site is <a href="Beauvais%20Cathedral">Beauvais Cathedral</a>. Also to be seen is the <a href="Chateau%20de%20Pierrefonds">Chateau de Pierrefonds</a>, restored by <a href="Viollet-le-Duc">Viollet-le-Duc</a>. The art collection of the <a href="Ch%C3%A2teau%20de%20Chantilly">Château de Chantilly</a> is one of the largest outside Paris.
Oise is twinned with <a href="Bedfordshire">Bedfordshire</a>. 
One of the villages along the river Oise is <a href="Auvers-sur-Oise">Auvers-sur-Oise</a>, famous for having been visited by several <a href="impressionism">impressionist</a> artists. This is where <a href="Vincent%20van%20Gogh">Vincent van Gogh</a> spent his last 70 days and it is his and his brother Theo's resting place.

</doc>
<doc id="90591" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90591" title="Los Gatos, California">
Los Gatos, California

The town of Los Gatos is an <a href="List%20of%20cities%20in%20California">incorporated town</a> in <a href="Santa%20Clara%20County%2C%20California">Santa Clara County, California</a>, United States. The population was 29,413 at the 2010 census. According to "Bloomberg Businessweek", Los Gatos is ranked the 33rd wealthiest city in the United States. It is located in the <a href="San%20Francisco%20Bay%20Area">San Francisco Bay Area</a> at the southwest corner of <a href="San%20Jose%2C%20California">San Jose</a> in the foothills of the <a href="Santa%20Cruz%20Mountains">Santa Cruz Mountains</a>. Los Gatos is part of <a href="Silicon%20Valley">Silicon Valley</a>, with several <a href="high%20technology">high technology</a> companies maintaining a presence there. Most notably, streaming and content creator, <a href="Netflix">Netflix</a> was founded in Los Gatos and has developed a large presence in the area. 
The name "Los Gatos" is Spanish, meaning "the cats". The name derives from the 1839 <a href="Alta%20California">Alta California</a> land-grant that encompassed the area, which was called "<a href="Rancho%20Rinconada%20de%20Los%20Gatos">La Rinconada de Los Gatos</a>", ("Cat's Corner"), where "the cats" refers to the <a href="cougar">cougar</a>s and <a href="bobcat">bobcat</a>s that are <a href="endemic%20%28ecology%29">indigenous</a> to the foothills in which the town is located. The name has been anglicized to , although one also hears pronunciations truer to the original Spanish, . The anglicized pronunciation is preferred by locals.
The town's founding dates to the mid-1850s with the building of a flour operation, <a href="Forbes%20Mill">Forbes Mill</a>, by <a href="James%20Alexander%20Forbes%20%281805%E2%80%931881%29">James Alexander Forbes</a> along Los Gatos Creek. The mill's two-story stone storage annex has been preserved as a museum just off of Main Street.
The settlement that was established in the 1860s was originally named for the mill, but the name was changed to Los Gatos after the Spanish land grant. The town was incorporated in 1887 and remained an important town for the logging industry in the <a href="Santa%20Cruz%20Mountains">Santa Cruz Mountains</a> through the end of the 19th century. In the early 20th century, the town became a thriving agricultural town with <a href="apricot">apricot</a>s, <a href="grape">grape</a>s and <a href="prune%20%28fruit%29">prunes</a> being grown in the area. By the 1920s, the Los Gatos area had a local reputation as an arts colony, attracting painters, musicians, writers, actors and their bohemian associates as residents over the years. The violinist <a href="Yehudi%20Menuhin">Yehudi Menuhin</a> lived there as a boy; the actresses <a href="Joan%20Fontaine">Joan Fontaine</a> and <a href="Olivia%20de%20Havilland">Olivia de Havilland</a> (sisters) were graduates of <a href="Los%20Gatos%20High%20School">Los Gatos High School</a>, John Steinbeck wrote "<a href="The%20Grapes%20of%20Wrath">The Grapes of Wrath</a>" there (the location is now located in <a href="Monte%20Sereno">Monte Sereno</a>), and Beat hero <a href="Neal%20Cassady">Neal Cassady</a> lived there in the 1950s. Along with much of the <a href="Santa%20Clara%20Valley">Santa Clara Valley</a>, Los Gatos became a suburban community for <a href="San%20Jose%2C%20California">San Jose</a> beginning in the 1950s, and the town was mostly built-out by the 1980s.
Downtown Los Gatos has retained and restored many of its <a href="Victorian%20architecture">Victorian</a>-era homes and commercial buildings. Other notable buildings are the <a href="Forbes%20Mill">Forbes Mill</a> annex, dating to 1880 and now housing a history museum; Los Gatos High School which dates from the 1920s; and the Old Town Shopping Center, formerly the University Avenue School (the school was established in 1882; the current buildings date to 1923).
A number of brick buildings in Downtown Los Gatos were destroyed or seriously damaged in the <a href="1989%20Loma%20Prieta%20earthquake">1989 Loma Prieta earthquake</a>, though the district was quickly rebuilt and has made a full recovery.
Recently the Main Street Bridge has emulated the Ponte des Artes bridge in Paris by displaying love locks for anniversaries and engagements.
Transport by rail was an early aspect of Los Gatos. The <a href="South%20Pacific%20Coast%20Railroad">South Pacific Coast Railroad</a>, a popular <a href="narrow-gauge">narrow-gauge</a> line from <a href="Alameda%2C%20California">Alameda</a> (and San Francisco via ferry) to <a href="Santa%20Cruz%2C%20California">Santa Cruz</a> in the late 19th century, stopped in Los Gatos. Southern Pacific took over this line in 1887. Los Gatos was also near the Southern Pacific resort town of <a href="Holy%20City%2C%20California">Holy City</a>, along the rail line in the Santa Cruz Mountains. The last Southern Pacific passenger train to Santa Cruz left Los Gatos in March 1940. In town, the rail line used to run along the shore of <a href="Vasona%20Reservoir">Vasona Reservoir</a> to the present-day location of the Post Office, following the path of what is now a continuous string of parking lots between Santa Cruz Ave. and University Ave. There was also a streetcar-type rail line with service to Saratoga and San Jose. Streetcar service via the <a href="Peninsular%20Railway%20%28California%29">Peninsular Railway</a> started about 1905 and ended about 1933. San Francisco commuter trains continued into downtown until 1959, and Vasona Junction until 1964. The site of the old railroad station is now occupied by Town Plaza and the post office.
Between 1891 and 1929 about 20 oil wells were drilled in and around Los Gatos, starting a minor oil-drilling boom. About 1861 small
amounts of oil were discovered in streams, springs, and water
wells in the Santa Cruz Mountains in the vicinity of Moody
Gulch, about 6.5 km south of the Los Gatos Post Office. An intense search for oil ensued,
resulting in the drilling of many wells and establishment of
the Moody Gulch oil field. The
Moody Gulch oil field, however, never met expectations, and
it was abandoned about 1938 after producing a total of about 98,000 barrels of oil
and 44 million ft3 of gas. In 1891, one of the Moody Gulch drillers, R.C.
McPherson, found oil in a well along San Jose Road (now Los
Gatos Boulevard) in the Santa Clara Valley flatlands, about 3 km northeast of the Los Gatos Post Office. Although commercial production was never established, small amounts of oil
were produced for use as fuel, lubricant, and road tar by local
residents.
Los Gatos is located at (37.236044, −121.961768). Los Gatos is bisected by <a href="California%20State%20Route%2017">State Route 17</a>, which runs through the town from south to north.
<a href="California%20State%20Route%2085">State Route 85</a> roughly marks the northern boundary of the town, although a few pockets of homes to its North are included. <a href="California%20State%20Route%209">Highway 9</a> (Los Gatos-Saratoga Road) from the coast terminates at Highway 17. Downtown Los Gatos, the area on and around Santa Cruz Avenue and Main Street, is located in the southwest quadrant of town. A left exit on northbound Highway 17 becomes the south end of South Santa Cruz Avenue, leading into downtown. The area around Los Gatos Boulevard, east of Highway 17, is much more typically suburban than downtown, with medium-sized shopping centers clustered at major intersections of the multilane boulevard. Although the town has generally a quiet setting, its principal <a href="roadway%20noise">noise</a> generators are <a href="California%20State%20Route%2017">State Route 17</a> and Los Gatos Boulevard. Sound levels within one hundred and fifty feet of Los Gatos Boulevard exceed 60 CNEL (Community Noise Equivalent Level), a generally unacceptable range for residential living.
<a href="Vasona%20Park">Vasona Park</a>, a county park, and neighboring Oak Meadow Park, which belongs to the town, are located in what is roughly the geographic middle of the town, bordered on the south by Blossom Hill Road, on the east by Highway 17, on the west by University Avenue, and reaching at the north end not quite all the way to Lark Avenue. Located in the parks is the popular <a href="William%20%26quot%3BBilly%26quot%3B%20Jones">William "Billy" Jones</a> Wildcat Railroad. One of <a href="Walt%20Disney">Walt Disney</a>'s inspirations for the construction of <a href="Disneyland">Disneyland</a> introduced to him by animator <a href="Ward%20Kimball">Ward Kimball</a>. In Vasona Park is the trail to <a href="Prune%20Ridge">Prune Ridge</a>. Los Gatos Creek begins in the Santa Cruz Mountains south of the town and runs through the town parallel to Highway 17 all the way through neighboring <a href="Campbell%2C%20California">Campbell</a> and San Jose to the <a href="Guadalupe%20River%20%28California%29">Guadalupe River</a>, which flows into San Francisco Bay. A walking, jogging, and biking trail called the <a href="Los%20Gatos%20Creek%20Trail">Los Gatos Creek Trail</a> runs alongside much of the creek from Lexington Dam through Vasona Park and Campbell to Meridian Avenue in <a href="San%20Jose%2C%20California">San Jose</a>. In Los Gatos, the trail passes the 1854 <a href="Forbes%20Mill">Forbes Mill</a>.
According to the <a href="United%20States%20Census%20Bureau">United States Census Bureau</a>, the town has a total area of . of it is land and of it (0.71%) is water.
Los Gatos is surrounded by several <a href="mountain%20bike">mountain bike</a> trails. Cyclists can leave from downtown on a loop through the Santa Cruz Mountains. From downtown, El Sereno mountain stands to the southwest; <a href="El%20Sombroso">El Sombroso</a> stands to the southeast. The <a href="El%20Sereno%20Open%20Space%20Preserve">El Sereno Open Space Preserve</a> and the <a href="Sierra%20Azul%20Open%20Space%20Preserve">Sierra Azul Open Space Preserve</a> open the top and upper flanks of each of these mountains to hiking and cycling.
Though the official total area of the town is 11.2 square miles, approximately 100 square miles of the surrounding Los Gatos Mountains (within the Santa Cruz Mountains range), has a Los Gatos address and uses the 95033 zip code (primarily) for U.S. Postal Service mail delivery (among other purposes).
Los Gatos experiences nearly the same temperatures as San Jose, just slightly warmer and with more rain. Los Gatos has a <a href="Mediterranean%20climate">Mediterranean climate</a> like much of California. January's average high is and the low is while July's average high is and low is . Los Gatos has a Zone 10 <a href="hardiness%20zone">hardiness zone</a>. Daytime high temperatures very rarely stay below 50 °F (10 °C). Los Gatos rarely gets a hard <a href="frost">frost</a>. Los Gatos gets the slight winter chill that is needed to grow <a href="grape">grape</a>s and have <a href="vineyard">vineyard</a>s. Certain types of <a href="banana">banana</a>s (the types that ripen in three months) grow well during the summer.
The record high temperature was on June 14, 1961, and the record low temperature was on December 22, 1990. There are an average of 27.0 days annually with highs of 90 °F (32 °C) or higher and an average of 5.0 days annually with lows of 32 °F (0 °C) or lower. Rainfall averages 21.2 inches annually and falls on an average of 59 days annually. The wettest year was 1909 with 51.77 inches and the driest year was 2007 with . The most rainfall in one month was 26.56 inches in December 1955 and the most rainfall in 24 hours was 8.48 inches on December 23, 1955. Although snow sometimes falls in the nearby Santa Cruz Mountains, it is very rare in Los Gatos. The most snow on record was 2.0 inches in February 1976. Los Gatos averages 330 sunny days per year.
The following companies are headquartered in Los Gatos:
According to the Town's 2012 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the town are:
The <a href="2010%20United%20States%20Census">2010 United States Census</a> reported that Los Gatos had a population of 29,413. The <a href="population%20density">population density</a> was 2,635.7 people per square mile (1,017.6/km²). The racial makeup of Los Gatos was 24,060 (81.8%) <a href="White%20%28U.S.%20Census%29">White</a>, 269 (0.9%) <a href="African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29">African American</a>, 86 (0.3%) <a href="Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29">Native American</a>, 3,203 (10.9%) <a href="Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29">Asian</a>, 52 (0.2%) <a href="Pacific%20Islander%20%28U.S.%20Census%29">Pacific Islander</a>, 462 (1.6%) from <a href="Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29">other races</a>, and 1,281 (4.4%) from two or more races. <a href="Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29">Hispanic</a> or <a href="Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29">Latino</a> of any race were 2,120 persons (7.2%).
The Census reported that 29,063 people (98.8% of the population) lived in households, 92 (0.3%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 258 (0.9%) were institutionalized.
There were 12,355 households, out of which 3,775 (30.6%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 6,417 (51.9%) were <a href="marriage">opposite-sex married couples</a> living together, 949 (7.7%) had a female householder with no husband present, 435 (3.5%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 551 (4.5%) <a href="POSSLQ">unmarried opposite-sex partnerships</a>, and 84 (0.7%) <a href="same-sex%20partnerships">same-sex married couples or partnerships</a>. 3,695 households (29.9%) were made up of individuals and 1,464 (11.8%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35. There were 7,801 <a href="family%20%28U.S.%20Census%29">families</a> (63.1% of all households); the average family size was 2.96.
The population was spread out with 6,567 people (22.3%) under the age of 18, 1,442 people (4.9%) aged 18 to 24, 6,722 people (22.9%) aged 25 to 44, 9,417 people (32.0%) aged 45 to 64, and 5,265 people (17.9%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 45.0 years. For every 100 females there were 92.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.0 males.
There were 13,050 housing units at an average density of 1,169.4 per square mile (451.5/km²), of which 7,778 (63.0%) were owner-occupied, and 4,577 (37.0%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.0%; the rental vacancy rate was 4.5%. 19,901 people (67.7% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 9,162 people (31.1%) lived in rental housing units.
As of the <a href="census">census</a> of 2000, there were 28,592 people, 11,988 households, and 7,300 families residing in the town. The <a href="population%20density">population density</a> was 1,030.8/km² (2,669.1/mi²). There were 12,367 housing units at an average density of 445.8/km² (1,154.5/mi²). The ethnic makeup of the town was 86.68% <a href="Caucasian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29">Caucasian</a>, 0.79% <a href="African%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29">African American</a>, 0.30% <a href="Native%20American%20%28U.S.%20Census%29">Native American</a>, 7.60% <a href="Asian%20%28U.S.%20Census%29">Asian</a>, 0.07% <a href="Pacific%20Islander%20%28U.S.%20Census%29">Pacific Islander</a>, 1.28% from <a href="Race%20%28United%20States%20Census%29">other races</a>, and 3.27% from two or more races. <a href="Hispanic%20%28U.S.%20Census%29">Hispanic</a> or <a href="Latino%20%28U.S.%20Census%29">Latino</a> of any race were 5.21% of the population.
There were 11,988 households out of which 27.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.9% were <a href="Marriage">married couples</a> living together, 7.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.1% were non-families. 29.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.93.
In the town the population was spread out with 21.2% under the age of 18, 4.3% from 18 to 24, 31.5% from 25 to 44, 27.7% from 45 to 64, and 15.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females there were 90.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.2 males.
According to a 2007 estimate, the median income for a household in the town was $126,568, and the median income for a family was $152,940. Males had a median income of $89,420 versus $57,596 for females. The <a href="per%20capita%20income">per capita income</a> for the town was $56,094. About 3.1% of families and 4.3% of the population were below the <a href="poverty%20line">poverty line</a>, including 4.4% of those under age 18 and 5.6% of those age 65 or over.
The town is governed by five elected council members with the position of mayor rotating between council members each year. Half the council is elected to a four-year term every two years. There are no term limits for the Town Council.
In the <a href="California%20State%20Legislature">California State Legislature</a>, Los Gatos is in , and in .
In the <a href="United%20States%20House%20of%20Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a>, Los Gatos is in .
The town of Los Gatos is served by the <a href="Santa%20Clara%20Valley%20Transportation%20Authority">VTA</a>, (Valley Transit Authority) which also serves the majority of the <a href="county%20of%20Santa%20Clara">county of Santa Clara</a>, including San Jose.
The two Los Gatos Community Buses run from Santa Cruz and Main to the Winchester Transit Center, the 49 via Los Gatos Boulevard and the 48 via Winchester.
For railroad transportation the nearby city of <a href="Santa%20Clara%2C%20California">Santa Clara</a> has the closest train station served by <a href="Caltrain">Caltrain</a>, and nearby in the city of <a href="Campbell%2C%20California">Campbell</a> provides access to <a href="VTA%20light-rail">VTA light-rail</a> via the <a href="Winchester%20%28VTA%29">Winchester</a>, <a href="Downtown%20Campbell%20%28VTA%29">Downtown Campbell</a>, and <a href="Hamilton%20%28VTA%29">Hamilton</a> stations.
For air travel, the closest international airports are <a href="San%20Jose%20International%20Airport">San Jose International Airport</a> (SJC), <a href="San%20Francisco%20International%20Airport">San Francisco International Airport</a> (SFO), and <a href="Oakland%20International%20Airport">Oakland International Airport</a>. All these airports are used for air travel by people across the Bay Area.
The Los Gatos Public Library is operated by the Town of Los Gatos and is not part of the Santa Clara County Library system. The library is located at 100 Villa Ave, Los Gatos, CA in the town Civic Center. Any California resident with proper identification and verification of their mailing address may have borrowing privileges.
The New Museum, NUMU, formerly called Museums of Los Gatos, offers exhibitions and programs on Los Gatos and San Francisco Bay Area art and history. 
Los Gatos has five official <a href="Twin%20towns%20and%20sister%20cities">sister cities</a>:

</doc>
<doc id="90592" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90592" title="Baron Samedi">
Baron Samedi

Baron Samedi (, also written Baron Samdi, Bawon Samedi, or Bawon Sanmdi) is one of the <a href="Loa">Loa</a> of <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Haitian Vodou</a>. Samedi is a Loa of the dead, along with Baron's numerous other incarnations <a href="Baron%20Cimeti%C3%A8re">Baron Cimetière</a>, <a href="Baron%20La%20Croix">Baron La Croix</a>, and <a href="Baron%20Kriminel">Baron Kriminel</a>. He is syncretized with <a href="Saint%20Martin%20de%20Porres">Saint Martin de Porres</a>.
He is the head of the <a href="Gu%C3%A9d%C3%A9">Guédé</a> family of <a href="Loa">Loa</a>. His wife is the <a href="Loa">Loa</a> <a href="Maman%20Brigitte">Maman Brigitte</a>.
He is usually depicted with a top hat, black tail coat, dark glasses, and cotton plugs in the nostrils, as if to resemble a corpse dressed and prepared for burial in the Haitian style. He has a white, frequently skull-like face (or actually has a skull for a face), and speaks in a nasal voice. The former President for Life of Haiti, <a href="Fran%C3%A7ois%20Duvalier">François Duvalier</a>, modeled his <a href="cult%20of%20personality">cult of personality</a> to Baron Samedi; he was often seen speaking in a deep nasal tone and wearing dark glasses.
He is noted for disruption, obscenity, debauchery, and having a particular fondness for <a href="tobacco">tobacco</a> and <a href="rum">rum</a>. Additionally, he is the Loa of <a href="resurrection">resurrection</a>, and in the latter capacity he is often called upon for healing by those near or approaching death, as it is only Baron who can accept an individual into the realm of the dead.
Baron Samedi spends most of his time in the invisible realm of vodou spirits. He is notorious for his outrageous behavior, swearing continuously and making filthy jokes to the other spirits. He is married to another powerful spirit known as <a href="Maman%20Brigitte">Maman Brigitte</a>, but often chases after mortal women. He loves smoking and drinking and is rarely seen without a cigar in his mouth or a glass of rum in his bony fingers. Baron Samedi can usually be found at the crossroad between the worlds of the living and the dead. When someone dies, he digs their grave and greets their soul after they have been buried, leading them to the underworld.
Baron Samedi is the leader of the <a href="Gu%C3%A9d%C3%A9">Guédé</a>, <a href="Loa">Loa</a> with particular links to magic, ancestor worship and death. These lesser spirits, all dressed like the Baron, are all as rude and crude, but not nearly as charming as their master. They help carry the dead to the underworld.
As well as being master of the dead, Baron Samedi is also a giver of life. He can cure any mortal of any disease or wound, if he thinks it is worthwhile. His powers are especially great when it comes to vodou curses and <a href="black%20magic">black magic</a>. Even if somebody has been afflicted by a <a href="Curse">hex</a> which brings them to the verge of death, they will not die if the Baron refuses to dig their grave. So long as this mighty spirit keeps them out of the ground, they are safe.
He also ensures that all corpses rot in the ground to stop any soul from being brought back as a brainless <a href="zombie">zombie</a>. What he demands in return depends on his mood. Sometimes he is content with his followers wearing black, white or purple clothes or using sacred objects; he may simply ask for a small gift of cigars, rum, black coffee, grilled peanuts, or bread. But sometimes the Baron requires a vodou ceremony to help him cross over into this world.

</doc>
<doc id="90593" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90593" title="Country rock">
Country rock

Country rock is subgenre of <a href="popular%20music">popular music</a>, formed from the fusion of <a href="Rock%20music">rock</a> with <a href="Country%20music">country</a>. It was developed by rock musicians who began to record country-flavored records in the late-1960s and early-1970s. These musicians recorded rock records using country themes, vocal styles, and additional instrumentation, most characteristically <a href="pedal%20steel%20guitar">pedal steel guitar</a>s. Country rock began with <a href="Bob%20Dylan">Bob Dylan</a> and <a href="The%20Byrds">The Byrds</a>, reaching its greatest popularity in the 1970s with artists such as <a href="Emmylou%20Harris">Emmylou Harris</a>, the <a href="Eagles%20%28band%29">Eagles</a>, the <a href="Doobie%20Brothers">Doobie Brothers</a>, and <a href="Pure%20Prairie%20League">Pure Prairie League</a>. Country rock also influenced artists in other genres, including <a href="The%20Band">The Band</a>, <a href="Grateful%20Dead">Grateful Dead</a>, <a href="Creedence%20Clearwater%20Revival">Creedence Clearwater Revival</a>, <a href="The%20Rolling%20Stones">The Rolling Stones</a>, and <a href="George%20Harrison">George Harrison</a>'s solo work. It also played a part in the development of <a href="Southern%20rock">Southern rock</a>.
<a href="Rock%20and%20roll">Rock and roll</a> has often been seen as a combination of <a href="rhythm%20and%20blues">rhythm and blues</a> with country music, a fusion particularly evident in 1950s <a href="rockabilly">rockabilly</a>, and there has been cross-pollination throughout the history of both genres, however, the term country-rock is generally used to refer to the wave of rock musicians of the late 1960s and early 1970s who began to record rock records using country themes, vocal styles and additional instrumentation, most characteristically <a href="pedal%20steel%20guitar">pedal steel guitar</a>. John Einarson states: "From a variety of perspectives and motivations, these musicians either played rock & roll attitude, or added a country feel to rock, or folk, or bluegrass, there was no formula".
Country influences can be heard on rock records through the 1960s, including <a href="The%20Beatles">The Beatles</a>' 1964 recordings "<a href="I%27ll%20Cry%20Instead">I'll Cry Instead</a>", "<a href="Baby%27s%20in%20Black">Baby's in Black</a>" and "<a href="I%20Don%27t%20Want%20to%20Spoil%20the%20Party">I Don't Want to Spoil the Party</a>", <a href="The%20Byrds">the Byrds'</a> 1965 cover version of <a href="Porter%20Wagoner">Porter Wagoner</a>'s "Satisfied Mind", on the <a href="Rolling%20Stones">Rolling Stones</a> "High and Dry" (1966), as well as <a href="Buffalo%20Springfield">Buffalo Springfield</a>'s "Go and Say Goodbye" (1966) and "Kind Woman" (1968). In 1966, as many rock artists moved increasingly towards expansive and experimental <a href="psychedelia">psychedelia</a>, Bob Dylan spearheaded the back-to-basics <a href="roots%20revival">roots revival</a> when he went to Nashville to record the album "<a href="Blonde%20on%20Blonde">Blonde on Blonde</a>", using notable local musicians like <a href="Charlie%20McCoy">Charlie McCoy</a>. This, and the subsequent more clearly country-influenced albums, "<a href="John%20Wesley%20Harding%20%28album%29">John Wesley Harding</a>" (1967) and "<a href="Nashville%20Skyline">Nashville Skyline</a>" (1969), have been seen as creating the genre of <a href="country%20folk">country folk</a>, a route pursued by a number of, largely acoustic, folk musicians.
Dylan's lead was also followed by The Byrds, who were joined by <a href="Gram%20Parsons">Gram Parsons</a> in 1968. Parsons had mixed <a href="country%20music">country</a> with <a href="Rock%20music">rock</a>, <a href="blues">blues</a> and <a href="Folk%20music">folk</a> to create what he called "Cosmic American Music". Earlier in the year Parsons had released "<a href="Safe%20at%20Home">Safe at Home</a>" (although the principal recording for the album had taken place in mid-1967) with the <a href="International%20Submarine%20Band">International Submarine Band</a>, which made extensive use of <a href="pedal%20steel">pedal steel</a> and is seen by some as the first true country-rock album. The result of Parsons' brief tenure in the Byrds was "<a href="Sweetheart%20of%20the%20Rodeo">Sweetheart of the Rodeo</a>" (1968), generally considered one of the finest and most influential recordings in the genre. The Byrds continued for a brief period in the same vein, but Parsons left soon after the album was released to be joined by another ex-Byrds member <a href="Chris%20Hillman">Chris Hillman</a> in forming <a href="The%20Flying%20Burrito%20Brothers">The Flying Burrito Brothers</a>. Over the next two years they recorded the albums "<a href="The%20Gilded%20Palace%20of%20Sin">The Gilded Palace of Sin</a>" (1969) and "<a href="Burrito%20Deluxe">Burrito Deluxe</a>" (1970), which helped establish the respectability and parameters of the genre, before Parsons departed to pursue a solo career.
Country rock was a particularly popular style in the California music scene of the late 1960s, and was adopted by bands including Hearts and Flowers, <a href="Poco">Poco</a> (formed by <a href="Richie%20Furay">Richie Furay</a> and Jim Messina, formerly of the Buffalo Springfield) and <a href="New%20Riders%20of%20the%20Purple%20Sage">New Riders of the Purple Sage</a>. Some folk-rockers followed the Byrds into the genre, among them the <a href="Beau%20Brummels">Beau Brummels</a> and the <a href="Nitty%20Gritty%20Dirt%20Band">Nitty Gritty Dirt Band</a>. A number of performers also enjoyed a renaissance by adopting country sounds, including: the <a href="Everly%20Brothers">Everly Brothers</a>, whose "Roots" album (1968) is usually considered some of their finest work; former <a href="teen%20idol">teen idol</a> <a href="Ricky%20Nelson">Ricky Nelson</a> who became the frontman for the Stone Canyon Band; <a href="John%20Fogerty">John Fogerty</a>, who left <a href="Creedence%20Clearwater%20Revival">Creedence Clearwater Revival</a> behind for the country sounds of <a href="The%20Blue%20Ridge%20Rangers">The Blue Ridge Rangers</a>; <a href="Mike%20Nesmith">Mike Nesmith</a>, who had experimented with country sounds while with <a href="The%20Monkees">The Monkees</a>, formed the <a href="First%20National%20Band">First National Band</a>; and <a href="Neil%20Young">Neil Young</a> who moved in and out of the genre throughout his career. One of the few acts to successfully move from the country side towards rock were the <a href="Bluegrass%20music">bluegrass</a> band <a href="The%20Dillards">The Dillards</a>.
The greatest commercial success for country rock came in the 1970s, with the <a href="Doobie%20Brothers">Doobie Brothers</a> mixing in elements of R&B, <a href="Emmylou%20Harris">Emmylou Harris</a> (a former backing singer for Parsons) becoming the "Queen of country-rock" and <a href="Linda%20Ronstadt">Linda Ronstadt</a> creating a highly successful pop-oriented brand of the genre. <a href="Pure%20Prairie%20League">Pure Prairie League</a>, formed in Ohio in 1969 by <a href="Craig%20Fuller">Craig Fuller</a>, had both critical and commercial success with 5 straight Top 40 LP releases, including "<a href="Bustin%27%20Out">Bustin' Out</a>" (1972), acclaimed by Allmusic critic Richard Foss as "an album that is unequaled in country-rock" and "<a href="Two%20Lane%20Highway">Two Lane Highway</a>", described by Rolling Stone Magazine as "a worthy companion to the likes of The Byrds' "Sweetheart Of The Rodeo" and other gems of the genre". Former members of Ronstadt's backing band went on to form the <a href="Eagles%20%28band%29">Eagles</a> (made up of members of the Flying Burrito Brothers, Poco and Stone Canyon Band), who emerged as one of the most successful rock acts of all time, producing albums that included "<a href="Desperado%20%28Eagles%20album%29">Desperado</a>" (1973) and "<a href="Hotel%20California%20%28Eagles%20album%29">Hotel California</a>" (1976). Also, the <a href="Charlie%20Daniels%20Band">Charlie Daniels Band</a>, and their famous song "<a href="The%20Devil%20Went%20Down%20to%20Georgia">The Devil Went Down to Georgia</a>", that first came out in 1979, is a famous and popular example of country rock.
Outside of these handful of stars, country rock's greatest significance was on artists in other genres, including <a href="The%20Band">The Band</a>, <a href="Grateful%20Dead">Grateful Dead</a>, <a href="Creedence%20Clearwater%20Revival">Creedence Clearwater Revival</a>, <a href="The%20Rolling%20Stones">The Rolling Stones</a> and <a href="George%20Harrison">George Harrison</a>'s solo work. It also played a part in the development of <a href="Southern%20rock">Southern rock</a>, which, although largely derived from <a href="blues%20rock">blues rock</a>, had a distinct southern lilt, and it paved the way for parts of the <a href="alternative%20country">alternative country</a> movement. The genre declined in popularity in the late 1970s, but some established artists, including Neil Young, have continued to record country-tinged rock into the twenty-first century. Country rock has survived as a cult force in Texas, where acts including <a href="The%20Flatlanders">The Flatlanders</a>, <a href="Joe%20Ely">Joe Ely</a>, <a href="Butch%20Hancock">Butch Hancock</a>, <a href="Jimmie%20Dale%20Gilmore">Jimmie Dale Gilmore</a> and California-based Richard Brooker, have collaborated and recorded. Other performers have produced occasional recordings in the genre, including <a href="Elvis%20Costello">Elvis Costello</a>'s "<a href="Almost%20Blue">Almost Blue</a>" (1981) and the <a href="Robert%20Plant">Robert Plant</a> and <a href="Alison%20Krauss">Alison Krauss</a> collaboration "<a href="Raising%20Sand">Raising Sand</a>", which was one of the most commercially successful albums of 2007.

</doc>
<doc id="90595" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90595" title="Baron Cimetière">
Baron Cimetière

In <a href="Haitian%20Vodun">Vodou</a>, Baron Cimitière (Baron Cemetery) is one of the <a href="Gu%C3%A9d%C3%A9">Guédé</a>, a spirit of the dead, along with <a href="Baron%20Samedi">Baron Samedi</a> and <a href="Baron%20La%20Croix">Baron La Croix</a>. He is said to be the male guardian of the cemetery, protecting its graves.
His horses wear a tuxedo or tails and a top hat. They have expensive tastes, smoking cigars and drinking wine or fine liquor. They are just as crass as the other Guede, but ape polite manners and upper-class airs while doing so.
Brave Guede is the doorman between the world of the living and the afterlife, guardian of the cemetery gate. He keeps the dead in and the living out.

</doc>
<doc id="90596" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90596" title="Baron La Croix">
Baron La Croix

In <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Vodou</a>, Baron La Croix (French for "Baron The Cross"), or "Bawon Lakwa" in Kreyol, is one of the <a href="Gu%C3%A9d%C3%A9">Guédé</a>, a <a href="Loa">Loa</a> of the dead and sexuality, along with <a href="Baron%20Samedi">Baron Samedi</a> and <a href="Baron%20Cimeti%C3%A8re">Baron Cimetière</a>. He is syncretized with <a href="Saint%20Expeditus">Saint Expeditus</a>. 
Baron La Croix is often seen wearing a black tailcoat and carrying an elaborate cane. He is the ultimate suave and sophisticated spirit of Death - quite cultured and debonair. He has an existential philosophy about death, finding death's reason for being both humorous and absurd. Baron La Croix is the extreme expression of individuality, and offers to you the reminder of delighting in life's pleasures.

</doc>
<doc id="90598" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90598" title="Orne">
Orne

Orne () is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the northwest of <a href="France">France</a>, named after the river <a href="Orne%20%28river%29">Orne</a>.
Orne is one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a>, on 4 March 1790. It was created from parts of the <a href="provinces%20of%20France">former provinces</a> of <a href="Normandy">Normandy</a> and <a href="Perche">Perche</a>.
Orne is in the <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Normandy%20%28French%20region%29">Normandy</a> neighbouring <a href="Eure">Eure</a>, <a href="Eure-et-Loir">Eure-et-Loir</a>, <a href="Sarthe">Sarthe</a>, <a href="Mayenne">Mayenne</a>, and <a href="Calvados">Calvados</a>. It is the only department of Normandy to be landlocked.
The largest town by a considerable margin is the <a href="Prefectures%20in%20France">prefecture</a>, <a href="Alen%C3%A7on">Alençon</a> which is an administrative and commercial centre for what is still an overwhelmingly rural department. There are no large industrial centres: agriculture remains the economic focus of Orne.
The inhabitants of the department are called "Ornais".
The recorded population level peaked at 443,688 in 1836. Declining farm incomes and the lure of better prospects in the <a href="Overseas%20departments%20and%20territories%20of%20France">overseas empire</a> led to a sustained reduction in population levels in many rural departments, and by the time of the 1936 census the recorded population stood at just 269,331. Once motor car ownership started to surge in the 1960s employment opportunities became less restricted and by 2008 the population level had recovered a little to 292,282.
The two major cities in the Orne are <a href="Alen%C3%A7on">Alençon</a>, the prefecture, and <a href="Flers%2C%20Orne">Flers</a>.
<a href="Alen%C3%A7on%2C%20Orne">Alençon</a> is the chief town of the Orne department.
<a href="Camembert%2C%20Orne">Camembert</a>, the village where <a href="Camembert%20%28cheese%29">Camembert cheese</a> is made, is located in Orne.
The local dialect is known as "<a href="Augeron">Augeron</a>".

</doc>
<doc id="90599" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90599" title="Bas-Rhin">
Bas-Rhin

Bas-Rhin (; <a href="Alsatian%20language">Alsatian</a>: "Unterelsàss") is a <a href="Departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the <a href="Alsace-Champagne-Ardenne-Lorraine">Alsace-Champagne-Ardenne-Lorraine</a> region of <a href="France">France</a>. The name means "Lower <a href="Rhine">Rhine</a>". It is the more populous and densely populated of the two departments of the traditional <a href="Alsace">Alsace</a> <a href="Regions%20of%20France">region</a>, with 1,109,460 inhabitants in 2013. The <a href="prefecture">prefecture</a> and the General Council are based in <a href="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>. The <a href="INSEE">INSEE</a> and Post Code is 67.
The inhabitants of the department are known as "Bas-Rhinois" or "Bas-Rhinoises"
The <a href="Rhine">Rhine</a> has always been of great historical and economic importance to the area, and it forms the eastern border of Bas-Rhin. The area is also home to some of the foothills of the <a href="Vosges%20Mountains">Vosges Mountains</a>.
To the north of Bas-Rhin lies the <a href="Palatinate%20forest">Palatinate forest</a> "(Pfälzerwald)" in the German <a href="States%20of%20Germany">State</a> of <a href="Rhineland-Palatinate">Rhineland-Palatinate</a>, and the German <a href="L%C3%A4nder%20of%20Germany">State</a> of <a href="Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg">Baden-Württemberg</a> lies to the east. To the south lies the department of <a href="Haut-Rhin">Haut-Rhin</a>, the town of <a href="Colmar">Colmar</a> and southern <a href="Alsace">Alsace</a>, and to the west the department of <a href="Moselle%20%28department%29">Moselle</a>.
On its south-western corner, Bas-Rhin also joins the department of <a href="Vosges%20%28department%29">Vosges</a>.
The Bas-Rhin has a continental-type climate, characterised by cold, dry winters and hot, stormy summers, due to the western protection provided by the <a href="Vosges">Vosges</a>. However, the Alsatian climate is less continental than that of Burgundy. The average annual temperature is in the lowlands (Entzheim) and on high ground. The annual maximum temperature is high (). The average rainfall is per year.
Established according to data from the Infoclimat station at Strasbourg-Entzheim (the airport), over the period from 1961 to 1990.
This is the last French department to have kept the term "Bas" meaning "Lower" in its name. Other departments using this prefix preferred to change their names - e.g.: "Basses-Pyrenees" in 1969 became <a href="Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es-Atlantiques">Pyrénées-Atlantiques</a> and "Basses-Alpes" in 1970 became the department of <a href="Alpes-de-Haute-Provence">Alpes-de-Haute-Provence</a>. The same phenomenon was observed for the "inférieur" (also meaning "lower") departments such as "Charente-Inférieure, Seine-Inférieure", and "Loire-Inférieure". 
Bas-Rhin is one of the original 83 departments created on 4 March 1790, during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a>.
On 14 January 1790 the <a href="National%20Constituent%20Assembly">National Constituent Assembly</a> decreed:
The borders of Bas-Rhin have changed many times:
<a href="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>, the <a href="chef-lieu">"chef lieu"</a> (principal city) of Bas-Rhin is one of two seats of the <a href="European%20Parliament">European Parliament</a>, the other being in <a href="Brussels">Brussels</a>.
The demography of Bas-Rhin is characterized by high density and high population growth since the 1950s.
In January 2010 Bas-Rhin officially had 1,095,905 inhabitants and was <a href="List%20of%20French%20departments%20by%20population">18th by population</a> at the national level. In ten years, from 1999 to 2009, its population grew by more than 68,000 people, or about 6,800 people per year. But this variation is differentiated among the 527 communes that make up the department.
The population density of Bas-Rhin is 230.1 inhabitants per square kilometre in 2009 which is more than twice the average in France, which is 112 for the same year.
The first census was be conducted in 1801 and this count, renewed every five years from 1821, provides precise information on the evolution of population in the department.
With 540,213 inhabitants in 1831, the department represented 1.66% of the total French population, which was then 32,569,000 inhabitants. From 1831 to 1866, the department gained 48,757 people, an increase of 0.26% on average per year compared to the national average of 0.48% over the same period.
Demographic change between the <a href="Franco-Prussian%20War">Franco-Prussian War</a> of 1870 and the <a href="First%20World%20War">First World War</a> was higher than the national average. Over this period, the population increased by 100,532 inhabitants, an increase of 16.74%, compared to 10% nationally. The population increased by 9.23% between the two world wars from 1921 to 1936 compared to a national growth of 6.9%.
Like other French departments, Bas-Rhin experienced a population boom after the <a href="Second%20World%20War">Second World War</a>, higher than the national level. The rate of population growth between 1946 and 2007 was 83.83%, compared to 57% nationally.
According to the general census of the population of 1 January 2008, 2.3% of available housing in the department were second homes.
This table shows the main towns of the Bas-Rhin where second homes exceed 10% of total housing.
Communes with more than 10% Secondary Lodgings
Sources :
The Bas-Rhin department has a high density of SMEs and SMIs and a higher proportion of workers in industry than the national average. Tourism activity is intense and creates many indirect jobs. The rate of unemployment is among the lowest in France: 6.5%. The average GDP per capita is €18,795 which places the region as the second largest in France with 2.9% of national GDP. Employment is distributed in the following way, as a percentage of the labor force:
Agriculture: 8,411 or 2%
Crafts and industry: 97,349 or 24.2%
Building and Public Works: 23,928 or 6.0%
Tertiary Sector: 271,984 or 67.8%
"Frontaliers": 28,186
Trades: 11 358 companies comprising:
Food industry : 568 units employing 15,884 employees
Commerce:
Tourism: 3,216 hotels with 11,100 rooms
Alsace and the adjacent <a href="Moselle">Moselle department</a> have a <a href="Local%20law%20in%20Alsace-Moselle">legal system</a> slightly different from the rest of France. The statutes in question date from the period 1871 - 1919 when the area was part of the <a href="German%20Empire">German Empire</a>. With the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Versailles">return of Alsace-Lorraine to France</a> in 1919, Paris accepted that Alsace and Moselle should retain some local laws in respect of certain matters, especially with regard to hunting, economic life, local government relationships, health insurance and social rights. It includes notably the absence of any <a href="La%C3%AFcit%C3%A9">formal separation between church and state</a>: several mainstream denominations of the Christian church benefit from state funding, in contrast to principles applied in the rest of France.
The seat of the General Council is located in <a href="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>, in a building designed by the architect <a href="Claude%20Vasconi">Claude Vasconi</a>. The current prefect of the Bas-Rhin is Stéphane Fratacci. The representative of the Lower Rhine for the <a href="National%20Youth%20Council">National Youth Council</a> is Mr. Gautier Lutz.
Bas-Rhin is composed of five <a href="Arrondissements%20of%20the%20Bas-Rhin%20department">arrondissements</a> (Haguenau-Wissembourg, Molsheim, Saverne, Sélestat-Erstein, and Strasbourg) and 23 <a href="Cantons%20of%20the%20Bas-Rhin%20department">cantons</a>.
Through its secondary and higher education institutions, Alsace is a very important region for students and is very internationally oriented. Strasbourg alone welcomes 75% of students in its university. Since the merger of three faculties and the IUT of Illkirch and of Schiltigheim it has become one of the largest universities in France. There are also renowned institutions such as the <a href="%C3%89cole%20nationale%20d%27administration">National School of Administration</a> (ENA), the <a href="Institut%20national%20des%20%C3%A9tudes%20territoriales">National Institute of Territorial Studies</a> (INET), the Higher European Institute of Management, and the National School of Physics of Strasbourg.
The <a href="Ch%C3%A2teau%20du%20Haut-K%C5%93nigsbourg">Château du Haut-Kœnigsbourg</a>: built in the 12th century, the castle of Haut-Koenigsbourg dominates the plain of Alsace more than <a href="Above%20mean%20sea%20level">above sea level</a>. Destroyed during the <a href="Thirty%20Years%20War">Thirty Years War</a>, it was restored from 1900 to 1908 by the German Emperor <a href="Wilhelm%20II">Wilhelm II</a>. It houses a large collection of weapons and period furniture.
The <a href="Ch%C3%A2teau%20du%20Fleckenstein">Château du Fleckenstein</a>: early 12th century, built by the imperial family of <a href="Hohenstaufen">Hohenstaufen</a>, the castle was occupied and turned into an impregnable fortress by the Fleckenstein family. Many activities are offered such as the "Castle of challenges". There is a large selection of 20 games crossing the forest and in the secret rooms of the castle to discover life in the Middle Ages.
The <a href="Ch%C3%A2teau%20de%20Lichtenberg">Château de Lichtenberg</a>: built in the early 13th century on a hill overlooking the village, the site includes contemporary space-related cultural activities.
With more than 27 million tourists per year, Bas-Rhin is the 5th largest French department for the number of room-nights for visitors per year.
Other sites of interest are:
<a href="Strasbourg%20Cathedral">Strasbourg Cathedral</a>: Strasbourg Cathedral is a masterpiece of <a href="Gothic%20art">Gothic art</a>. Measuring 142 metres high from the <a href="Parvise">Parvise</a> to the top of the tower, it is considered the second largest cathedral in France after that of <a href="Rouen%20Cathedral">Rouen</a>. Its <a href="astronomical%20clock">astronomical clock</a> dates from the <a href="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and the mechanism dated 1492 is a masterpiece in itself.
The <a href="Mont%20Sainte-Odile">Mont Sainte-Odile</a>: a living spiritual place. Rising to 764 metres, this mountain in <a href="Vosges">Vosges</a> is topped by a monastery founded by <a href="Odile%20of%20Alsace">Saint-Odile</a>, the patron saint of Alsace. It is a tourist attraction and also a place of pilgrimage.
The <a href="Mus%C3%A9e%20alsacien%20%28Strasbourg%29">Alsatian Museum</a>: A museum of Art and Popular Traditions. There is a large collection of utilitarian objects, decorative objects, as well as costumes that depict everyday life in Alsace in the 18th and 19th centuries.
The <a href="Strasbourg%20Museum%20of%20Modern%20and%20Contemporary%20Art">Strasbourg Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art</a>: Located in the heart of the city of Strasbourg, the Museum of Modern and Contemporary houses nearly 18,000 works divided into three departments: fine arts, graphic art, and photography. Some of the greatest innovators of the 20th century are on display.
The <a href="Mus%C3%A9e%20Tomi%20Ungerer/Centre%20international%20de%20l%E2%80%99illustration">Tomi Ungerer Museum</a>: there is a large collection of drawings, archives, magazines, and toys donated to his hometown by the French illustrator Tomi Ungerer. It also hosts temporary exhibitions.
The <a href="Palais%20Rohan%2C%20Strasbourg">Palais Rohan</a>: The Rohan Palace was built between 1731 and 1742 at the request of Armand de Rohan-Soubise, Cardinal and <a href="Bishop%20of%20Strasbourg">Bishop of Strasbourg</a>, who made his residence in the historic heart of the city. It also hosts the Arts and Crafts Museum, Archaeological Museum, and the Museum of Fine Arts.
The <a href="stork">stork</a> is the emblematic bird of Alsace. According to legend, it brings newborn babies wrapped in a cloth tightly in its beak. Once disppeared, it has now protected and become an integral part of the landscape. They can be seen mostly on the roofs of public buildings and more on houses.
The traditional Alsatian costume is a symbol of the region. Although it is usually composed of a black hat and a red skirt, the symbol of Alsace, there are many other outfits that vary between villages but also according to the social status of the person. Today virtually disappeared, they can still be seen in some villages at various events and through folk groups.
Many traditions have their origins in a quest for the meaning of life or in the rites of protection e.g. Christian festivals, even today create the rhythm of life in the villages of the region. The four seasons each have their share of celebrations: crop harvest, grape harvest, employers' feast days, crafts, yard sales, local produce.

</doc>
<doc id="90600" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90600" title="Haut-Rhin">
Haut-Rhin

Haut-Rhin (; <a href="Alsatian%20language">Alsatian</a>: "Owerelsàss") () is a <a href="Departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the <a href="Alsace-Champagne-Ardenne-Lorraine">Alsace-Champagne-Ardenne-Lorraine</a> <a href="Regions%20of%20France">region</a> of France, named after the <a href="Rhine">Rhine</a> river. Its name means "<a href="Upper%20Rhine">Upper Rhine</a>". Haut-Rhin is the smaller and less populated of the two departments of the traditional <a href="Alsace">Alsace</a> region, although it is still densely populated compared to the rest of France.
The department consists of the following "<a href="Arrondissements%20of%20France">arrondissements</a>":
Haut-Rhin is one of the original 83 departments, created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a>, on 4 March 1790 through the application of the law of 22 December 1789 in respect of the southern half of the <a href="Provinces_of_France">province</a> of <a href="Alsace">Alsace</a> (<a href="Haute-Alsace">Haute-Alsace</a>).
Its boundaries have been modified many times:
Haut-Rhin is bordered by the <a href="Territoire%20de%20Belfort">Territoire de Belfort</a> and <a href="Vosges%20%28department%29">Vosges</a> "départements" and the <a href="Vosges%20Mountains">Vosges Mountains</a> to the west, the <a href="Bas-Rhin">Bas-Rhin</a> "département" to the North, Switzerland to the south and its eastern border with Germany is also the River <a href="Rhine">Rhine</a>. In the centre of the "département" lies a fertile plain. The climate is semi-continental.
Haut-Rhin is one of the richest French "départements". <a href="Mulhouse">Mulhouse</a> is the home of a <a href="Peugeot">Peugeot</a> automobile factory, manufacturing the 106 and 206 models. The lowest unemployment rate in France can be found in the Southern Sundgau region (approximately 2%). The countryside is marked by hills. Many "Haut-Rhinois" work in Switzerland, especially in the chemical industries of <a href="Basel">Basel</a>, but commute from France where living costs are lower.
Alsace and the adjacent <a href="Moselle%20%28department%29">Moselle department</a> have a <a href="Local%20law%20in%20Alsace-Moselle">legal system</a> slightly different from the rest of France. The statutes in question date from the period 1871 - 1919 when the area was part of the <a href="German%20Empire">German Empire</a>. With the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Versailles">return of Alsace-Lorraine to France</a> in 1919, Paris accepted that Alsace and Moselle should retain some local laws in respect of certain matters, especially with regard to hunting, economic life, local government relationships, health insurance and social rights. It includes notably the absence of any <a href="La%C3%AFcit%C3%A9">formal separation between church and state</a>: several mainstream denominations of the Christian church benefit from state funding, in contrast to principles applied in the rest of France.

</doc>
<doc id="90601" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90601" title="Haute-Saône">
Haute-Saône

Haute-Saône (; <a href="Arpitan">Arpitan</a>: "Hiôta-Sona") is a <a href="France">French</a> <a href="Departments%20of%20France">department</a> of the <a href="Bourgogne-Franche-Comt%C3%A9">Bourgogne-Franche-Comté</a> <a href="Regions%20of%20France">region</a> named after the <a href="Sa%C3%B4ne%20River">Saône River</a>.
Haute-Saône is divided into 2 arrondissements and 17 cantons.
The department was created in the early years of the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> through the application of a law dated 22 December 1789, from part of the <a href="Provinces%20of%20France">former province</a> of <a href="Franche-Comt%C3%A9">Franche-Comté</a>. The frontiers of the new department corresponded approximately to those of the old .
Haute-Saône is part of the <a href="Bourgogne-Franche-Comt%C3%A9">Bourgogne-Franche-Comté</a> <a href="Regions%20of%20France">region</a>. Neighbouring departments are <a href="C%C3%B4te-d%27Or">Côte-d'Or</a> to the west, <a href="Haute-Marne">Haute-Marne</a> to the north-west, <a href="Vosges%20%28d%C3%A9partement%29">Vosges</a> to the north, <a href="Territoire%20de%20Belfort">Territoire de Belfort</a> to the east, <a href="Doubs%20%28d%C3%A9partement%29">Doubs</a> to the south and east and <a href="Jura%20%28d%C3%A9partement%29">Jura</a> to south. 
The department can be presented as a transitional territory positioned between several of the more depressed departments of eastern France and the so-called <a href="Blue%20Banana">Blue Banana</a> zone characterised, in recent decades by relatively powerful economic growth.
The department is overwhelmingly rural, despite <a href="Franche-Comt%C3%A9">the area</a> having been at the forefront of industrialisation in the eighteenth century. The industrial tradition endures, but industrial businesses tend to be on a small scale. In 2006 employment by economic sector was reported as follows:
In common with many rural departments in France, Haute-Saône has experienced a savage reduction in population, from nearly 350,000 in the middle of the nineteenth century to barely 200,000 on the eve of the <a href="Second%20World%20War">Second World War</a>, as people migrated to newly industrialising population centres, often outside <a href="Metropolitan%20France">Metropolitan France</a>.
During the second half of the twentieth century the mass mobility conferred by the surge in <a href="automobile">automobile</a> ownership permitted some recovery of the population figure to approximately 234,000 in 2004.
The rural nature of the department is highlighted by the absence of large towns and cities. Even the department's capital, <a href="Vesoul">Vesoul</a>, still had a population below 20,000 in 2010.

</doc>
<doc id="90602" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90602" title="Saône-et-Loire">
Saône-et-Loire

Saône-et-Loire (; <a href="Arpitan">Arpitan</a>: "Sona-et-Lêre") is a <a href="France">French</a> <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a>, named after the <a href="Sa%C3%B4ne%20River">Saône</a> and the <a href="Loire%20River">Loire</a> rivers between which it lies.
When it was formed during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a>, as of March 4, 1790 in fulfillment of the law of December 22, 1789, the new department combined parts of the <a href="provinces%20of%20France">provinces</a> of southern <a href="Burgundy%20%28region%29">Burgundy</a> and <a href="Bresse">Bresse</a>, uniting lands that had no previous common history nor political unity and which have no true geographical unity. Thus its history is that of Burgundy, and is especially to be found in the local histories of <a href="Autun">Autun</a>, <a href="M%C3%A2con">Mâcon</a>, <a href="Chalon-sur-Sa%C3%B4ne">Chalon-sur-Saône</a>, <a href="Charolles">Charolles</a> and <a href="Louhans">Louhans</a>.
Saône-et-Loire is the seventh largest department of France. It is part of the <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> <a href="Bourgogne-Franche-Comt%C3%A9">Bourgogne-Franche-Comté</a>. In the west, the department is composed of the hills of the "Autunois", the region around <a href="Autun">Autun</a>, in the southwest the <a href="Charolles">Charollais</a>, and the <a href="M%C3%A2con">Mâcon</a>nais in the south.
In the centre, the department is traversed from north to south by the Saône in its wide plain; the Saône is a tributary of the River <a href="Rh%C3%B4ne">Rhône</a> that joins it at <a href="Lyon">Lyon</a> and thus is connected to the <a href="Mediterranean%20Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. The source of the <a href="Loire">Loire</a>, is south of the department, in the department of <a href="Ard%C3%A8che">Ardèche</a>. It then makes its way in the opposite direction, forming the southwest border of the department, and eventually draining into the <a href="Atlantic%20Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>. The <a href="Canal%20du%20Centre%20%28France%29">Canal du Centre</a> links the Saône to the Loire between <a href="Chalon-sur-Sa%C3%B4ne">Chalon-sur-Saône</a> and <a href="Digoin">Digoin</a>, thereby linking the <a href="Mediterranean%20Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> to the <a href="Atlantic%20ocean">Atlantic ocean</a>. In the east, the department occupies the northern part of the plain of Bresse. In the west, its industrial heart is in <a href="Le%20Creusot">Le Creusot</a> and <a href="Montceau-les-Mines">Montceau-les-Mines</a>, formerly noted for their coal mines and metallurgy.
The department consists of five arrondissements:
There are 29 cantons in the department and 573 communes.
Touristic sites :

</doc>
<doc id="90603" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90603" title="Guédé">
Guédé

In <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Haiti</a>, the Guédé (also spelled Gede or 
Ghede, pronounced in Haitian Creole) are the family of <a href="Loa">Loa</a> that embody the powers of <a href="death">death</a> and <a href="fertility">fertility</a>. Guédé spirits include <a href="Ghede%20Doubye">Ghede Doubye</a>, <a href="Ghede%20Linto">Ghede Linto</a>, <a href="Ghede%20Loraj">Ghede Loraj</a>, <a href="Gu%C3%A9d%C3%A9%20Nibo">Guédé Nibo</a> and <a href="Gu%C3%A9d%C3%A9%20Ti%20Malis">Guédé Ti Malis</a>. All are known for the drum rhythm and dance called the "banda". In possession, they will drink or rub themselves with a mixture of clairin (raw rum) and twenty-one <a href="habanero">habanero</a> or goat peppers. "Fête Ghede" is celebrated on 2 November, <a href="All%20Souls%27%20Day">All Souls' Day</a> ("Festival of the Dead"). All boons granted by the Ghede must be repaid by this date or they will take their vengeance on you.
Papa Ghede is the corpse of the first man who ever died. He is recognized as a short, dark man with a <a href="Top%20hat">high hat</a> on his head, who likes to smoke cheap <a href="cigar">cigar</a>s and eat apples. Papa Ghede is a <a href="psychopomp">psychopomp</a> who waits at the crossroads to take souls into the afterlife. He is considered the good counterpart to <a href="Baron%20Samedi">Baron Samedi</a>. If a child is dying, Papa Ghede is prayed to. It is believed that he will not take a life before its time, and that he will protect the little ones. Papa Ghede has a very crass sense of humor, a divine ability to read others' minds, and the ability to know everything that happens in the worlds of the living and the dead. Another version of this is Papa Gé from <a href="Once%20On%20This%20Island">Once On This Island</a>.
Brave Ghede is the guardian and watchman of the graveyard. He keeps the dead souls in and the living souls out. He is sometimes considered an aspect of Nibo.
Ghede Bábáco is Papa Ghede's less known brother and is also a psychopomp. His role is somewhat similar to that of Papa Ghede, but he doesn't have the special abilities of his brother.
<a href="Ghede%20Nibo">Ghede Nibo</a> is a psychopomp, an intermediary between the living and the dead. He was the first person to die by violence, so he is the patron of those who died by unnatural causes (disaster, accident, misadventure, or violence). He is the guardian of the graves of those who died prematurely, particularly those whose final resting place is unknown. His "chevals" ("horses", possessed devotees) can give voice to the dead spirits whose bodies have not been found or that have not been reclaimed from "below the waters".
Baron Kriminel ("Baron of Criminals") is the enforcer of the Guede. He was the first person to kill another (probably Nibo). As the first murderer, he is master of those who murder or use violence to harm others. Families of murder victims and the abused pray to him to get revenge on those who wronged them. His "horses" have an insatiable appetite and will attack people until they are offered food. If it doesn't please them or takes too long, they will bite and chew on anyone nearby (or even themselves) until they are sated. He is syncretised with <a href="St.%20Martin%20de%20Porres">St. Martin de Porres</a>, perhaps because his feast day is November 3, the day after Fete Ghede. He is sacrificed black roosters that have been bound, doused with strong spirit, and then set alight.
Maman Brigitte ("Mother Bridget") is the wife of Baron Samedi. She is syncretized with <a href="St.%20Brigit">St. Brigit</a>, perhaps because St. Brigit is the protector of crosses and gravestones.
The Ghede loa have their own versions of the Twins, which appear as gravediggers. Twins are seen as having divine insight and vision. They also are part in the material world and the spiritual world (in their case, the living and the dead). They usually wear contrasting colors.
Ghede Masaka assists Ghede Nibo. He is an androgynous or transgender male gravedigger and spirit of the dead, recognized by his black shirt, white jacket, and white headscarf.
Ghede Oussou wears a black or mauve jacket marked on the back with a white cross and a black or mauve headscarf. His name means "tipsy" due to his love of white rum. Ghede Oussou is sometimes also linked with the female Ghede L'Oraille. 
The Guédé is closely associated with the loa Baron, whose aspects are Baron Samedi (Baron Saturday) - ruler of the graveyard, <a href="Baron%20La%20Croix">Baron La Croix</a> (Baron The Cross) - guardian of the gravestone, and <a href="Baron%20Cimeti%C3%A8re">Baron Cimetière</a> (Baron Cemetery) - guardian of the grave. 
Depending on the tradition followed, Baron is:
In any of these configurations, Baron, Maman Brigitte, and the Guédé rule death, the cemetery and the grave.

</doc>
<doc id="90604" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90604" title="Sarthe">
Sarthe

Sarthe () is a <a href="France">French</a> <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> situated in the "<a href="Grand-Ouest">Grand-Ouest</a>" of the country. It is named after the <a href="Sarthe%20%28river%29">River Sarthe</a>, which flows from east of <a href="Le%20Mans">Le Mans</a> to just north of <a href="Angers">Angers</a>.
The department was created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on 4 March 1790, pursuant to the law of 22 December 1789, starting from a part of the <a href="Provinces%20of%20France">province</a> of <a href="Maine%20%28province%20of%20France%29">Maine</a>. The latter was divided into two departments, Sarthe to the east and <a href="Mayenne">Mayenne</a> to the west.
In Roman times, this province contained the city of <a href="Mans">Mans</a>, and many of its ruins are still standing. The Roman Thermal Bathhouse attracts many tourists, as does the Theater of <a href="Aubign%C3%A9-Racan">Aubigné-Racan</a>, both located on the outskirts of <a href="Anjou">Anjou</a>, <a href="Maine%20%28province%20of%20France%29">Maine</a>, and <a href="Touraine">Touraine</a>.
<a href="Marin%20Mersenne">Marin Mersenne</a>, perhaps the most important scientific figure in the early 17th century, was born in the vicinity of Sarthe.
The department of Sarthe is at the north end of the administrative <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Pays-de-la-Loire">Pays-de-la-Loire</a>. It is south of <a href="Basse-Normandie">Basse-Normandie</a> and on the southern edge of the <a href="Armorican%20Massif">Armorican Massif</a>. It is bordered by the departments of <a href="Orne">Orne</a>, <a href="Eure-et-Loir">Eure-et-Loir</a>, <a href="Loir-et-Cher">Loir-et-Cher</a>, <a href="Indre-et-Loire">Indre-et-Loire</a>, <a href="Maine-et-Loire">Maine-et-Loire</a> and <a href="Mayenne">Mayenne</a>.
Approximately 300,000 people, comprising more than half of the department's population, live in <a href="Le%20Mans">Le Mans</a>, , or the essentially urban communes close by. The rest of the department retains a rural character, with agriculture as the chief part of the economy.
The arrival of the <a href="railways">railways</a> in 1854 boosted trade for the local economy. A <a href="TGV">TGV</a> connection was constructed in 1989, connecting the community to high-speed transport.
In terms of road connections, the <a href="A11%20autoroute">A11 autoroute</a>, which was constructed to Le Mans from <a href="Paris">the east</a> in 1978, enhances Sarthe's strategic position as the gateway to the French west.
The department was the electoral base of former Prime Minister <a href="Francois%20Fillon">Francois Fillon</a>, who since 2012 sits in the <a href="National%20Assembly%20of%20France">National Assembly of France</a> for a constituency in central Paris.

</doc>
<doc id="90605" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90605" title="Haute-Savoie">
Haute-Savoie

Haute-Savoie (; or '; ; or '; ) is a <a href="Departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the <a href="Auvergne-Rh%C3%B4ne-Alpes">Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes</a> <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of eastern <a href="France">France</a>, bordering both <a href="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> and <a href="Italy">Italy</a>. Its capital is <a href="Annecy">Annecy</a>. To the north is <a href="Lake%20Geneva">Lake Geneva</a> and Switzerland; to the south and southeast are the <a href="Mont%20Blanc">Mont Blanc</a> and <a href="Aravis%20Range">Aravis mountain ranges</a>. The French entrance to the <a href="Mont%20Blanc%20Tunnel">Mont Blanc Tunnel</a> to Italy is in Haute-Savoie. It is noted for winter sports; the first <a href="Winter%20Olympic%20Games">Winter Olympic Games</a> were held at <a href="1924%20Winter%20Olympics">Chamonix in 1924</a>.
Before 1860, the territory occupied by modern Haute-Savoie and the adjoining department of <a href="Savoie">Savoie</a> had been part of the <a href="Kingdom%20of%20Sardinia">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> since the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Utrecht">Treaty of Utrecht</a> in 1713. Annexation of the region by <a href="France">France</a> was formalized in the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Turin">Treaty of Turin</a> on .
From November 1942 to September 1943, Haute-Savoie was subjected to military occupation by <a href="Italian%20Social%20Republic">Fascist Italy</a>. The <a href="Maquis%20des%20Gli%C3%A8res">Maquis des Glières</a> (a band of <a href="Maquis%20%28World%20War%20II%29">Free French Resistance</a> fighters who opposed the <a href="Nazi">Nazi</a>, <a href="Vichy%20France">Vichy</a> and <a href="Milice">Milice</a> regimes during <a href="World%20War%20II">World War II</a>) operated from Haute-Savoie.
Haute-Savoie comprises <a href="Arrondissements%20of%20the%20Haute-Savoie%20department">four arrondissements</a>, divided into <a href="Communes%20of%20the%20Haute-Savoie%20department">294 communes</a> and <a href="Cantons%20of%20the%20Haute-Savoie%20department">17 cantons</a>.
To the north, it borders the Swiss <a href="Canton%20of%20Geneva">Canton of Geneva</a> and <a href="Lake%20Geneva">Lake Geneva</a>; to the east the Swiss <a href="Valais">Canton of Valais</a> and Italy's <a href="Aosta%20Valley">Aosta Valley</a>; to the west the French department of <a href="Ain">Ain</a>, and to the south the department of Savoie.
Haute-Savoie has the largest range of elevations of all the departments in France; the lowest point is in the <a href="Rh%C3%B4ne">Rhône River Valley</a>, and the highest <a href="Mont%20Blanc">Mont Blanc</a> at . Some of the world's best-known ski resorts are in Haute-Savoie.
The terrain of the department includes the Alpine <a href="Mont%20Blanc%20massif">Mont Blanc Range</a>; the <a href="French%20Prealps">French Prealps</a> of the <a href="Aravis%20Range">Aravis Range</a>, the <a href="Chablais%20Alps">Chablais</a>, Bornes and Bauges Alps; and the <a href="peneplain">peneplain</a>s of Genevois haut-savoyard and <a href="Albanais">Albanais</a> (known collectively as "L'Avant-pays savoyard"). Its mountainous terrain makes <a href="mountain%20pass">mountain pass</a>es important to trade and economic life. Some of the most important are the <a href="Col%20de%20la%20Forclaz">Col de la Forclaz</a> (which connects Chamonix to the Canton of Valais) and the <a href="Mont%20Blanc%20Tunnel">Mont Blanc Tunnel</a>, linking Chamonix to <a href="Courmayeur">Courmayeur</a> in the <a href="Aosta%20Valley">Aosta Valley</a>.
As of 1996, of Haute-Savoie is <a href="forest">forest</a>ed (38.8 percent of the total land area), compared to 34.4 percent for the <a href="Rhone-Alpes">Rhone-Alpes</a> region and 27.1 percent for France as a whole. Of the forested area (79 percent) is <a href="forest%20management">managed</a> for <a href="timber">timber</a> and other <a href="forest%20product">forest product</a>s, with the remaining having no commercial value or used for <a href="outdoor%20recreation">outdoor recreation</a>.
National nature reserves are designated by the <a href="Cabinet%20of%20France">French government</a> as areas where an outstanding <a href="natural%20heritage">natural heritage</a> is present in both rare and typical areas in terms of species and geology. Management is charged to local organizations, with direction and evaluation focusing on long-term protection for future generations and <a href="environmental%20education">environmental education</a>. Of the of land not managed for timber, Haute-Savoie has nine national nature reserves totaling .
Haute-Savoie has significant freshwater resources. <a href="Lake%20Annecy">Lake Annecy</a> is a major attraction, along with the town of <a href="%C3%89vian-les-Bains">Évian-les-Bains</a>, perhaps the best-known town on the French shore of <a href="Lake%20Geneva">Lake Geneva</a>, and known worldwide for its <a href="Evian">Evian</a> <a href="mineral%20water">mineral water</a>. Haute-Savoie is entirely within the <a href="drainage%20divide">watershed</a> of the <a href="Rhone">Rhone</a>.
In 2006 approximately of land was suitable for <a href="agriculture">agriculture</a>, of which (24 percent) was <a href="arable%20land">arable land</a> suitable for <a href="market%20gardening">market gardening</a>, <a href="Tillage">cultivation</a> or <a href="pasture">pasture</a>; was <a href="orchards">orchards</a>; was <a href="vineyards">vineyards</a>, and was <a href="alpine%20tundra">alpine tundra</a> or <a href="grass">grass</a>es.
There were 4,450 farmers in 1999, 4,800 farmers and over 1,700 full-time farm employees at the end of 2006. In 1999, crop production was valued at €71.5 million and animal production at €165.4 million.
<a href="Dairy">Dairy</a> production is a large part of the Haute-Savoie economy, earning €117.2 million in 2006 and representing 74 percent of the net animal-product worth. <a href="Cattle">Cattle</a> earned €29.7 million. <a href="Cheese">Cheese</a> production (by variety) in 1999 (except as noted) was:
In late 2000 crafts occupied 15 percent of the workforce, or 28,443 employees and 1,922 apprentices. The 11,951 companies represented on the "Répertoire des Métiers" (Trade Index) were divided into:
In late December 2000, building construction and public works included 13,867 employees in 4,838 companies as follows:
In late December 2000, the trade sector accounted for 33,994 employees in 9,351 companies as follows:
In late 2006, the département had 600 commercial establishments in over (for a total area of ), including:
From 1998 to 2005, 65 new supermarkets were built for an area totaling .
The average expenditure per capita in 2006 was €21,706. With the 2004–2007 rise of the euro, Swiss customer traffic decreased five or six percent (Swiss shoppers make up half the shoppers in the Geneve Savoyard district).
At the end of 2006, traditional small businesses (less than ) represented 84 percent of businesses and 40 percent of retail space.
4,301 companies were established in 2004 in Haute-Savoie: nearly 80 percent in the service sector, with a high percentage offering service to individuals (hotels, restaurants, recreational, cultural, sports, personal and household services). This accounted for 21.6 percent of new businesses.
The most active sectors were real estate (up 24 percent), construction (up 15.4 percent), business services (up 12.4 percent) and the food industry (up 10 percent).
In 1999, Haute-Savoie had 2,779 industrial companies producing 13.60 percent of all business income.
Screw-cutting is a precision parts-machining industry, and Haute-Savoie generates the bulk of French screws. Firms engaged in screw-cutting are major employers in the department. While the automotive industry is the principal client, firms also service the electronics, household-appliance and medical sectors.
Arve Industries is part of 67 "competitiveness clusters" created in 2005.
The cluster is dedicated to <a href="mechatronics">mechatronics</a> and includes 60,000 industrial jobs in over 280 companies (primarily small), 1,200 researchers and 250 patents in 2002.
Among the projects supported by the cluster is <a href="Engineering%20tolerance%23An%20alternative%20view%20of%20tolerances">inertial tolerancing</a>, a new approach in evaluating the quality of machined parts. Based on the <a href="Taguchi%20loss%20function">Taguchi loss function</a>, inertia is defined by its deviation from its target. Inertial tolerancing is a research-and-development program supported by the cluster for its member companies. It is led by a research team from the Symme Laboratory of the University of Savoie and the CTDEC ("Centre Technique du Decolletage"). The publication of the French standard NFX 04-008 demonstrates the relevance of topics covered by the cluster.
Other programs involve the production of clean parts (4P project), developing new models of customer-supplier relationships to improve the effectiveness of simultaneous engineering tasks, and development of the international visibility of the cluster and its members.
The companies concerned are involved with industrial mechanics, precision engineering, precision turning and sub-assemblies and mechanical assemblies, often associated with integrating technologies such as plastics, electronics and hydraulics.
Markets served by member companies of the cluster include transport (cars, trucks, rail and air), production and distribution of electricity, hydraulics (gas or liquid, high-pressure vacuum), medical and health-related.
The research sector in Haute-Savoie filed 201 patents in 2000. It is represented by:
In late December 2000, the service sector employed 75,768 people in 11,129 companies in:
As of late December 2000, the tourism sector had a total of 635,000 beds divided as follows:
In 1999 there were 37.9 million overnight stays: 56 percent in winter and 44 percent during the rest of the year.
Many people who live in Haute-Savoie (more than 52,200 in November 2006) work in <a href="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> (in the cantons of <a href="Geneva">Geneva</a>, <a href="Vaud">Vaud</a> and <a href="Valais">Valais</a>). The phenomenon has accelerated since bilateral agreements concluded between Switzerland and the <a href="European%20Union">European Union</a>, of which a significant part concerned free movement of people. In 2007, commuting increased over 12%.
Effective June 1, 2007 a resident of Haute-Savoie may freely work in Switzerland. The department and municipalities receive compensation ("frontier funds") allocated to municipalities in proportion to the number of border residents there. Following an agreement signed in Geneva in 1973, the Canton of Geneva transferred to Haute-Savoie 3.5 percent of total worker compensation, equivalent in December 2006 to €77.687 million.
Exports are an important part of the economy; forty percent of Haute-Savoie employees work for exporting firms. Exports are primarily to Germany, the United States, Switzerland, Italy and the United Kingdom. Imports come mainly from Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and the United States.
Haute-Savoie has property and income taxes. In 2006, 312,823 households were subject to property taxes and 27,747 were exempt.
The average income tax per household was €25,621 in 2007 (compared with the national average of €21,930).
Haute Savoie is served by the A41 and A43 highways. Annecy is accessible from Lyon, with an estimated travel time between two and three hours in normal traffic. Since it is closer to Geneva, the new highway connects the two cities in about an hour.
Meythet Airport in Annecy has Air France Regional round-trip service to Paris Orly.
Saint-Gervais is the only railroad station directly serving a ski resort. The main rail line serves Annecy-Annemasse-Geneva. The Annecy railway station has TGV (high speed trains) departures and arrivals to and from Paris via the high-speed line from Lyon Part-Dieu.

</doc>
<doc id="90606" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90606" title="Seine-et-Marne">
Seine-et-Marne

Seine-et-Marne () is a <a href="France">French</a> <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a>, named after the <a href="Seine%20River">Seine</a> and <a href="Marne%20River">Marne</a> rivers, and located in the <a href="%C3%8Ele-de-France">Île-de-France</a> <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a>.
Seine-et-Marne is one of the original 83 departments, created on 4 March 1790, during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> in application of the law of December 22, 1789. It had previously belonged to the <a href="province%20of%20France">former province</a> of <a href="%C3%8Ele-de-France">Île-de-France</a>.
Seine-et-Marne forms a part of the <a href="%C3%8Ele-de-France">Île-de-France</a> region; the department covers 49% of the region's land area. It is bordered by <a href="Val-d%27Oise">Val-d'Oise</a>, <a href="Seine-Saint-Denis">Seine-Saint-Denis</a>, <a href="Val-de-Marne">Val-de-Marne</a>, <a href="Essonne">Essonne</a> to the West; <a href="Loiret">Loiret</a> and <a href="Yonne">Yonne</a> to the South; <a href="Aube">Aube</a> and <a href="Marne">Marne</a> to the East; and <a href="Aisne">Aisne</a> and <a href="Oise">Oise</a> to the North.
The department has many natural reserves, notably <a href="Brie%20%28region%29">Brie</a> and <a href="G%C3%A2tinais">Gâtinais</a>.
Principal towns include: <a href="Chelles%2C%20Seine-et-Marne">Chelles</a>, <a href="Torcy%2C%20Seine-et-Marne">Torcy</a>, <a href="Pontault-Combault">Pontault-Combault</a>, <a href="Lagny-sur-Marne">Lagny-sur-Marne</a>, <a href="Coulommiers%2C%20Seine-et-Marne">Coulommiers</a>, <a href="Champs-sur-Marne">Champs-sur-Marne</a>, <a href="Nemours">Nemours</a>, <a href="Meaux">Meaux</a>, <a href="Melun">Melun</a>, <a href="Montereau-Fault-Yonne">Montereau-Fault-Yonne</a>, <a href="Brie-Comte-Robert">Brie-Comte-Robert</a>, <a href="Provins">Provins</a>, <a href="Fontainebleau">Fontainebleau</a> as well as the <a href="new%20towns">new towns</a> of <a href="Marne-la-Vall%C3%A9e">Marne-la-Vallée</a> and <a href="S%C3%A9nart">Sénart</a>.
The highest point of the département is Saint-George's Hill (215 m).
Seine-et-Marne has a temperate Atlantic climate. The average rainfall is based upon that of <a href="Fontainebleau">Fontainebleau</a>, giving an average rainfall of 650 mm, which is higher than the average of <a href="%C3%8Ele-de-France">Île-de-France</a> (600 mm). Average temperature in <a href="Melun">Melun</a> during the period 1953–2002 for January is 3.2 °C and 18.6 °C for July.
The storm of 26 December 1999 led to five deaths in Seine-et-Marne and caused several trees to fall.
With 60% of the region used as farmland, Seine-et-Marne is where most agricultural activity occurs within the <a href="%C3%8Ele-de-France">Île-de-France</a>. Cereals and sugar beet are the principal exports from Seine-et-Marne.
The other key industrial structures are the refinery at Grandpuits and the Snecma research plant. The two new towns are the centre of tourism for the department, mainly due to theme parks such as <a href="Disneyland%20Park%20%28Paris%29">Disneyland Park</a> and <a href="Walt%20Disney%20Studios%20Park">Walt Disney Studios Park</a> at <a href="Disneyland%20Paris">Disneyland Paris</a>.
People from Seine-et-Marne are known as the "Seine-et-Marnais".
Originally Seine-et-Marne was very rural and lightly populated. Over the past 50 years, however, its population has tripled, due to the development of the Paris <a href="conurbation">conurbation</a> and the building of new towns in the northwest of the region. The population was estimated to be 1,267,496 inhabitants in 2006. The region has changed from consisting only of small villages to forming a large part of the Paris conurbation.
Seine-et-Marne as a whole shares a <a href="town%20twinning">sister city</a> relationship with <a href="Orlando%2C%20Florida">Orlando</a>, <a href="Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="United%20States">United States</a>, as both host <a href="Disney">Disney</a> theme parks.

</doc>
<doc id="90607" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90607" title="Deux-Sèvres">
Deux-Sèvres

Deux-Sèvres () is a <a href="France">French</a> <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a>. "Deux-Sèvres" literally means "two Sèvres": the <a href="S%C3%A8vre%20Nantaise">Sèvre Nantaise</a> and the <a href="S%C3%A8vre%20Niortaise">Sèvre Niortaise</a> are two rivers which have their sources in the department.
"Deux-Sèvres" was one of the 83 original "départements" created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on March 4, 1790.
Departmental borders were changed in 1973 when the inhabitants of the little commune of became formally <a href="Associated%20communes%20of%20France">associated</a> with the rapidly growing adjacent commune of <a href="Cholet">Cholet</a>. Cholet is in the neighbouring department of <a href="Maine-et-Loire">Maine-et-Loire</a>: in order to avoid the associated communes being administered in separate departments, Puy-Saint-Bonnet was transferred into <a href="Maine-et-Loire">Maine-et-Loire</a>.
The climate is mild, the annual temperature averaging 11 degrees Celsius.
The "département" remains rural: three-quarters of the area consists of <a href="arable%20land">arable land</a>. <a href="Wheat">Wheat</a> and <a href="oat">oat</a>s are the main products grown, as well as <a href="potato">potato</a>es, <a href="apple">apple</a>s, and <a href="walnut">walnut</a>s. <a href="Niort">Niort</a> is the center for growing <a href="vegetable">vegetable</a>s and <a href="angelica">angelica</a>. Some <a href="beet">beet</a>root is grown in the district of <a href="Melle%2C%20Deux-S%C3%A8vres">Melle</a>. Vineyards are numerous in the north (), and there are some in the south. The "département" is also well known for the breeding of <a href="cattle">cattle</a>, <a href="mule">mule</a>s, and <a href="horse">horse</a>s. The <a href="Parthenais">Parthenais</a> breed of cattle is named after the town of <a href="Parthenay">Parthenay</a> in the north of the "département". Also, dairy products are produced in significant quantities (<a href="butter">butter</a> in <a href="%C3%89chir%C3%A9">Échiré</a> and <a href="Goat%27s%20milk%20cheese">goats' cheese</a>).
Some quarries are in operation (in <a href="Mazi%C3%A8res-en-G%C3%A2tine">Mazières-en-Gâtine</a>, <a href="La%20Peyratte">La Peyratte</a> or <a href="Saint-Varent">Saint-Varent</a>), as well as lime extraction operations.
Textiles, leather-tanning, and flour milling were the traditional industries of <a href="Niort">Niort</a>, the capital and major city. Nowadays, <a href="Niort">Niort</a>, with 60,000 inhabitants, is an important commercial and administrative center; in particular it is one of the main financial centers in <a href="France">France</a> (fourth in rank after <a href="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="Lyon">Lyon</a> and <a href="Lille">Lille</a>). Niort is the national headquarters of some of the major insurance companies in France ( (MAAF), (MACIF), (MAIF) and others) and regional headquarters of others such as <a href="Groupama">Groupama</a>. The regional headquarters of several national banks including <a href="Banque%20Populaire">Banque Populaire</a> and <a href="Cr%C3%A9dit%20Agricole">Crédit Agricole</a> are located there. The services sector is also heavily represented in <a href="Niort">Niort</a>, in consulting, accounting, brokerage and software. Chemistry, pharmacy (<a href="Boiron">Boiron</a>) and aeronautics (<a href="Zodiac%20Group">Zodiac Group</a>, <a href="Leach%20International">Leach International</a>) are the main industries.
Textiles and shoe making, furnitures, mechanics, automotive (<a href="Heuliez">Heuliez</a> and <a href="Iveco%20Bus">Irisbus</a>), chemistry (<a href="Rhodia%20%28company%29">Rhodia</a> in <a href="Melle%2C%20Deux-S%C3%A8vres">Melle</a>), food industry and food packaging are the major industries outside of the capital.
The unemployment rate in the "département" is very low (less than 5%) especially in the north-west, where many small and medium companies are developing rapidly.
The south-west of the "département" interests tourists with the <a href="Marais%20Poitevin">Marais Poitevin</a> natural area; the <a href="Atlantic%20Ocean">Atlantic</a> coast is close at hand.
Niort in the south of the "département" is connected to <a href="Paris">Paris</a> and <a href="Bordeaux">Bordeaux</a> by the <a href="A10%20autoroute%20%28France%29">A10</a> motorway, with <a href="Nantes">Nantes</a> by the <a href="A83%20autoroute">A83</a>, with <a href="La%20Rochelle">La Rochelle</a> and <a href="Poitiers">Poitiers</a> by the N11. Another important road in the north of the "département" is the <a href="Route%20nationale%20149">"Route nationale" 149</a> (RN149), which runs roughly east-west from <a href="Mortagne-sur-S%C3%A8vre">Mortagne-sur-Sèvre</a> to Poitiers, passing through <a href="Bressuire">Bressuire</a> and <a href="Parthenay">Parthenay</a>. The RN149 forms part of the <a href="European%20route%20E62">European route E62</a> from Nantes to <a href="Genoa">Genoa</a>. In Autumn 2008, the (RN249), currently running from Nantes to <a href="Cholet">Cholet</a>, was extended, continuing, eventually, towards Bressuire and on to Poitiers. This will become part of the E62 and bypass the current RN149.
The north and south of the "département" are connected by relatively minor roads, with the D743 and D748 linking Niort to Parthenay and Bressuire respectively, whilst the D938 connects to <a href="Thouars">Thouars</a>.
The "département" has two railway stations on the <a href="TGV">TGV</a> route between Paris and La Rochelle (Niort and <a href="Saint-Maixent">Saint-Maixent</a>), with a journey from Niort to <a href="Paris">Paris</a> taking 2h15. It is also served by several <a href="TER%20Poitou-Charentes">TER Poitou-Charentes</a> regional railway routes, including a route from Poitiers via Niort to La Rochelle, a route from Niort to <a href="Saintes%2C%20Charente-Maritime">Saintes</a>, and a route from <a href="Tours">Tours</a> to Thouars and Bressuire. A railway bus service operated as part of the TER Poitou-Charentes network follows the RN149 from Poitiers to Nantes, calling at Parthenay and Bressuire. Additionally the "département" provides the "<a href="R%C3%A9seau%20des%20Deux-S%C3%A8vres">Réseau des Deux-Sèvres</a>", an inter-urban bus service that connects the towns and villages of the "département".
There are no airports with scheduled airline service within the "département", although is used for private movements. The nearest commercial airports are at Poitiers (<a href="Poitiers%20-%20Biard%20Airport">Poitiers - Biard Airport</a>), La Rochelle (<a href="La%20Rochelle%20-%20%C3%8Ele%20de%20R%C3%A9%20Airport">La Rochelle - Île de Ré Airport</a>) and Nantes (<a href="Nantes%20Atlantique%20Airport">Nantes Atlantique Airport</a>).
Famous births in the "département":
Famous people related to the "département":

</doc>
<doc id="90609" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90609" title="Haute-Vienne">
Haute-Vienne

Haute-Vienne () is a French <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> named after the river <a href="Vienne%20%28river%29">Vienne</a>. It is one of the 12 departments that together constitute the French <a href="Regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="Aquitaine-Limousin-Poitou-Charentes">Aquitaine-Limousin-Poitou-Charentes</a>. The neighbouring departments are: <a href="Creuse">Creuse</a>, <a href="Corr%C3%A8ze">Corrèze</a>, <a href="Dordogne">Dordogne</a>, <a href="Charente">Charente</a>, <a href="Vienne">Vienne</a> and <a href="Indre">Indre</a>.
There are three arrondissements (administrative regions) in the department; the <a href="Arrondissement%20of%20Limoges">Arrondissement of Limoges</a>, the capital of which is <a href="Limoges">Limoges</a>; the <a href="Arrondissement%20of%20Bellac">Arrondissement of Bellac</a>, the capital of which is <a href="Bellac">Bellac</a>, some to the northwest of Limoges; and the <a href="Arrondissement%20of%20Rochechouart">Arrondissement of Rochechouart</a>, with its capital, <a href="Rochechouart">Rochechouart</a> to the west of Limoges. The chief and largest city in the department is Limoges, the other towns in the department each having fewer than twenty thousand inhabitants.
Haute-Vienne is part of the Aquitaine-Limousin-Poitou-Charentes region. It is bordered by six departments; Creuse lies to the east, Corrèze to the south, Dordogne to the southwest, Charente to the west, Vienne to the northwest and Indre to the north. The department has two main rivers which cross it from east to west; the <a href="Vienne%20%28river%29">Vienne</a>, on which the two main cities, Limoges and Saint-Junien, are situated, and the <a href="Gartempe">Gartempe</a>, a tributary of the <a href="Creuse%20%28river%29">Creuse</a>. To the southeast of the department lies the <a href="Massif%20Central">Massif Central</a>, and the highest point in the department is <a href="Puy%20Lagarde">Puy Lagarde</a>, . The source of the <a href="Charente%20%28river%29">Charente</a> is in the department, in the commune of <a href="Ch%C3%A9onnac">Chéonnac</a>, near <a href="Rochechouart">Rochechouart</a>.
At the west end of the department is the <a href="Rochechouart%20crater">Rochechouart crater</a>, an impact crater caused by a <a href="meteorite">meteorite</a> that crashed into the earth's surface over 200 million years ago; because of subsequent <a href="erosion">erosion</a>, little sign of the crater is in evidence today apart from the geologic effects on the surrounding rock.
A few Paleolithic and Mesolithic remains have been found in the department, Neolithic inhabitants are attested to by standing stones and by burial chambers, like the dolmen Chez Boucher in <a href="La%20Croix-sur-Gartempe">La Croix-sur-Gartempe</a>, and others at <a href="Berneuil%2C%20Haute-Vienne">Berneuil</a> and <a href="Breuilaufa">Breuilaufa</a>. Artefacts from the <a href="Bronze%20Age">Bronze Age</a> include axe heads found at <a href="Ch%C3%A2lus">Châlus</a>. With the coming of the Romans, trade was opened up and gold and tin were mined. Agriculture developed and grapes were grown; <a href="amphora">amphora</a>e for storing wine were found at <a href="Saint-Gence">Saint-Gence</a>. During the reign of Augustus, the city of Augustoritum was founded (later to become Limoges) at a strategic ford across the Vienne. The Romans built roads from here to <a href="Brittany">Brittany</a>, <a href="Lyon">Lyon</a> and the Mediterranean. The city declined in the 3rd Century when barbarian invasions of the region took place.
The domination of the Visigoths was short-lived and <a href="Clovis%20I">Clovis I</a> seized control of Limousin after the battle of Vouillé in 507. By 674, the region was attached to the duchy of Aquitaine, and the Viscount of Limoges was created. There followed an unsettled period with various powers vying for control. In 1199, <a href="Richard%20C%C5%93ur%20de%20Lion">Richard Cœur de Lion</a> was mortally wounded during the siege of the <a href="Ch%C3%A2teau%20de%20Ch%C3%A2lus-Chabrol">Château de Châlus-Chabrol</a>. The region was much involved in the <a href="Hundred%20Years%27%20War">Hundred Years' War</a> and at the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Br%C3%A9tigny">Treaty of Brétigny</a> in 1360, France granted England a large area of territory comprising much of Limousin. Limoges city rebelled and gave its allegiance to the French crown, and as a result was sacked in 1370. Further troubled years followed but when peace was restored, the department benefited economically; tanneries sprang up by the Vienne, paper was produced, printing developed and the area became known for fine <a href="Vitreous%20enamel">enamelwork</a>. After a revolt by the peasants, <a href="Henri%20IV">Henri IV</a> brought peace and prosperity to the region of Limousin. He visited Limoges in 1607 and was greeted enthusiastically. The Counter-Reformation led to the creation of numerous convents and religious orders, especially in Limoges. In 1761, <a href="Anne%20Robert%20Jacques%20Turgot">Anne Robert Jacques Turgot</a> was appointed "intendent" (tax collector) of Limoges. He negotiated a reduction in taxes payable by the region and developed fairer methods of collecting taxes, as well as improving the road system and encouraging agricultural development. Around 1765, <a href="kaolin">kaolin</a> was discovered near <a href="Saint-Yrieix-la-Perche">Saint-Yrieix-la-Perche</a> in the south of the department, and the <a href="porcelain">porcelain</a> industry developed.
The department was created on 4 March 1790, during the French Revolution, the southern half being a subdivision of the Region of Limousin while the northern half was carved out of the county of Marche, as well as some parts of <a href="Angoumois">Angoumois</a> and <a href="Poitou">Poitou</a>. At first it was given the number 81, but in the nineteenth century, the number was changed to the 87th department, when further land to the east and northeast was added. It takes its name from the upper reaches of the Vienne which flows through it. In 1998, the southwest part of the department, together with the northern part of the region of <a href="P%C3%A9rigord">Périgord</a> was designated as the <a href="Parc%20Naturel%20R%C3%A9gional%20P%C3%A9rigord-Limousin">Parc Naturel Régional Périgord-Limousin</a>.
In 2013, twenty million euros were earned from agriculture in the province, as against twenty-one million three hundred thousand from Limousin. There were 351,475 cattle in Haute-Vienne, 22,780 pigs, 320,500 sheep and 6,500 goats. 723,340 hectolitres of milk were produced from cows and 30,690 hectolitres from sheep. In the same year, 1,897,800 hectares of cereals were grown and in the previous year, 12,294 hectacres of land were producing organic foodstuffs.
In 1801, the population of the department was 245,150. It grew steadily over the next century so that in 1901 it was 381,753. It peaked at 385,732 in 1906, fell back slightly in 1911 to 384,736 and fell sharply to 350,235 in 1921, after the <a href="Great%20War">Great War</a>. By 1954 it had dwindled to 324,429 but after that it began to rise again, and in 2007 stood at 371,102.
The three <a href="Arrondissements%20of%20France">arrondissements</a> of the Haute-Vienne department are:

</doc>
<doc id="90610" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90610" title="Vosges (department)">
Vosges (department)

Vosges () is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the east of <a href="France">France</a>, named after the <a href="Vosges%20Mountains">Vosges Mountains</a>. The department consists of 17 <a href="Cantons%20of%20France">canton</a>s and 515 communes (villages or towns) of which 242 are rural. It contains the hometown of <a href="Joan%20of%20Arc">Joan of Arc</a>, <a href="Domr%C3%A9my">Domrémy</a>.
<a href="Joan%20of%20Arc">Joan of Arc</a> was born in <a href="Domr%C3%A9my-la-Pucelle">Domrémy</a>, a village which was then in the French part of the <a href="duchy%20of%20Bar">duchy of Bar</a>, or "Barrois mouvant", located West of the <a href="Meuse%20River">Meuse River</a>, while the rest of the duchy (East of the Meuse) was part of the <a href="Holy%20Roman%20Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. The duchy of Bar was later incorporated to the province of <a href="Lorraine%20%28duchy%29">Lorraine</a> and the village of Domrémy renamed Domrémy-la-Pucelle, in honor of Joan of Arc.
The Vosges department is one of the original 83 departments of France, created on February 9, 1790 during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a>. It was made of territories that had been part of the <a href="provinces%20of%20France">province</a> of <a href="Lorraine%20%28province%29">Lorraine</a>. In <a href="German%20language">German</a> it is referred to as "Vogesen".
In 1793 the independent <a href="Salm-Salm">principality of Salm-Salm</a> (town of <a href="Senones%2C%20Vosges">Senones</a> and its surroundings), enclosed inside the Vosges department, was annexed to France and incorporated into Vosges. In 1795 the area of <a href="Schirmeck">Schirmeck</a> was detached from the <a href="Bas-Rhin">Bas-Rhin</a> department and incorporated into the Vosges department. The Vosges department had now an area of 6,127 km² (2,366 sq. miles) which it kept until 1871.
In 1794 the Vosges was the site of a major battle between the forces of Revolutionary France and the Allied Coalition. See <a href="Battle%20of%20the%20Vosges">Battle of the Vosges</a>.
The <a href="Place%20des%20Vosges">Place des Vosges</a> in <a href="Paris">Paris</a> was so renamed in 1799 when the department became the first to pay the new <a href="French%20Revolution">Revolutionary</a> taxes.
After the French defeat in the <a href="Franco-Prussian%20War">Franco-Prussian War</a> of 1870–1871, 4% of the Vosges department in the extreme northeast of the department was annexed to the <a href="German%20Empire">German Empire</a> by the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Frankfurt%20%281871%29">Treaty of Frankfurt</a> on the ground that the people there spoke Germanic dialects. The area annexed on May 18, 1871 corresponded to the <a href="Cantons%20of%20France">canton</a> of Schirmeck and the northern half of the canton of <a href="Saales">Saales</a>. Schirmeck and Saales had been historically part of <a href="Alsace">Alsace</a>. These territories, along with the rest of <a href="Alsace">Alsace</a> and the annexed territories of Lorraine, became part of the "Reichsland" of "<a href="Alsace-Lorraine">Elsaß-Lothringen</a>". The area of the Vosges department was thus reduced to its current 5,874 km² (2,268 sq. miles).
In 1919, with the French victory in the <a href="World%20War%20I">World War I</a>, <a href="Alsace-Lorraine">Alsace-Lorraine</a> was returned to France by Germany at the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>. However, <a href="Schirmeck">Schirmeck</a> and <a href="Saales">Saales</a> were not returned to the Vosges department, but instead were incorporated into the recreated <a href="Bas-Rhin">Bas-Rhin</a> department.
An ill-fated <a href="Special%20Air%20Service">Special Air Service</a> (SAS) mission called <a href="Operation%20Loyton">Operation Loyton</a> took place in the Vosges forests in 1944.
Various <a href="War%20grave">military cemeteries</a> are located in the department the largest of which is the <a href="Le%20Qu%C3%A9quement%20American%20Cemetery">Le Quéquement American Cemetery</a> in <a href="Dinoz%C3%A9">Dinozé</a>, near <a href="Epinal">Epinal</a>. It was built by the American <a href="45th%20Infantry%20Division%20%28United%20States%29">45th Infantry Division</a> in September 1944 and completed in 1959. 5,255 soldiers killed in action during fighting in France, the Vosges, the Rhine valley and Germany are interred there.
The largest cities/towns are <a href="%C3%89pinal">Épinal</a> (approx. 33,000), <a href="Saint-Di%C3%A9-des-Vosges">Saint-Dié-des-Vosges</a> (approx. 21,500), <a href="G%C3%A9rardmer">Gérardmer</a> (approx. 8,500) and <a href="Remiremont">Remiremont</a> (approx. 8,000). A total population of 378,830 inhabitants was recorded in the 2011 census. The population is split with 70% in urban areas and 30% living in rural districts.
Roughly 47% of the department is covered by woodlands and forests (the third highest in France), while 38% of land is in agricultural use. The remaining 13% is commercial, industrial and residential.
While the west part of the Vosges is flat sedimentary land (well suited for mineral waters), the east is dominated by the Vosges Mountain range (including the Ballons des Vosges Regional Nature Reserve) of which the <a href="Grand%20Ballon">Grand Ballon</a> at 1424m is the highest peak.
The River <a href="Sa%C3%B4ne">Saône</a> rises (named after the Celtic goddess Sagon) at <a href="Viom%C3%A9nil">Vioménil</a>, in the Vosges. The <a href="Anger%20%28river%29">Anger</a> river also passes through it.
The <a href="Ancient%20Rome">Roman</a> <a href="fortified%20town">fortified town</a> of <a href="Grand%2C%20Vosges">Grand</a>, located 30 km from <a href="Toul">Toul</a>, has an <a href="amphitheatre">amphitheatre</a> and a temple to the <a href="Cult%20of%20Apollo">Cult of Apollo</a>. At La Bure, located a few kilometres from Saint-Dié-des-Vosges, archaeologists have found evidence for human habitation going back to around 2000 BC.
As a border area, the Vosges region was a route for possible invasion. As such four important forts were constructed in the department: Bourlémont Fort in Mont-les-Neufchâteau (built between 1878 and 1881); Uxegney Fort (built between 1882 and 1884); Bois l'Abbé Fort 
(built in 1884 and 1885); and the Le Parmont Fort in Remiremont (built between 1874 to 1876).

</doc>
<doc id="90611" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90611" title="Yonne">
Yonne

Yonne () is a <a href="France">French</a> <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> named after the river <a href="Yonne%20%28river%29">Yonne</a>. It is one of the eight constituent departments of <a href="Bourgogne-Franche-Comt%C3%A9">Bourgogne-Franche-Comté</a> and is located in the northwest of the region, bordering <a href="%C3%8Ele-de-France">Île-de-France</a>. It was created in 1790 during the French Revolution. Its <a href="Prefectures%20in%20France">prefecture</a> (capital) is <a href="Auxerre">Auxerre</a> and its postcode number is 89.
It is the fourth most populous department in the region with a population of about 342,000 (2012), and an average annual increase over the last few years of 0.41% per year. The biggest city is <a href="Auxerre">Auxerre</a>, the capital, with a population of 35,000 in the city and roughly 43,000 in the urban area centred on it.
The first evidence of occupation in this area is found in the Grottes d'Arcy-sur-Cure where paintings have been found dating back 28,000 years. The Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers of that time also left behind numerous flint artefacts, but the area is believed to have been occupied for about 200,000 years. By 4000 BC, a wave of Neolithics arrived from the Danube region of eastern Europe building substantial wooden houses and introducing pottery decorated with the characteristics of the <a href="Linear%20Pottery%20culture">Linear Pottery culture</a>. Further waves of immigrants followed, the <a href="Chass%C3%A9en%20culture">Chasséen culture</a>, and the <a href="Michelsberg%20culture">Michelsberg culture</a>.
The <a href="Celts">Celtic tribe</a> in the area were named "Icauna", after the River Yonne which they thought sacred, and the region was later occupied by <a href="Gauls">Gallic tribes</a>. The area then came under the control of the Romans, whose chief town was Sens, which they called Agendicum. It was the capital of their province of <a href="Gallia%20Lugdunensis">Gallia Lugdunensis</a>, one of four provinces into which France was subdivided. The present main roads from <a href="Lyon">Lyon</a> to <a href="Boulogne">Boulogne</a>, and from Sens to <a href="Alise-Sainte-Reine">Alise-Sainte-Reine</a> date from this period. About this time, Auxerre, Tonnerre (Tornodurum) and <a href="Avallon">Avallon</a> were growing in size and in the fourth century, Sens became a walled city, and the first bishops were appointed in Sens and <a href="Langres">Langres</a> whose power was to influence the region profoundly.
In 1771, the northwesterly part of the present department belonged to <a href="Prince%20Francis%20Xavier%20of%20Saxony">Prince Francis Xavier of Saxony</a>, the uncle of <a href="Louis%20XVI%20of%20France">Louis XVI of France</a>. The current Yonne department saw its birth during the French Revolution, on March 4, 1790, as a result of the passing of an Act on December 22, 1789. It was carved out of parts of the provinces of <a href="Burgundy">Burgundy</a>, <a href="Champagne">Champagne</a> and <a href="Orl%C3%A9ans">Orléans</a>, and to a lesser extent from parts of the <a href="Nivernais">Nivernais</a> and <a href="%C3%8Ele-de-France">Île-de-France</a>.
Yonne is a department in central France, one of the eight constituent departments of the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. To the northeast lies the department of <a href="Aube">Aube</a>, to the east lies <a href="C%C3%B4te-d%27Or">Côte-d'Or</a>, to the south lies <a href="Ni%C3%A8vre">Nièvre</a>, to the west lies <a href="Loiret">Loiret</a> and to the northwest, the department of <a href="Seine-et-Marne">Seine-et-Marne</a>. The River Yonne flows northwards through the department. <a href="Auxerre">Auxerre</a>, the capital of the department is situated on the River Yonne, and the <a href="Serein">River Serein</a> joins this a few kilometres north of the city. The <a href="Canal%20de%20Bourgogne">Canal de Bourgogne</a>, which connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean, joins the River Yonne through <a href="Lock%20%28water%20transport%29">locks</a> at <a href="Migennes">Migennes</a> a little further north. The second biggest town is <a href="Sens">Sens</a>, situated at the confluence of the <a href="River%20Vanne">River Vanne</a> and the River Yonne. 
The geology of the department is complex with concentric rings of granite, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks and layers of sedimentary rocks. The terrain is mostly a low-lying plateau used for agriculture. The southwestern part is the <a href="Pays%20de%20Puisaye-Forterre">Pays de Puisaye-Forterre</a> at a higher elevation and is more wooded. To the centre and east, the land inclines to the northwest where the higher land of the Tonnerrois region lies. To the east the rock is mostly limestone and the Auxerrois region is renowned for the grapes grown here which are used in the production of <a href="Chablis">Chablis</a>. To the south lies the mountainous massif of <a href="Morvan">Morvan</a>, the highest parts of which are in the neighbouring department of Nièvre. The department has some forested areas but is mainly down to pasture or cultivated for wheat.
Over fifty percent of the inhabitants of the department are engaged in agricultural activities, and it is one of the poorest and most rural departments in France. During the hundred years leading up to 1962, its population declined by around 100,000 while all of the surrounding departments had population growth. Yonne had been bypassed by the development of the railways, and as French industry flourished elsewhere in the late nineteenth century, the young people left Yonne seeking better opportunities, and the department stagnated. The <a href="viticulture">viticulture</a> industry was severely affected by the advent of <a href="powdery%20mildew">powdery mildew</a> and the arrival of "<a href="Phylloxera">Phylloxera</a>" in the nineteenth century; at the same time, the development of the railway network allowed cheaper wines from other regions to undercut <a href="Chablis%20wine">Chablis wine</a> in the Paris market, and the once-thriving industry never recovered. By 1945, only 4000 hectares of grapevines remained and only 471 hectares of grapes were grown for Chablis. More recently, the population trend has been reversed, and during the period 1999 to 2007, rose by 8000 to a total of 341,418. However, with a population of 46 inhabitants per square kilometre, the density in Yonne is less than half that for the whole of France, which was 100.5 for the same year.
It elects three members of parliament to the <a href="National%20Assembly%20of%20France">National Assembly</a> – in the 2012–17 parliamentary term, two of them are drawn from the right-wing <a href="Union%20for%20a%20Popular%20Movement">Union for a Popular Movement</a> (UMP) and one from <a href="Socialist%20Party%20%28France%29">Socialist Party (France)</a> (PS). Its two <a href="Senate%20of%20France">senators</a> also represent the UMP. In 2015, the General Council of the department was allotted a budget of 410 million euros.

</doc>
<doc id="90613" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90613" title="Essonne">
Essonne

Essonne () is a <a href="France">French</a> <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a> of <a href="%C3%8Ele-de-France%20%28region%29">Île-de-France</a>. It is named after the <a href="Essonne%20River">Essonne River</a>.
It was formed on 1 January 1968 when <a href="Seine-et-Oise">Seine-et-Oise</a> was split into smaller departments.
The Essonne department was created on 1 January 1968, from the southern portion of the former department of <a href="Seine-et-Oise">Seine-et-Oise</a>.
In June 1963 <a href="Carrefour">Carrefour S.A.</a> opened the first hypermarket in the <a href="%C3%8Ele-de-France%20%28region%29">Paris region</a> at <a href="Sainte-Genevi%C3%A8ve-des-Bois%2C%20Essonne">Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois</a> (although the word "hypermarché" was first used only in 1966). Based on the ideas put forward by the American logistics pioneer , the centre offered on a single site a hitherto unknown combination of wide choice and low prices, supported by 400 car parking spaces.
In 1969, the <a href="communes%20of%20France">communes</a> of <a href="Ch%C3%A2teaufort%2C%20Yvelines">Châteaufort</a> and <a href="Toussus-le-Noble">Toussus-le-Noble</a> were separated from Essonne and added to the department of <a href="Yvelines">Yvelines</a>.
Essonne belongs to the region of <a href="%C3%8Ele-de-France%20%28region%29">Île-de-France</a>.
It has borders with the departments of: 
All of northern Essonne department belongs to the Parisian agglomeration and is very urbanized. The south remains rural.
In descending order, the cities over 25,000 population are: <a href="%C3%89vry%2C%20Essonne">Évry</a>, <a href="Corbeil-Essonnes">Corbeil-Essonnes</a>, <a href="Massy%2C%20Essonne">Massy</a>, <a href="Savigny-sur-Orge">Savigny-sur-Orge</a>, <a href="Sainte-Genevi%C3%A8ve-des-Bois%2C%20Essonne">Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois</a>, <a href="Viry-Ch%C3%A2tillon">Viry-Châtillon</a>, <a href="Athis-Mons">Athis-Mons</a>, <a href="Palaiseau">Palaiseau</a>, <a href="Draveil">Draveil</a>, <a href="Yerres">Yerres</a>, <a href="Les%20Ulis">Les Ulis</a>, and <a href="Vigneux-sur-Seine">Vigneux-sur-Seine</a>. <a href="Milly-la-For%C3%AAt">Milly-la-Forêt</a> is an example of its more rural communes.
The department's most high-profile political representative has been <a href="Manuel%20Valls">Manuel Valls</a>, <a href="Prime%20Minister%20of%20France">Prime Minister of France</a> since 31 March 2014. He visited its main town Évry to deliver remarks following the <a href="Charlie%20Hebdo%20massacre">Charlie Hebdo massacre</a> of January 2015.

</doc>
<doc id="90614" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90614" title="Seine-Saint-Denis">
Seine-Saint-Denis

Seine-Saint-Denis () is a <a href="France">French</a> <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> located in the <a href="%C3%8Ele-de-France%20%28region%29">Île-de-France</a> <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a>. Locally, it is often referred to colloquially as quatre-vingt treize or neuf trois (i.e. "ninety-three" or "nine three"), after its official administrative number, 93.
The learned and rarely used demonym for the inhabitants is "Séquano-Dionysiens"; more common is "Dionysiens".
Seine-Saint-Denis is located to the northeast of <a href="Paris">Paris</a>. It has a surface area of only 236 km², making it one of the smallest departments in France. Seine-Saint-Denis and two other small departments, <a href="Hauts-de-Seine">Hauts-de-Seine</a> and <a href="Val-de-Marne">Val-de-Marne</a>, form a ring around <a href="Paris">Paris</a>, known as the "<a href="Petite%20Couronne">Petite Couronne</a>" ("little crown"). They form, together with <a href="Paris">Paris</a> the Greater Paris since January 1st 2016.<br>
Seine-Saint-Denis is made up of three <a href="Arrondissements%20of%20France">departmental arrondissements</a> and 40 <a href="communes%20of%20France">communes</a>:
Seine-Saint-Denis was created in January 1968, through the implementation of a law passed in July 1964. It was formed from the part of the (hitherto larger) <a href="Seine%20%28department%29">Seine department</a> to the north and north-east of the <a href="Boulevard%20P%C3%A9riph%C3%A9rique">Paris ring road</a> (and the line of the old city walls), together with a small slice taken from <a href="Seine-et-Oise">Seine-et-Oise</a>.
Seine-Saint-Denis has a history as a veritable <a href="left-wing">left-wing</a> stronghold, belonging to the "<a href="ceinture%20rouge">ceinture rouge (red belt)</a>" of <a href="Paris">Paris</a>. The <a href="French%20Communist%20Party">French Communist Party</a> especially has maintained a continued strong presence in the department, and still controls the city councils in cities such as <a href="Saint-Denis%2C%20Seine-Saint-Denis">Saint-Denis</a>, <a href="Montreuil%2C%20Seine-Saint-Denis">Montreuil</a> and <a href="La%20Courneuve">La Courneuve</a>. Until 2008, Seine-Saint-Denis and <a href="Val-de-Marne">Val-de-Marne</a> were the only departments where the Communist Party had a majority in the <a href="General%20councils%20%28France%29">general councils</a> but the 2008 <a href="French%20cantonal%20elections%2C%202008">cantonal elections</a> saw the socialists become the strongest group at the Seine-Saint-Denis general council (while the Communist Party gained a majority in <a href="Allier">Allier</a> and lost it in 2015).
A commune of Seine-Saint-Denis, <a href="Clichy-sous-Bois">Clichy-sous-Bois</a>, was the scene of the death of two youths which sparked the nationwide <a href="2005%20civil%20unrest%20in%20France">riots of autumn 2005</a>. In October - November, 9,000 cars were burned and 3,000 rioters were arrested.
Seine-Saint-Denis is the French department with the highest proportion of <a href="immigration">immigrants</a>: 21.7% at the 1999 census (see table below). This figure does not include the children of immigrants born on French soil as well as some native elites from former French colonies and people who came from <a href="overseas%20France">overseas France</a>. The ratio of ethnic minorities is difficult to estimate accurately as French law prohibits the collection of ethnic data for census taking purposes. However estimates suggest there are 500,000 <a href="Islam">Muslim</a>s out of a total population of 1.53 million (32.7%). Saint-Denis is home to the Union of French Islamic Organizations (UOIF) in the Bourget district, which annually hosts one of Europe's major Muslim conferences, Paris-le-Bourget.
In 2005, 56.7% of young people under 18 were of foreign origin including 38% of African origin (22% from <a href="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> and 16% from <a href="Sub-Saharan%20Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a>). <a href="Islam">Islam</a> is believed to be the most practiced religion in the department.
Seine-Saint-Denis was scheduled to be the site of a <a href="World%27s%20Fair">2004 International Exhibition</a>. However, this event was cancelled.

</doc>
<doc id="90615" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90615" title="Val-de-Marne">
Val-de-Marne

Val-de-Marne () is a <a href="France">French</a> <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a>, named after the <a href="Marne%20River">Marne River</a>, located in the <a href="%C3%8Ele-de-France%20%28region%29">Île-de-France</a> <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a>. The department is situated to the southeast of the city of <a href="Paris">Paris</a>.
Val-de-Marne is, together with <a href="Seine-Saint-Denis">Seine-Saint-Denis</a> and <a href="Hauts-de-Seine">Hauts-de-Seine</a>, one of three small departments in Île-de-France that form a ring around Paris, known as the "<a href="Petite%20Couronne">Petite Couronne</a>" (i.e. "inner ring"). Since January 1st 2016 Val de Marne is included in Métropole du Grand Paris
Val-de-Marne is made up of 3 <a href="Arrondissements%20of%20France">departmental arrondissements</a> and 47 <a href="communes%20of%20France">communes</a>:
<a href="Arrondissement%20of%20L%27Ha%C3%BF-les-Roses">Arrondissement of<br>L'Haÿ-les-Roses</a>
<a href="Arrondissement%20of%20Cr%C3%A9teil">Arrondissement of<br>Créteil</a>
<a href="Arrondissement%20of%20Nogent-sur-Marne">Arrondissement of<br>Nogent-sur-Marne</a>
Val-de-Marne was created in January 1968, through the implementation of a law passed in July 1964. Positioned to the south-east of the <a href="Boulevard%20P%C3%A9riph%C3%A9rique">Paris ring road</a> (and the line of the <a href="Thiers%20wall">old city walls</a>), it was formed from the southern-eastern part of the (previously much larger) <a href="Seine%20%28department%29">Seine department</a>, together with a small portion taken from the broken-up department of <a href="Seine-et-Oise">Seine-et-Oise</a>.

</doc>
<doc id="90616" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90616" title="Val-d'Oise">
Val-d'Oise

Val-d'Oise () is a <a href="France">French</a> <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a>, created in 1968 after the split of the Seine-et-Oise department and located in the <a href="%C3%8Ele-de-France">Île-de-France</a> <a href="regions%20of%20France">region</a>. In local slang, it is known as "quatre-vingt quinze" (i.e. "ninety-five") or "neuf cinq" (i.e. "nine five"). It gets its name from the <a href="Oise%20River">Oise River</a>, a major tributary of the Seine, which crosses the region after having started in Belgium and flowed through north-eastern France.
<a href="Paris-Charles%20de%20Gaulle%20Airport">Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport</a>, France's main international airport is partially located in <a href="Roissy-en-France">Roissy-en-France</a>, a commune of Val d'Oise.
The original departments of France were established in 1790 when the French National Assembly split the country into 83 departments of roughly the same size and population. They were designed as sets of communes, and when better maps became available, certain revisions had to be made. 
After defeat by the Prussians in 1871, certain territories were ceded to them and some rearrangements made. In 1955 and 1957, some departments changed their names. In 1964, it was determined to divide up the departments of <a href="Seine%20%28department%29">Seine</a> and <a href="Seine-et-Oise">Seine-et-Oise</a>. Val-d'Oise was one of the new departments so formed, and was created entirely from the previous department of Seine-et-Oise.
Val-d'Oise is a department in north central France and is part of the region of <a href="%C3%8Ele-de-France">Île-de-France</a>. To the south of the department lies the department of <a href="Hauts-de-Seine">Hauts-de-Seine</a>, to the southwest lies <a href="Yvelines">Yvelines</a>, to the west lies <a href="Eure">Eure</a>, to the north lies <a href="Oise">Oise</a>, to the east lies <a href="Seine-et-Marne">Seine-et-Marne</a> and to the southeast lies <a href="Seine-Saint-Denis">Seine-Saint-Denis</a>. The official "préfecture" (capital) of the department is the commune of <a href="Pontoise">Pontoise</a>, situated in the suburbs of <a href="Paris">Paris</a> some northwest of the centre of the city, but the "préfecture" building and administrative offices are in the neighbouring commune of <a href="Cergy">Cergy</a>. The <a href="Oise%20%28river%29">River Oise</a> is a right tributary of the <a href="Seine">River Seine</a>, and flows through the province from northeast to southwest.
The eastern part of the department is part of the <a href="Pays%20de%20France">Pays de France</a>, an area of fertile plain traditionally used for agriculture (particularly cereals and sugar beet) based on its fine silty soils. This part is progressively diminishing in size as Paris expands. Part of <a href="Charles%20de%20Gaulle%20Airport">Charles de Gaulle Airport</a> falls in this eastern region, while other parts are in the departments of Seine-et-Marne and Seine-Saint-Denis. The southernmost region of the department forms part of the <a href="Seine">Seine Valley</a> and occupies the whole of the small <a href="Vall%C3%A9e%20de%20Montmorency">Vallée de Montmorency</a>. These parts are heavily urbanised, but the ancient Roman road, the <a href="Chauss%C3%A9e%20Jules%20C%C3%A9sar">Chaussée Jules César</a>, which linked Paris and <a href="Rouen">Rouen</a>, passes through the latter. The central and southwestern parts of the department are also largely urbanised and part of the greater Paris sprawl. The western part of the department forms part of the historic county of <a href="Vexin">Vexin français</a>, a verdant, largely agricultural plateau. Its capital was <a href="Pontoise">Pontoise</a> on the eastern extremity of the county. This commune is now combining with the neighbouring commune of <a href="Cergy">Cergy</a> to form the new town of <a href="Cergy-Pontoise">Cergy-Pontoise</a>. The Vexin area remains largely rural, and across the whole department, one fifth is covered with trees.
The economy of Val-d'Oise relies on two different themes. The northern, eastern an western parts are fertile areas of agricultural land producing large quantities of corn, sugar beet, and other crops. The urban parts to the south are dormitory towns, used by people working in the greater metropolitan area of Paris. The presence of Charles de Gaulle Airport and its associated <a href="TGV">TGV</a> station, provides access by rail to all parts of France. The department has nine business zones designated for high-tec industries.
The department has a rich archaeological and historical heritage, but is not a region visited much by tourists, perhaps being overshadowed by the French capital. Places of interest include the following sites; <a href="La%20Roche-Guyon">La Roche-Guyon</a> with a castle on top of a rocky hill and a twelfth century château; <a href="L%27Isle-Adam%2C%20Val-d%27Oise">L'Isle-Adam</a>, a historic small town on the bank of the River Oise; <a href="Auvers-sur-Oise">Auvers-sur-Oise</a>, which owes its international fame to its landscapes and the impressionist painters such as <a href="Charles-Fran%C3%A7ois%20Daubigny">Charles-François Daubigny</a>, <a href="Paul%20C%C3%A9zanne">Paul Cézanne</a>, <a href="Jean-Baptiste-Camille%20Corot">Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot</a>, <a href="Camille%20Pissarro">Camille Pissarro</a> and <a href="Vincent%20van%20Gogh">Vincent van Gogh</a> who immortalised them; <a href="Enghien-les-Bains">Enghien-les-Bains</a>, a spa resort with a hot, sulphurous spring, on the site of what was originally Lake Enghien; <a href="%C3%89couen">Écouen</a> with a fine château which houses the Museum of the Renaissance; Cergy-Pontoise, the new administrative capital which has been created out of thirteen communes and has quadrupled in population since the 1960s. There is a branch of the Académie de Versailles in the city which provides tertiary education; <a href="Th%C3%A9m%C3%A9ricourt">Théméricourt</a>, where as well as a fine château, there is the historic church of Notre-Dame, and the twelfth or thirteenth century Croix de l'Ormeteau-Marie. <a href="Royaumont%20Abbey">Royaumont Abbey</a>, founded by St. Louis in the thirteenth century, is another important site. There are two areas of national park in the department, the <a href="Parc%20naturel%20r%C3%A9gional%20du%20Vexin%20fran%C3%A7ais">Parc naturel régional du Vexin français</a> and the <a href="Parc%20naturel%20r%C3%A9gional%20Oise-Pays%20de%20France">Parc naturel régional Oise-Pays de France</a>.
<a href="Argenteuil">Argenteuil</a> is a sub-prefecture and is the second most populous of Paris' suburbs. It is in a scenic location by the River Seine and has been much-painted by <a href="Claude%20Monet">Claude Monet</a>, <a href="Eug%C3%A8ne%20Delacroix">Eugène Delacroix</a>, <a href="Pierre-Auguste%20Renoir">Pierre-Auguste Renoir</a>, <a href="Gustave%20Caillebotte">Gustave Caillebotte</a>, <a href="Alfred%20Sisley">Alfred Sisley</a> and <a href="Georges%20Braque">Georges Braque</a>. It has several historic buildings and a local museum.

</doc>
<doc id="90623" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90623" title="Papa Legba">
Papa Legba

In <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Haitian Vodou</a>, Papa Legba is the <a href="loa">loa</a> who serves as the intermediary between the loa and humanity. He stands at a spiritual crossroads and gives (or denies) permission to speak with the spirits of <a href="Guinee">Guinee</a>, and is believed to speak all human languages. In Haiti, he is the great elocutioner. Legba facilitates communication, speech, and understanding.
He usually appears as an old man on a crutch or with a cane, wearing a broad brimmed straw hat and smoking a pipe, or sprinkling water. The <a href="dog">dog</a> is sacred to him. Legba is syncretized with <a href="Saint%20Peter">Saint Peter</a>, <a href="Rich%20man%20and%20Lazarus">Saint Lazarus</a>, and <a href="Anthony%20of%20Padua">Saint Anthony</a>.
In <a href="Benin">Benin</a> and <a href="Togo">Togo</a>, Legba is viewed as young and virile, is often horned and phallic, and his shrine is usually located at the gate of the village in the countryside.
Alternatively, he is addressed as Legba Atibon, Atibon Legba, or Ati-Gbon Legba.
In the 1972 novel, "<a href="Mumbo%20Jumbo%20%28novel%29">Mumbo Jumbo</a>", by <a href="Ishmael%20Reed">Ishmael Reed</a>, the main character is a Voodoo priest named Papa Labas after Papa Legba.
In 1982, <a href="Elton%20John">Elton John</a> released a UK <a href="B-side">B-side</a> titled "Hey, Papa Legba," with lyrics by longtime collaborator <a href="Bernie%20Taupin">Bernie Taupin</a>. The musical groups <a href="Talking%20Heads">Talking Heads</a>, <a href="The%20Smalls">The Smalls</a>, <a href="Angel%20%28band%29">Angel</a>, <a href="Sun%20City%20Girls">Sun City Girls</a>, and <a href="Rodney%20Orpheus">Sun God</a> have also made songs named after him. The Talking Heads song can be found on their 1986 album (and soundtrack to the <a href="David%20Byrne">David Byrne</a> <a href="True%20Stories%20%28film%29">film of the same name</a>), "<a href="True%20Stories%20%28Talking%20Heads%20album%29">True Stories</a>"; the Talking Heads song has been covered regularly by <a href="Widespread%20Panic">Widespread Panic</a>, whose performance of the song can be heard on their live album, <a href="Light%20Fuse%2C%20Get%20Away">Light Fuse, Get Away</a>.
A 1985 episode of the TV series "Miami Vice" (Season 2, Episode 8, "Tale of the Goat") centers around a malign Vodou priest by the name of Papa Legba (played by <a href="Clarence%20Williams%20III">Clarence Williams III</a>). In keeping with the image of Legba often conceptualised in Haitian Vodou subculture, Papa Legba is depicted as "controlling" the gateway to the spiritual world (through the use of drugs), walking with the aid of crutches, and smokes a pipe.
Papa
There is extensive referencing to Voodoo in the <a href="Sprawl%20trilogy">Sprawl trilogy</a> by <a href="William%20Gibson">William Gibson</a>. In the second book", <a href="Count%20Zero">Count Zero</a>", Papa Legba stands at the gateway to cyberspace as the "master of roads and pathways," with other loa appearing throughout the book. Papa Legba and Voodoo appear again in "<a href="Spook%20Country">Spook Country</a>", a book from one of Gibson's other trilogies.
In Chapter XXII of <a href="James%20Branch%20Cabell">James Branch Cabell</a>'s "<a href="Jurgen%2C%20A%20Comedy%20of%20Justice">Jurgen, A Comedy of Justice</a>", Jurgen and Queen Anaitis (lady of the lake) pass a statue of Legba in the courtyard. Jurgen remarks "Now certainly, Queen Anaitis, you have unusual taste in sculpture".
In the 1986 film "<a href="Crossroads%20%281986%20film%29">Crossroads</a>", blues musicians <a href="Robert%20Johnson">Robert Johnson</a> and Willie Brown sell their souls to a "Mr. Legba" at a Mississippi crossroads. Later in the film Legba takes the name "<a href="Old%20Scratch">Scratch</a>".. In this movie, however, Legba is mistaken for the Christian devil (or the popular notion of the devil), who takes the main character's soul in exchange for a successful musical career in blues. In the ritual and doctrine of African-American religions, there is no such thing as selling one's soul in exchange for wordly success or talent to later burn in hell, since they have no representation of hell.
There is a brief reference to Papa Legba in <a href="Neil%20Gaiman">Neil Gaiman</a>'s "<a href="American%20Gods">American Gods</a>".
There is a reference to The god of the crossroads in the song "永遠に幸せになる方法、見つけました。" or "The Path to Eternal Happiness, I Found It." on the "みんな幸せにな～れ!" album by うたたP.
There is a single reference to Atibon Legba in the song "Black Cat Bone" on the <a href="The_Mission_%28band%29">Mission</a> album "The Brightest Light".
<a href="Erzulie">Erzulie</a>, <a href="Damballa">Damballa</a>, <a href="Baron%20Samedi">Baron Samedi</a> and Papa Legba, all appear in the <a href="Wildcats%20%28comics%29">WildCats</a> original comic series, assisting <a href="Voodoo%20%28Wildstorm%29">Voodoo</a> against <a href="Mait%27%20Carrefour">Mait' Carrefour</a>.
They also appear (or are referenced to) in Terry Pratchett's book 'Witches Abroad' (1991).
The character Galeb from "<a href="Tales%20of%20Monkey%20Island">Tales of Monkey Island</a>" was based on Papa Legba.
Papa Legba is invoked by the Marvel Comics character <a href="Brother%20Voodoo">Brother Voodoo</a> for support.
Papa Legba is a significant character in Gwenda Bonds's 2013 novel <a href="The%20Woken%20Gods">The Woken Gods</a>.
Papa legba is also a character in series three of the popular to show American horror story. His character is seen making a deal with the 'voodoo queen' Marie Laveau who sold her soul in a moment of desperation during a fatal childbirth. In return for Marie Laveau's immortality Papa Legba makes Marie do one thing for him every year including stealing a 'innocent soul' from a hospital. Over time Papa Legba makes his prices worse to make people go insane.Legba is also seen in scenes set in hell more than once implying that he is demonic. Overall, Papa Legba was an honest character who told Coven Witch Fiona Goode the details of bargaining with him and was not sneaky about it.
Papa Legba is one of the Major Arcana cards in <a href="http%3A//www.chrysalistarot.com/2014/04/guardian-father-wild-hunter-sage-guide.html">Chrysalis Tarot</a>.
In 2013 <a href="Lance%20Reddick">Lance Reddick</a> portrayed Papa Legba in "", where the character is depicted wearing a top hat and black tuxedo jacket, more in keeping with one of the Barons (e.g. <a href="Baron%20Samedi">Baron Samedi</a>). This depiction is of a <a href="Deal%20with%20the%20Devil">crossroads demon</a> rather than the loa of th
Papa Legba is mentioned in the 2014 horror film, <a href="Jessabelle">Jessabelle</a>, where he is called upon to open the door for a dead spirit to return to the living.
Legba is a significant character in James Nuttall's 2014 novel .

</doc>
<doc id="90624" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90624" title="Guinee">
Guinee

In <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Vodou</a>, Guinee is the spirit world.

</doc>
<doc id="90625" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90625" title="Matsuo Bashō">
Matsuo Bashō

, born , then , was the most famous poet of the <a href="Edo%20period">Edo period</a> in <a href="Japan">Japan</a>. During his lifetime, Bashō was recognized for his works in the collaborative "<a href="Renku">haikai no renga</a>" form; today, after centuries of commentary, he is recognized as the greatest master of <a href="haiku">haiku</a> (then called <a href="hokku">hokku</a>). Matsuo Bashō's poetry is internationally renowned; and, in Japan, many of his poems are reproduced on monuments and traditional sites. Although Bashō is justifiably famous in the West for his hokku, he himself believed his best work lay in leading and participating in <a href="renku">renku</a>. He is quoted as saying, “Many of my followers can write hokku as well as I can. Where I show who I really am is in linking haikai verses.”
Bashō was introduced to poetry young, and after integrating himself into the intellectual scene of <a href="Edo">Edo</a> (modern Tokyo) he quickly became well known throughout Japan. He made a living as a teacher; but then renounced the social, urban life of the literary circles and was inclined to wander throughout the country, heading west, east, and far into the northern wilderness to gain inspiration for his writing. His poems were influenced by his firsthand experience of the world around him, often encapsulating the feeling of a scene in a few simple elements.
Bashō was born in 1644, near <a href="Ueno%2C%20Mie">Ueno</a>, in <a href="Iga%20Province">Iga Province</a>. His father may have been a low-ranking <a href="samurai">samurai</a>, which would have promised Bashō a career in the military, but not much chance of a notable life. His biographers traditionally claimed that he worked in the kitchens. However, as a child, Bashō became a servant to : together they shared a love for "<a href="Renku">haikai no renga</a>", a form of collaborative poetry composition. A sequence was opened with a verse in 5-7-5 <a href="mora%20%28linguistics%29">mora</a> format; this verse was named a "<a href="hokku">hokku</a>", and would centuries later be renamed "haiku" when presented as a stand-alone work. The "hokku" would be followed by a related 7-7 mora verse by another poet. Both Bashō and Yoshitada gave themselves , or "<a href="haikai">haikai</a>" <a href="pen%20name">pen name</a>s; Bashō's was , which was simply the "<a href="on%27yomi">on'yomi</a>" (Sino-Japanese reading) of his adult name, "". In 1662, the first extant poem by Bashō was published. In 1664, two of Bashō's hokku were printed in a compilation. In 1665, Bashō and Yoshitada together with some acquaintances composed a hyakuin, or one-hundred-verse "<a href="renku">renku</a>". In 1666, Yoshitada's sudden death brought Bashō's peaceful life as a servant to an end. No records of this time remain, but it is believed that Bashō gave up any possibility of samurai status and left home. Biographers have proposed various reasons and destinations, including the possibility of an affair between Bashō and a Shinto "<a href="miko">miko</a>" named , which is unlikely to be true. Bashō's own references to this time are vague; he recalled that "at one time I coveted an official post with a tenure of land", and that "there was a time when I was fascinated with the ways of homosexual love": there is no indication whether he was referring to real obsessions or fictional ones. He was uncertain whether to become a full-time poet; by his own account, "the alternatives battled in my mind and made my life restless". His indecision may have been influenced by the then still relatively low status of "renga" and "haikai no renga" as more social activities than serious artistic endeavors. In any case, his poems continued to be published in anthologies in 1667, 1669, and 1671, and he published a compilation of work by himself and other authors of the <a href="Teitoku">Teitoku</a> school, , in 1672. In about the spring of that year he moved to <a href="Edo">Edo</a>, to further his study of poetry.
In the fashionable literary circles of <a href="Nihonbashi">Nihonbashi</a>, Bashō's poetry was quickly recognized for its simple and natural style. In 1674 he was inducted into the inner circle of the "haikai" profession, receiving secret teachings from Kitamura Kigin (1624–1705). He wrote this "hokku" in mock tribute to the <a href="Shogun">Shogun</a>:
When <a href="Nishiyama%20S%C5%8Din">Nishiyama Sōin</a>, founder and leader of the <a href="Danrin%20school">Danrin school</a> of haikai, came to Edo from Osaka in 1675, Bashō was among the poets invited to compose with him. It was on this occasion that he gave himself the "haigō" of Tōsei, and by 1680 he had a full-time job teaching twenty disciples, who published , advertising their connection to Tōsei's talent. That winter, he took the surprising step of moving across the river to Fukagawa, out of the public eye and towards a more reclusive life. His disciples built him a rustic hut and planted a in the yard, giving Bashō a new "haigō" and his first permanent home. He appreciated the plant very much, but was not happy to see Fukagawa's native <a href="miscanthus">miscanthus</a> grass growing alongside it:
Despite his success, Bashō grew dissatisfied and lonely. He began to practice <a href="Zen">Zen</a> <a href="meditation">meditation</a>, but it seems not to have calmed his mind. In the winter of 1682 his hut burned down, and shortly afterwards, in early 1683, his mother died. He then traveled to <a href="Yamura">Yamura</a>, to stay with a friend. In the winter of 1683 his disciples gave him a second hut in Edo, but his spirits did not improve. In 1684 his disciple <a href="Takarai%20Kikaku">Takarai Kikaku</a> published a compilation of him and other poets, . Later that year he left Edo on the first of four major wanderings.
Bashō traveled alone, off the beaten path, that is, on the <a href="Edo%20Five%20Routes">Edo Five Routes</a>, which in medieval Japan were regarded as immensely dangerous; and, at first Bashō expected to simply die in the middle of nowhere or be killed by bandits. However, as his trip progressed, his mood improved, and he became comfortable on the road. Bashō met many friends and grew to enjoy the changing scenery and the seasons. His poems took on a less introspective and more striking tone as he observed the world around him:
The trip took him from Edo to <a href="Mount%20Fuji">Mount Fuji</a>, Ueno, and <a href="Kyoto">Kyoto</a>. He met several poets who called themselves his disciples and wanted his advice; he told them to disregard the contemporary Edo style and even his own "Shriveled Chestnuts", saying it contained "many verses that are not worth discussing." Bashō returned to Edo in the summer of 1685, taking time along the way to write more "hokku" and comment on his own life:
When Bashō returned to Edo he happily resumed his job as a teacher of poetry at his "bashō" hut, although privately he was already making plans for another journey. The poems from his journey were published as . In early 1686 he composed one of his best-remembered haiku:
Historians believe this poem became instantly famous: in April, the poets of Edo gathered at the "bashō" hut for a "haikai no renga" contest on the subject of frogs that seems to have been a tribute to Bashō's "hokku", which was placed at the top of the compilation. Bashō stayed in Edo, continuing to teach and hold contests, with an excursion in the autumn of 1687 when he traveled to the countryside for <a href="tsukimi">moon watching</a>, and a longer trip in 1688 when he returned to Ueno to celebrate the <a href="Japanese%20New%20Year">Lunar New Year</a>. At home in Edo, Bashō sometimes became reclusive: he alternated between rejecting visitors to his hut and appreciating their company. At the same time, he enjoyed his life and had a subtle sense of humor, as reflected in his "hokku":
Bashō's private planning for another long journey, to be described in his masterwork "Oku no Hosomichi", or "The Narrow Road to the Deep North", culminated on May 16, 1689 (Yayoi 27, <a href="Genroku">Genroku</a> 2), when he left Edo with his student and apprentice on a journey to the Northern Provinces of <a href="Honsh%C5%AB">Honshū</a>. Bashō and Sora headed north to <a href="Hiraizumi">Hiraizumi</a>, which they reached on June 29. They then walked to the western side of the island, touring <a href="Kisakata">Kisakata</a> on , and began hiking back at a leisurely pace along the coastline. During this 150-day journey Bashō traveled a total of 600 "<a href="Japanese%20units%20of%20measurement%23Length">ri</a>" (2,400 km) through the northeastern areas of Honshū, returning to <a href="Edo">Edo</a> in late 1691.
By the time Bashō reached <a href="%C5%8Cgaki%2C%20Gifu">Ōgaki</a>, <a href="Gifu%20Prefecture">Gifu Prefecture</a>, he had completed the log of his journey. He edited and redacted it for three years, writing the final version in 1694 as . The first edition was published posthumously in 1702. It was an immediate commercial success and many other itinerant poets followed the path of his journey. It is often considered his finest achievement, featuring "hokku" such as:
On his return to Edo in the winter of 1691, Bashō lived in his third "bashō" hut, again provided by his disciples. This time, he was not alone: he took in a nephew and his female friend, Jutei, who were both recovering from illness. He had a great many visitors.
Bashō continued to be uneasy. He wrote to a friend that "disturbed by others, I have no peace of mind". He made a living from teaching and appearances at "haikai" parties until late August 1693, when he shut the gate to his "bashō" hut and refused to see anybody for a month. Finally, he relented after adopting the principle of "karumi" or "lightness", a semi-Buddhist philosophy of greeting the mundane world rather than separating himself from it. Bashō left Edo for the last time in the summer of 1694, spending time in Ueno and Kyoto before his arrival in Osaka. He became sick with a stomach illness and died peacefully, surrounded by his disciples. Although he did not compose any formal <a href="death%20poem">death poem</a> on his deathbed the following, being the last poem recorded during his final illness, is generally accepted as his poem of farewell:
Rather than sticking to the formulas of , which remain popular in Japan even today, Bashō aspired to reflect his real environment and emotions in his "hokku". Even during his lifetime, the effort and style of his poetry was widely appreciated; after his death, it only increased. Several of his students compiled quotations from him about his own poetry, most notably <a href="Mukai%20Kyorai">Mukai Kyorai</a> and Hattori Dohō.
During the 18th century, appreciation of Bashō's poems grew more fervent, and commentators such as Ishiko Sekisui and Moro Nanimaru went to great length to find references in his "hokku" to historical events, medieval books, and other poems. These commentators were often lavish in their praise of Bashō's obscure references, some of which were probably literary <a href="false%20cognate">false cognate</a>s. In 1793 Bashō was deified by the Shinto bureaucracy, and for a time criticizing his poetry was literally blasphemous.
In the late 19th century, this period of unanimous passion for Bashō's poems came to an end. <a href="Masaoka%20Shiki">Masaoka Shiki</a>, arguably Bashō's most famous critic, tore down the long-standing orthodoxy with his bold and candid objections to Bashō's style. However, Shiki was also instrumental in making Bashō's poetry accessible in English, and to leading intellectuals and the Japanese public at large. He invented the term "<a href="haiku">haiku</a>" (replacing "<a href="hokku">hokku</a>") to refer to the freestanding 5-7-5 form which he considered the most artistic and desirable part of the "haikai no renga".
Critical interpretation of Bashō's poems continued into the 20th century, with notable works by Yamamoto Kenkichi, Imoto Nōichi, and Ogata Tsutomu. The 20th century also saw translations of Bashō's poems into languages and editions around the world. The position of Bashō in Western eyes as the "haiku" poet "par excellence" gives great influence to his poetry: Western preference for "haiku" over more traditional forms such as "tanka" or "renga" have rendered archetypal status to Bashō as Japanese poet and "haiku" as <a href="Japanese%20poetry">Japanese poetry</a>. Some western scholars even believe that Bashō invented haiku. The impressionistic and concise nature of Bashō's verse greatly influenced <a href="Ezra%20Pound">Ezra Pound</a>, the <a href="Imagism">Imagists</a>, and poets of the <a href="Beat%20Generation">Beat Generation</a>.
Two of Bashō's poems were popularized in the short story <a href="Teddy%20%28story%29">"Teddy"</a> written by <a href="J.D.%20Salinger">J.D. Salinger</a> and published in 1952 by <a href="The%20New%20Yorker">The New Yorker</a> magazine.
In 1979, The <a href="International%20Astronomical%20Union">International Astronomical Union</a> named a crater found on Mercury after him.
Bashō appeared in the Magic Treehouse book The Dragon of the Red Dawn.

</doc>
<doc id="90627" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90627" title="Maman Brigitte">
Maman Brigitte

Maman Brigitte (Grann Brigitte, Manman, Manman Brigit, Manman Brijit) is a death <a href="loa">loa</a> and the wife of <a href="Baron%20Samedi">Baron Samedi</a> in <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Vodou</a>. She drinks rum infused with hot peppers and is symbolized by a black rooster. Like Baron and the <a href="Ghede">Ghede</a>, she uses obscenities.
She protects gravestones in cemeteries if they are properly marked with a cross.
A New World loa, Maman Brigitte is syncretized with various saints, including: <a href="St.%20Brigit">Saint</a> <a href="Brigid%23Brigid%20and%20Saint%20Brigid">Brigid</a>, and <a href="Mary%20Magdalene">Mary Magdalene</a> 

</doc>
<doc id="90628" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90628" title="Basho">
Basho

Basho may refer to:

</doc>
<doc id="90629" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90629" title="Boli Shah">
Boli Shah

In <a href="West%20African%20Vodun">Vodoun</a>, and especially <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Haitian Vodou</a>, Boli Shah is a minor <a href="loa">loa</a> who guards families.

</doc>
<doc id="90630" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90630" title="Bossou Ashadeh">
Bossou Ashadeh

In <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Vodou</a>, and especially in <a href="Haiti">Haiti</a>, Boddou Ashadeh is a <a href="loa">loa</a>, the spirit of the deceased <a href="Dahomey">Dahomean</a> King <a href="Tegbessou">Tegbessou</a>.
As the Petro mannifestation, Bossou is often depicted as a horned bull.

</doc>
<doc id="90632" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90632" title="Boum'ba Maza">
Boum'ba Maza

In <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Vodou</a>, an animist, or nature-based religion, the Boum'ba Maza are a group of powerful spirits or deities known as <a href="loa">loa</a>.

</doc>
<doc id="90633" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90633" title="Bugid Y Aiba">
Bugid Y Aiba

In <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Vodou</a>, and especially on <a href="Haiti">Haiti</a> and <a href="Puerto%20Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, Bugid Y Aiba is a <a href="loa">loa</a> of war.
Bugid Y Aiba is Arawak in origin, inherited from the Haitians and Puerto Rican Taino ancestors from their three principal deities Bugia, Bradama and Aiba. according to the Atlantic Journal and Friend of Knowledge, by C.S Rafanisque.

</doc>
<doc id="90642" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90642" title="Captain Debas">
Captain Debas

In the religion of <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Haitian Vodou</a>, Captain Debas (also Debard, Deebat) is a <a href="loa">loa</a> of the <a href="ghede">ghede</a>.
According to "Secrets of voodoo" Captain Debas is part of the <a href="Rada%20loa">rada</a> nation, not ghede, and should be served in rada rites rather than ghede rites. He is an family loa and can be combined with any other loa of any nation who allows families. He originates from <a href="Africa">Africa</a> and is originally from <a href="Vodoun">Vodoun</a>.

</doc>
<doc id="90643" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90643" title="Clermeil">
Clermeil

In <a href="Haiti">Haiti</a>an <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Vodou</a>, Clermeil was the <a href="loa">loa</a> who made <a href="river">river</a>s flood their banks. He was usually depicted as a white man.

</doc>
<doc id="90644" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90644" title="Bananarama">
Bananarama

Bananarama are an English female <a href="pop%20music">pop music</a> vocal group formed in London in 1979 by friends <a href="Sara%20Dallin">Sara Dallin</a>, <a href="Siobhan%20Fahey">Siobhan Fahey</a> and <a href="Keren%20Woodward">Keren Woodward</a>. Their success on both pop and dance charts have earned the group a listing in "The Guinness Book of World Records" as the all-female group with the most chart entries in the world, a record which they still hold.
They released their debut single "<a href="Aie%20a%20Mwana">Aie a Mwana</a>" in 1981. The group's 10 UK Top 10 hits include "<a href="T%27ain%27t%20What%20You%20Do%20%28It%27s%20the%20Way%20That%20You%20Do%20It%29">It Ain't What You Do...</a>" (1982), "<a href="Really%20Saying%20Something">Really Saying Something</a>" (1982), "<a href="Shy%20Boy">Shy Boy</a>" (1982), "<a href="Na%20Na%20Hey%20Hey%20Kiss%20Him%20Goodbye">Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye</a>" (1983), "<a href="Cruel%20Summer%20%28song%29">Cruel Summer</a>" (1983), "<a href="Robert%20De%20Niro%27s%20Waiting...">Robert De Niro's Waiting...</a>" (1984) and "<a href="Love%20in%20the%20First%20Degree">Love in the First Degree</a>" (1987). In 1986, they had a US number one with another of their UK Top 10 hits, "<a href="Venus%20%28Shocking%20Blue%20song%29">Venus</a>". In total, they had 11 singles reach the US <a href="Billboard%20Hot%20100">Billboard Hot 100</a> (1983-1988), including two more in the top 10, with "Cruel Summer" (1984) and "<a href="I%20Heard%20a%20Rumour">I Heard a Rumour</a>" (1987). They are associated with the MTV-driven <a href="Second%20British%20Invasion">Second British Invasion</a> of the US. In 1988, "Love in the First Degree" earned them a <a href="Brit%20Award">Brit Award</a> nomination for Best British Single, while their fourth album "<a href="Wow%21%20%28Bananarama%20album%29">Wow!</a>" (1987), topped the Australian <a href="ARIA%20Charts">ARIA</a> albums chart.
Following Fahey's departure from the group in 1988, <a href="Jacquie%20O%27Sullivan">Jacquie O'Sullivan</a> joined the group for three years and they had UK Top 10 hits with "<a href="I%20Want%20You%20Back%20%28Bananarama%20song%29">I Want You Back</a>" (1988) and "<a href="Help%21%20%28song%29">Help!</a>" (1989). In addition to their chart success, the band is also known for their vocal style, generally singing in <a href="unison">unison</a> rather than in harmony like most vocal groups. Since 1992, Woodward and Dallin have continued Bananarama as a duo, with hits including "<a href="Movin%27%20On%20%28Bananarama%20song%29">Movin' On</a>" (1992) and "<a href="More%2C%20More%2C%20More">More, More, More</a>" (1993). They returned to the UK Top 20 for the first time since 1991 with the 2005 single "<a href="Move%20in%20My%20Direction">Move in My Direction</a>". Between 1982 and 2009, they had 28 singles reach the Top 50 of the <a href="UK%20singles%20chart">UK singles chart</a>.
Bananarama were founded in <a href="London">London</a> in 1979 by Fahey, Woodward and Dallin, the latter two having been childhood friends in <a href="Bristol">Bristol</a> since the age of four, and attending St. George's School for Girls together. The pair became a trio when Dallin met Fahey while studying fashion journalism in London. They became friends because they both dressed more radically than the other students. The trio were ardent followers of the <a href="punk%20rock">punk rock</a> and <a href="post-punk">post-punk</a> music scene during the late 1970s and early 1980s and often performed impromptu sets or backing vocals at gigs for such bands as <a href="The%20Monochrome%20Set">The Monochrome Set</a>, <a href="Iggy%20Pop">Iggy Pop</a>, <a href="The%20Jam">The Jam</a>, <a href="Department%20S%20%28band%29">Department S</a> and <a href="The%20Nipple%20Erectors">The Nipple Erectors</a>.
In 1981, Bananarama's members were living above the rehearsal room that was used by former <a href="Sex%20Pistols">Sex Pistols</a> members <a href="Steve%20Jones%20%28musician%29">Steve Jones</a> and <a href="Paul%20Cook">Paul Cook</a>. With their help, Bananarama recorded their first <a href="demo%20%28music%29">demo</a> "<a href="Aie%20a%20Mwana">Aie a Mwana</a>" (UK #92, a cover of a song by Black Blood, sung in <a href="Swahili%20language">Swahili</a>). The demo was heard at <a href="Demon%20Records">Demon Records</a>, who consequently offered Bananarama their first deal. The song was an underground hit and Bananarama were signed by <a href="Decca%20Records">Decca</a> (later <a href="London%20Records">London Records</a>) and remained on the label until 1993. Bananarama's only previous experience in a recording studio at the time was as background vocalists on the <a href="Department%20S%20%28band%29">Department S</a> B-side, "<a href="Solid%20Gold%20Easy%20Action">Solid Gold Easy Action</a>," a <a href="T.Rex%20%28band%29">T.Rex</a> cover in early 1981.
During this early period Bananarama were approached by <a href="Malcolm%20McLaren">Malcolm McLaren</a>, who offered to manage the group. McLaren, manager of the <a href="Sex%20Pistols">Sex Pistols</a>, <a href="Adam%20and%20the%20Ants">Adam and the Ants</a> and <a href="Bow%20Wow%20Wow">Bow Wow Wow</a>, and notorious for generating scandal, proposed some new material that was sexually suggestive, and did not fit with what at the time was the band's tomboyish and straightforward image. Bananarama passed on both the material and McLaren as their manager.
UK fashion magazine "<a href="The%20Face%20%28magazine%29">The Face</a>" featured an article on Bananarama after the release of their first single. This caught the attention of ex-<a href="The%20Specials">Specials</a> member <a href="Terry%20Hall%20%28singer%29">Terry Hall</a>, who invited them to collaborate with his new vocal group <a href="Fun%20Boy%20Three">Fun Boy Three</a> on the track "<a href="T%27ain%27t%20What%20You%20Do%20%28It%27s%20the%20Way%20That%20You%20Do%20It%29">It Ain't What You Do It's The Way That You Do It</a>". In 1982, the song hit the Top 5 in the UK and gave Bananarama their first significant mainstream success. Fun Boy Three then guest starred on Bananarama's single, "<a href="Really%20Saying%20Something">Really Saying Something</a>", later that year.
Bananarama experienced their greatest success during the period 1982 to 1989, with their first three albums primarily produced and co-written with <a href="Jolley%20%26amp%3B%20Swain">Jolley & Swain</a>. Their debut album, "<a href="Deep%20Sea%20Skiving">Deep Sea Skiving</a>" (UK #7, US #63) (1983) contained several hit singles — "Really Saying Something" (UK #5) and "<a href="Shy%20Boy">Shy Boy</a>" (UK #4) — and included a <a href="cover%20version">cover version</a> of "<a href="Na%20Na%20Hey%20Hey%20Kiss%20Him%20Goodbye">Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye</a>" (UK #5). The band recorded a version of the Sex Pistols' song "No Feelings" in late 1982 for the soundtrack of the British film, "Party Party".
Although the group was popular in their native UK, their earliest success in America was on a cult/underground basis due to college radio and early MTV exposure. During 1982 and 1983, Bananarama did several promotional US press tours and TV appearances on "<a href="American%20Bandstand">American Bandstand</a>" and "<a href="Solid%20Gold%20%28TV%20series%29">Solid Gold</a>". Success in the United States eluded the group until the release of their first top 10 hit "<a href="Cruel%20Summer%20%28song%29">Cruel Summer</a>" in mid-1984.
Their second album, "<a href="Bananarama%20%28album%29">Bananarama</a>" (UK #16, US #30) (1984) was a more socially conscious effort. The group wanted to be taken more seriously, so wrote songs that focused on heavier topics: "<a href="Hot%20Line%20to%20Heaven">Hotline To Heaven</a>" (UK#58) is a stand against the drugs-are-cool culture; and "<a href="Rough%20Justice%20%28Bananarama%20song%29">Rough Justice</a>" (UK#23) deals with social apathy. The album contained the hit singles, "<a href="Robert%20De%20Niro%27s%20Waiting...">Robert De Niro's Waiting...</a>," (UK#3) and their first US Top 10 hit, "Cruel Summer" (UK#8, US#9) (1983), which was included in the film "<a href="The%20Karate%20Kid%20%281984%20film%29">The Karate Kid</a>." The trio also recorded the single, "<a href="The%20Wild%20Life%20%28Bananarama%20song%29">The Wild Life</a>" (US#70) for a <a href="The%20Wild%20Life%20%28film%29">1984 American film of the same name</a>.
Bananarama featured on the <a href="Band%20Aid%20%28band%29">Band Aid</a> single, "<a href="Do%20They%20Know%20It%27s%20Christmas%3F">Do They Know It's Christmas?</a>," and were the only artists to appear on both the original 1984 Band Aid and the 1989 Band Aid II versions (though Fahey only appeared on the 1984 version).
1985 would be a quiet transitional year for Bananarama. London Records release of "<a href="Do%20Not%20Disturb%20%28song%29">Do Not Disturb</a>" (UK #31) would keep the girls' public profile alive.
1986 saw the release of their third album, "<a href="True%20Confessions%20%28album%29">True Confessions</a>" (UK #46, US #15) on which some production duties were taken up by <a href="Mike%20Stock%20%28musician%29">Mike Stock</a>, <a href="Matt%20Aitken">Matt Aitken</a> and <a href="Pete%20Waterman">Pete Waterman</a> known as <a href="Stock%20Aitken%20Waterman">Stock Aitken Waterman</a> (SAW). The move resulted in the international number one hit, "<a href="Venus%20%28Shocking%20Blue%20song%29">Venus</a>," (a remake of <a href="Shocking%20Blue">Shocking Blue</a>'s number one hit from 1970). The dance-oriented beats on the song typified the SAW approach to pop production. Bananarama were said to have been put in contact with SAW after hearing and expressing a fondness for "<a href="You%20Spin%20Me%20Round%20%28Like%20a%20Record%29">You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)</a>" by <a href="Dead%20or%20Alive%20%28band%29">Dead or Alive</a>. After its worldwide success, "Venus" has become the group's signature song. Also in 1986, Dallin and Woodward were featured as backing vocalists on two songs on "Family Album," produced by <a href="John%20Lydon">John Lydon</a>.
The <a href="music%20video">music video</a> for "Venus" received heavy airplay on <a href="MTV">MTV</a> in the United States. It featured the group in various costumes including a <a href="devil">devil</a>, a French temptress, a <a href="vampire">vampire</a> and a Greek goddess. The video marked a pivotal shift towards a more glamorous and sexual image, which contrasted with the tomboyish style of their earlier work. It was also the start of their use of boy-toys as backup dancers, which would become a hallmark of their videos.
Follow-up singles "<a href="More%20Than%20Physical">More Than Physical</a>" (UK #41) and "<a href="A%20Trick%20of%20the%20Night">A Trick of the Night</a>" (UK #32) were less successful due to minimal promotions. Woodward was pregnant with her son Thomas and unable to tour or physically promote the parent album or its subsequent singles.
During a press tour in <a href="New%20York%20City">New York City</a>, the group also recorded a song "Riskin' a Romance" featured in the film "<a href="The%20Secret%20of%20My%20Success%20%281987%20film%29">The Secret of My Success</a>". The track was notable because it featured Fahey taking lead vocals, and <a href="Daryl%20Hall">Daryl Hall</a> was the producer. At some point during this trip, the group also re-recorded the vocals for their next UK release "More Than Physical" and "A Trick of the Night".
In the wake of the success of "Venus," all production and co-writing responsibilities for their fourth album, 1987's "<a href="Wow%21%20%28Bananarama%20album%29">Wow!</a>," (UK #26, US #44) were transferred from Jolley & Swain to SAW, under whom the group's sound graduated towards dance-oriented <a href="Europop">Europop</a>. "Wow!" topped the Australian <a href="ARIA%20Charts">ARIA</a> albums charts for one week in June 1988.
"<a href="I%20Heard%20a%20Rumour">I Heard a Rumour</a>" (UK #14, US #4) was their strongest performing international hit from this album. In the US, the song was featured in the motion picture "<a href="Disorderlies">Disorderlies</a>," starring <a href="The%20Fat%20Boys">The Fat Boys</a> and <a href="Ralph%20Bellamy">Ralph Bellamy</a>. "<a href="Love%20in%20the%20First%20Degree">Love in the First Degree</a>" (UK #3) was one of their biggest UK hits, and the <a href="disco">disco</a>-oriented "<a href="I%20Can%27t%20Help%20It%20%28Bananarama%20song%29">I Can't Help It</a>" (which boasted a semi-controversial video featuring the group in a milk bath filled with fruit and half-naked men) was a minor hit (UK #20).
By the time the third single from "Wow!" was released in early 1988, Fahey — who had married <a href="Eurythmics">Eurythmics</a>' <a href="David%20A.%20Stewart">Dave Stewart</a> — left the group as she had become disillusioned with the direction the band was taking. She was also feeling socially excluded by the other two members, who had 'been best friends a lot longer', and who, she says, were 'no longer inviting her out with them'. Her last performance as a member of the group was at the <a href="Brit%20Awards">Brit Awards</a> in February 1988, performing "Love in the First Degree". She would later resurface in the BRIT Award-winning pop duo <a href="Shakespears%20Sister">Shakespears Sister</a> with <a href="Marcella%20Detroit">Marcella Detroit</a>.
After Fahey's exit, <a href="Jacquie%20O%27Sullivan">Jacquie O'Sullivan</a> (formerly of the <a href="Shillelagh%20Sisters">Shillelagh Sisters</a>) joined the group. The single "<a href="I%20Want%20You%20Back%20%28Bananarama%20song%29">I Want You Back</a>" (UK #5) was re-recorded with O'Sullivan, as was <a href="The%20Supremes">The Supremes</a> cover "<a href="Nathan%20Jones%20%28song%29">Nathan Jones</a>" (UK #15). "<a href="Love%2C%20Truth%20and%20Honesty">Love, Truth and Honesty</a>" (UK #23) was released as a single from their 1988 retrospective compilation, "<a href="Greatest%20Hits%20Collection%20%28Bananarama%20album%29">Greatest Hits Collection</a>" (UK #3). At the same time, Bananarama entered the "<a href="Guinness%20Book%20of%20World%20Records">Guinness Book of World Records</a>" as the all-female group who have the most chart entries in history, a record they still hold.
As a fund-raising charity single for <a href="Comic%20Relief">Comic Relief</a> in 1989, Bananarama recorded a cover of <a href="The%20Beatles">The Beatles</a>' song "<a href="Help%21%20%28song%29">Help!</a>" with <a href="Lananeeneenoonoo">Lananeeneenoonoo</a> (UK #3), a mock girl-group created by British female comedy duo <a href="French%20and%20Saunders">French and Saunders</a>, with fellow comediènne <a href="Kathy%20Burke">Kathy Burke</a>. 1989 also saw the band's first world tour, which hit North America, East Asia and the UK.
Bananarama's 1991 album, "<a href="Pop%20Life%20%28Bananarama%20album%29">Pop Life</a>" (UK #42) saw the group working with a variety of producers including <a href="Martin%20Glover">Youth</a>, <a href="Shep%20Pettibone">Shep Pettibone</a>, and <a href="Steve%20Jolley">Steve Jolley</a>, of Jolley & Swain. They also incorporated a wider range of musical genres including <a href="reggae">reggae</a>, <a href="flamenco">flamenco</a> guitar, and <a href="acid%20house">acid house</a>. Despite receiving some of the strongest and most positive reviews of their career, London Records limited promotions and minimal radio airplay resulted in the singles "<a href="Only%20Your%20Love">Only Your Love</a>" (UK #27), "<a href="Preacher%20Man">Preacher Man</a>" (UK #20) and the <a href="Doobie%20Brothers">Doobie Brothers</a>' cover of "<a href="Long%20Train%20Running">Long Train Running</a>" (UK #30) failing to emulate their previous Top 10 successes. After the release of the fourth and final single from the album, "<a href="Tripping%20on%20Your%20Love">Tripping on Your Love</a>" (UK #75), band manager Hillary Shaw resigned to manage <a href="Kim%20Appleby">Kim Appleby</a>'s career, and O'Sullivan left the band to form the short-lived Slippery Feet.
In 1992, Dallin and Woodward returned as a duo and had a UK top 30 hit with "<a href="Movin%27%20On%20%28Bananarama%20song%29">Movin' On</a>" (UK #24), which was the first single from the album "<a href="Please%20Yourself">Please Yourself</a>". Released in 1993, the album marked the return of production duties back to the remaining members of <a href="Stock%20Aitken%20Waterman">SAW</a>, Stock and Waterman. Ironically, though the lead single was titled "Movin' On", the album was a regression to their previous <a href="Euro%20disco">Euro disco</a> sound as illustrated by their cover of <a href="Andrea%20True%20Connection">Andrea True Connection</a>'s "<a href="More%2C%20More%2C%20More">More, More, More</a>" (UK #24). Bananarama was losing momentum as subsequent single "<a href="Last%20Thing%20on%20My%20Mind">Last Thing on My Mind</a>" (UK #71) struggled to chart. It was to be their last album on <a href="London%20Records">London Records</a>.
Their next offering was 1995's "<a href="Ultra%20Violet%20%28Bananarama%20album%29">Ultra Violet</a>" (titled "I Found Love" in Japan) on a new label. The album and its three singles "I Found Love", "<a href="Every%20Shade%20of%20Blue">Every Shade of Blue</a>" and "<a href="Take%20Me%20to%20Your%20Heart%20%28Bananarama%20song%29">Take Me to Your Heart</a>" were only released in some European countries, North America, Japan and Australia, but not in Britain.
In 1998, Dallin, Woodward and Fahey regrouped for the first time in ten years and recorded the track "<a href="Waterloo%20%28ABBA%20song%29">Waterloo</a>" (a cover of the classic <a href="ABBA">ABBA</a> song) for the <a href="Eurovision%20Song%20Contest">Eurovision</a> celebration "A Song for <a href="Eurotrash%20%28TV%20show%29">Eurotrash</a>" on <a href="Channel%204">Channel 4</a>. However, Fahey made it clear that this was a one-off and that she was not formally rejoining the group. In 1999, Dallin, Woodward and Fahey were interviewed together for an episode of the BBC music documentary series "Young Guns Go For It" dedicated to the group. Jacquie O'Sullivan also took part in the programme.
In 2001, Dallin and Woodward released a new Bananarama album, "<a href="Exotica%20%28Bananarama%20album%29">Exotica</a>". Collaborators included Pascal Caubet and Dallin's boyfriend Bassey Walker. The album also included Latin and R&B influenced dance songs, as well as reinterpreted versions of their earlier hits. Only two promotional singles would be released from the album, one of which was a cover of <a href="Wham%21">Wham!</a>'s ballad "<a href="Careless%20Whisper">Careless Whisper</a>" (which was co-written by Woodward's partner <a href="Andrew%20Ridgeley">Andrew Ridgeley</a>). The other release "<a href="If%20%28Bananarama%20song%29">If</a>" received positive reviews but failed to chart.
By 2002, Bananarama had sold 40 million records worldwide. That year, they released another greatest hits album, "<a href="The%20Very%20Best%20of%20Bananarama">The Very Best of Bananarama</a>", in the UK. They also recorded the song "Love Him, Leave Him, Forget Him" for <a href="British%20Sky%20Broadcasting">Sky TV</a>'s show "<a href="Is%20Harry%20on%20the%20Boat%3F">Is Harry on the Boat?</a>" as well as the song "U R My Baby" for a German disco project. The group (with Siobhan Fahey as special guest) celebrated the 20th anniversary of their first hit at the <a href="London%20Astoria">London Astoria</a> in London, with an audience of 3000 people. 
With 1980s retro in vogue, Bananarama made a comeback in the British dance charts in 2005. Solasso remixed their early hit "Really Saying Something" and it was a huge hit with clubbers. A video was filmed with models from "<a href="Britain%27s%20Next%20Top%20Model">Britain's Next Top Model</a>" TV show but the record was shelved despite topping the dance charts. A new single, "<a href="Move%20in%20My%20Direction">Move in My Direction</a>", was released in July and hit the UK charts at #14 following playlist support from <a href="BBC%20Radio%202">Radio 2</a> and many local stations, making this song the group's 24th UK Top 40 hit, and their first Top 20 hit since their 1991 single "<a href="Preacher%20Man">Preacher Man</a>". Follow-up single "<a href="Look%20on%20the%20Floor%20%28Hypnotic%20Tango%29">Look on the Floor (Hypnotic Tango)</a>", however, was less successful peaking at #26 which was followed by the "<a href="Drama%20%28Bananarama%20album%29">Drama</a>" album which peaked at #169.
"Drama" was released in the U.S. on 16 May and after a fourteen-year absence, Bananarama was back on "<a href="Billboard%20%28magazine%29">Billboard</a>'s" <a href="Hot%20Dance%20Club%20Songs">Hot Dance Club Songs</a> and the <a href="Hot%20Dance%20Airplay">Hot Dance Airplay</a> charts with an import version of "<a href="Look%20on%20the%20Floor%20%28Hypnotic%20Tango%29">Look on the Floor (Hypnotic Tango)</a>" (US#2). "Look on the Floor" became their first U.S. hit since 1992, when they scored with "<a href="Tripping%20on%20Your%20Love">Tripping on Your Love</a>" (US#14). "<a href="Move%20in%20My%20Direction">Move in My Direction</a>" (US#14) was released as a second single in the U.S.
Summer 2006 saw the <a href="Warner%20Bros.%20Records">Warner Bros. Records</a> release of "<a href="The%20Twelve%20Inches%20of%20Bananarama">The Twelve Inches of Bananarama</a>", a compilation of twelve remixes on CD for the first time. The collection features the rare <a href="George%20Michael">George Michael</a> remix of "<a href="Tripping%20on%20Your%20Love">Tripping on Your Love</a>", among others.
On 19 March 2007, Bananarama's first six studio albums were reissued by <a href="Rhino%20Entertainment">Rhino Records</a> on CD with bonus material, including alternative versions, remixes and B-sides. On 7 May 2007, another best-of collection titled "<a href="Greatest%20Hits%20and%20More%20More%20More">Greatest Hits and More More More</a>" was released by <a href="Warner%20Bros.%20Records">Warner Bros. Records</a>.
Dallin and Woodward performed a set along with other 1980s acts at "Retro Fest" on 1 September 2007 at <a href="Culzean%20Castle">Culzean Castle</a> in <a href="Ayrshire">Ayrshire</a>, Scotland.
In February 2007, Bananarama's official website announced that they were back in the studio recording new material. A cover version of "<a href="Voyage%20Voyage">Voyage Voyage</a>" was performed at a concert in France. Bananarama also confirmed they were contributing vocals as guest artists on the song "Ultra Violet" (not to be confused with Bananarama's seventh album "<a href="Ultra%20Violet%20%28Bananarama%20album%29">Ultra Violet</a>") by new dance act Block Rocker, a teaming up of producers/remixers Digital Dog and Ashiva. However, the song never surfaced.
In October 2007, Bananarama announced that they would be appearing on 2008's "Here and Now Tour" with other 1980s artists such as <a href="Belinda%20Carlisle">Belinda Carlisle</a>, <a href="Paul%20Young%20%28singer%20and%20guitarist%29">Paul Young</a>, <a href="ABC%20%28band%29">ABC</a> and <a href="Rick%20Astley">Rick Astley</a>. They also announced plans to record a new album of disco cover versions and new songs.
In August 2008, it was announced that Bananarama was back in the studio recording a track with <a href="Joseph%20Simmons">Rev Run</a> from <a href="Run%E2%80%93D.M.C.">Run–D.M.C.</a> who had a new album in the pipeline. He wanted to sample "<a href="Na%20Na%20Hey%20Hey%20Kiss%20Him%20Goodbye">Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye</a>" for his track but then decided to ask Dallin and Woodward to sing it instead. The title of the track was not confirmed but was to be credited as be "Run-D.M.C. featuring Bananarama". The song, 'Invincible', credited as Rev Run featuring Bananarama, did not surface until late 2014 on Rev Run's solo album Red Rhythm Rewind. 
In June 2009, Bananarama performed at the Isle of Wight Festival. In August 2009, they performed at the <a href="Rewind%20Festival">80s Rewind Festival</a> in <a href="Henley-on-Thames">Henley-on-Thames</a> alongside other 80s acts which included <a href="Rick%20Astley">Rick Astley</a>, <a href="Belinda%20Carlisle">Belinda Carlisle</a> and <a href="Kim%20Wilde">Kim Wilde</a>. The duo also performed at The Manchester Gay Pride Festival over the August Bank Holiday weekend.
Bananarama released a new single entitled "<a href="Love%20Comes">Love Comes</a>" (UK #44), and a new album "<a href="Viva%20%28Bananarama%20album%29">Viva</a>" (UK #87) in September 2009. The album was produced entirely by <a href="Ian%20Masterson">Ian Masterson</a>, and released through Fascination Records. A second single was released from the album in April 2010, a new remix of the song "<a href="Love%20Don%27t%20Live%20Here%20%28Bananarama%20song%29">Love Don't Live Here</a>" (UK #114) backed by Ian Masterson's 2010 reworking of the 1995 single "<a href="Every%20Shade%20of%20Blue">Every Shade of Blue</a>" and "The Runner" (originally recorded by <a href="The%20Three%20Degrees">The Three Degrees</a>), remixed by Buzz Junkies. Other covers recorded during this period included Bryan Adam's "Run To You", Simon & Garfunkel's "The Sound Of Silence" and Roxy Music's "Tokyo Joe". These were included as B Sides to the released singles and as bonus digital tracks to the parent album.
In September 2010, Bananarama were back in the studio with producer Ian Masterson, and recorded a Christmas song titled "<a href="Baby%20It%27s%20Christmas">Baby It's Christmas</a>" (UK #199). The track was written by Sara Dallin and Ian Masterson and was released on 13 December in the UK and Europe as a digital EP. The track was also included on a US Christmas compilation CD entitled "Super Dance Christmas Party, Volume 3". "Baby It's Christmas" reached #19 in the UK Indie Singles chart and #199 in the main UK Singles Chart.
In April 2011, Bananarama appeared on ITV's "<a href="Benidorm%20%28TV%20Series%29">Benidorm</a>" and performed "<a href="Love%20in%20the%20First%20Degree">Love in the First Degree</a>", "<a href="Robert%20De%20Niro%27s%20Waiting...">Robert De Niro's Waiting...</a>" and "<a href="Movin%27%20On%20%28Bananarama%20song%29">Movin' On</a>".
In October 2011, Bananarama performed at "Retrolicious 2011" in Singapore, together with <a href="The%20Human%20League">The Human League</a> and <a href="Belinda%20Carlisle">Belinda Carlisle</a>.
On 9 July 2012, Warner Music imprint <a href="Rhino%20Records">Rhino Records</a> released a greatest hits CD and DVD Collection "<a href="30%20Years%20of%20Bananarama">30 Years of Bananarama</a>" (UK #61) to celebrate the band's 30th anniversary. The album charted at 62 on the <a href="UK%20Albums%20Chart">UK Albums Chart</a>. On 9 August 2012, the band performed at the men's final of the beach volleyball at the London Olympics. They performed a medley of "<a href="Cruel%20Summer%20%28song%29">Cruel Summer</a>", "<a href="Love%20in%20the%20First%20Degree">Love in the First Degree</a>" and "<a href="Venus%20%28Shocking%20Blue%20song%29">Venus</a>".
A four-track digital-only EP "<a href="Now%20or%20Never%20%28Bananarama%20EP%29">Now or Never</a>" was released independently by the group on 21 September 2012 to coincide with the 30th anniversary of the group and the launch of their <a href="Hard%20Rock%20Cafe">Hard Rock Cafe</a> "<a href="Pinktober">Pinktober</a>" US tour. Apart from two versions of the song "Now or Never" the EP contains two new songs — one entitled "La La Love", the other one being a cover version of <a href="Maroon%205">Maroon 5</a>/<a href="Christina%20Aguilera">Christina Aguilera</a>'s "<a href="Moves%20Like%20Jagger">Moves Like Jagger</a>". Via iTunes, "<a href="Movin%27%20On%20%28Bananarama%20song%29">Movin' On</a> 2012" was available for a limited time as a bonus track.
In March 2013, Dallin posted on <a href="Twitter">Twitter</a> that she and Woodward were writing new tracks together. On 11 April, she announced that four tracks were completed and that there were "six to go". Since then, Bananarama have performed at different events in Poland (23 April), Germany (4 May — Kult am Kalkberg) and the UK (18 May - <a href="Let%27s%20Rock%20The%20Moor%21">Let's Rock The Moor!</a>; 25 May — Birmingham Pride).
On 28 October 2013, Bananarama's first six albums "<a href="Deep%20Sea%20Skiving">Deep Sea Skiving</a>", "<a href="Bananarama%20%28album%29">Bananarama</a>", "<a href="True%20Confessions%20%28album%29">True Confessions</a>", "<a href="Wow%21%20%28Bananarama%20album%29">Wow!</a>", "<a href="Pop%20Life%20%28Bananarama%20album%29">Pop Life</a>" and "<a href="Please%20Yourself">Please Yourself</a>" were reissued by Edsel Records, each of them consisting of Deluxe 2CDs plus DVD. Bananarama are also confirmed to perform in 2014 at Let's Rock Bristol! (7 June), Let's Rock Leeds! (21 June) and Let's Rock Southampton! (12 July). On 9 November 2013, Bananarama revealed on the BBC show "<a href="Pointless%20Celebrities">Pointless Celebrities</a>" that they were recording a new album in Nashville and that it would be influenced by country and pop. In March 2015, Edsel Records released "<a href="Megarama">Megarama</a>", a 3CD collection of remixes that was followed in August with a 33CD singles collection boxset entitled "<a href="In%20A%20Bunch">In A Bunch</a>", which contains all single releases from "<a href="Aie%20a%20Mwana">Aie a Mwana</a>" right through to "<a href="More%2C%20More%2C%20More">More, More, More</a>". In 2016 Bananarama toured Australia in February and showcased their new song "Got to get away".

</doc>
<doc id="90646" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90646" title="Dan Wédo">
Dan Wédo

In <a href="Haitian%20Vodou">Vodou</a>, Dan Wédo is a loa of the waters and is in the form of a great serpent.
He is syncretized with the image of <a href="Louis%20IX%20of%20France">St. Louis IX</a>, a King of <a href="France">France</a> (1226-1270) who died of disease while on crusade. St. Louis is usually depicted in armor and crowned.

</doc>
<doc id="90647" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90647" title="Robert M. Gagné">
Robert M. Gagné

Robert Mills Gagné (August 21, 1916 – April 28, 2002) was an <a href="United%20States">American</a> <a href="educational%20psychology">educational psychologist</a> best known for his "<a href="Conditions%20of%20Learning">Conditions of Learning</a>". Gagné pioneered the science of instruction during <a href="World%20War%20II">World War II</a> when he worked with the Army Air Corps training pilots. He went on to develop a series of studies and works that simplified and explained what he and others believed to be 'good instruction.' Gagné was also involved in applying concepts of instructional theory to the design of computer-based <a href="training">training</a> and <a href="multimedia">multimedia</a>-based learning..
Gagné's work is sometimes summarized as the Gagné assumption. The assumption is that different types of learning exist, and that different instructional conditions are most likely to bring about these different types of learning.
In high school at North Andover, Massachusetts, he decided to study psychology and perhaps be a psychologist after reading psychological texts. In his valedictory speech of 1932, he said the science of psychology should be used to relieve the burdens of human life. He had a scholarship to <a href="Yale%20University">Yale University</a>, and received A.B. in 1937. In graduate work at <a href="Brown%20University">Brown University</a>, he studied "conditioned operate response" of white rats under various conditions as a part of his Ph. D. thesis. His first college teaching job in 1940, at Connecticut College for Women. 
His initial studies of people rather than rats were interrupted by <a href="World%20War%20II">World War II</a>. In the first year of war, at Psychological Research Unit No. 1, Maxwell Field, Alabama, he administered and scored aptitude tests to choose and sort aviation cadets. Thereafter, he was assigned to officer school in Miami Beach. He was commissioned a second lieutenant, and assigned to School of Aviation Medicine, Randolph Field, Fort Worth, Texas.
After the war, he held a temporary faculty position at <a href="Florida%20State%20University">Florida State University</a>. He returned to Connecticut College for Women. In 1949, he accepted an offer to join the US Air Force organization that became the Air Force Personnel and Training Research Center, where he was research director of the Perceptual and Motor Skills Laboratory. In 1958, he returned to academia as professor at <a href="Princeton%20University">Princeton University</a>, where his research shifted focus to the learning of problem solving and the learning of mathematics. In 1962, he joined the American Institutes for Research, where he wrote his first book, "<a href="The%20Conditions%20of%20Learning">The Conditions of Learning</a>." He spent additional time in academia at the University of California, Berkeley, where he worked with graduate students. With W. K. Roher, he presented a paper, "Instructional Psychology", to the Annual Review of Psychology.
In 1969, he found a lasting home at Florida State University. He collaborated with L. J. Briggs on "Principles of Learning". He published the second and third editions of "The Conditions of Learning." 
Gagné's widow, Pat, is a biologist. They have a son, Sam, and daughter, Ellen. Non-professional pursuits included constructing wood furniture and reading modern fiction. In 1993, he retired to <a href="Signal%20Mountain%2C%20Tennessee">Signal Mountain, Tennessee</a> with his wife.
Gagné's theory stipulates that there are several types and levels of learning, and each of these types and levels requires instruction that is tailored to meet the needs of the pupil. While Gagne's learning blueprint can cover all aspects of learning, the focus of the theory is on the retention and honing of intellectual skills. The theory has been applied to the design of instruction in all fields, though in its original formulation special attention was given to military training settings.
Each category requires different methods in order for the particular skill set to be learned.
In 1956, based on the degree of complexity of the mental process, the American educational psychologist Robert M. Gagné suggested a system of analyzing different conditions or levels of learning from simple to complex. According to Gagne the higher order of learning in the hierarchy is built upon the lower levels, requiring greater amount of previous knowledge for progressing successfully. To analyze final capability into subordinate skills in an order such that the lower- levels can be predicted for positive transfer of higher level learning. The lower four orders focus on the behavioral aspects of learning whilst the higher four focus on the cognitive aspects. In his original study on Instruction, through a study derived from an analysis of learning of a task of constructing formulas for the sums of number series. Gagne attributed Individual differences or differences in intelligence in learning.
Signal learning: Is the same as the <a href="Classical%20conditioning">Classical conditioning</a> of behavioral <a href="Psychologist">Psychologist</a> Pavlov. Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.
Stimulus-Response Learning: (also known as <a href="Trial%20and%20error">Trial and error</a>) is a fundamental method of solving problems.It is characterized by repeated, varied attempts which are continued until success,or until the agent stops trying. Here there is strong bond between S-R theory taking place.
Chaining: <a href="Chaining">Chaining</a> is a procedure used in behavioral psychology, it involves reinforcing individual responses occurring in a sequence to form a complex behavior. It is a process of connecting a set of individual stimulus response in sequential order.
There are two different types of chains: homogeneous and heterogeneous. The prior homogeneous chains occur when the form of response is similar in each element. By contrast, a heterogeneous chain requires different types of responses for each link.
Verbal Association Learning: is connected to Chain learning by using words. Here the learner is able to verbalize the acquired knowledge and intellectual skills in a highly organized manner."Learning Hierarchy". In another interpretation It is a form of associate learning called "paired association" such as learning the meanings of a word by splitting the word.
Discrimination Learning: is the ability to distinguish or discriminate one chain from another. In this the learner can distinguish one stimulus from another and respond as per the change in stimulus. The process is made more difficult by the act of interference, whereby one piece of learning affects or inhibits the other.
Concept Learning: is the learning of a generalized idea. In this the subject acquires the ability to understand the common but variable properties of a concept. "Concept" stands for generalized idea of a group of stimuli. In concept learning, the change in behavior as a result of learning is not controlled by a particular stimulus but by the abstract idea of each stimulus.
Rule Learning: Chaining of two or more concepts is involved in learning a Rule. This requires higher level cognition process. It involves building relationship among two or more concepts before learning higher order rule that is enveloping them.
Problem solving: Problem solving is the highest level cognitive process, it is formulating of new and complex rules and procedure for the purpose of solving the problem. Problem solving leads to permanent change in the learner’s capabilities where in the learner has learned something more than learning of parts.
Skills are to be learned at the lowest level and mastered before proceeding. An instructor should use positive reinforcement and repetition, with each new skill building upon previously acquired skills.
The purpose is to supply data on feasibility and efficiency to develop and improve the course.
Evaluation is concerned with the effectiveness of the course or program regarding the student’s performance. Based on the student's performance, measures are taken of the kind of student capabilities the program is intended to establish.
When objectively analyzing the condition for learning Gagné says: “Since the purpose of instruction is learning, the central focus for rational derivation of instructional techniques is the human learner. Development of rationally sound instructional procedures must take into account learner characteristics such as initiate capacities, experimental maturity, and current knowledge states. Such factors become parameters of the design of any particular program of instruction” 

</doc>
<doc id="90649" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90649" title="Husum">
Husum

Husum (<a href="North%20Frisian%20language">North Frisian</a>: "Hüsem") is the capital of the "Kreis" (district) <a href="Nordfriesland">Nordfriesland</a> in <a href="Schleswig-Holstein">Schleswig-Holstein</a>, <a href="Germany">Germany</a>. The town was the birthplace of the novelist <a href="Theodor%20Storm">Theodor Storm</a>, who coined the epithet "the grey town by the sea". It is also the home of the annual international piano festival "Raritäten der Klaviermusik" (Rarities of Piano Music) founded in 1986.
Husum was first mentioned as "Husembro" in 1252, when king <a href="Abel%20of%20Denmark">Abel</a> was murdered.
Like most towns on the <a href="North%20Sea">North Sea</a>, Husum was ever strongly influenced by storm tides. In 1362 a disastrous storm tide, the "<a href="Grote%20Mandrenke">Grote Mandrenke</a>" flooded the town and carved out the inland harbour. Before this date Husum was not situated directly on the coast. The people of the city took advantage of this opportunity and built a marketplace, which led to a great economic upturn.
Between 1372 and 1398 the population of Husum grew rapidly, and two villages, "Oster-Husum" (East-Husum) and "Wester-Husum" (West-Husum), were founded.
The name "Husum" is first mentioned in 1409. It is shown on the <a href="Carta%20Marina">Carta Marina</a> in the Frisian form of Husem.
Husum is located by the <a href="North%20Sea">North Sea</a>; 82 km W of <a href="Kiel">Kiel</a>, 139 km NW of <a href="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> and 43 km SW of <a href="Flensburg">Flensburg</a>.
Being a tourist resort and the gate to the <a href="North%20Frisian%20Islands">North Frisian Islands</a>, Husum offers many cultural features.
This international festival of rare piano music, specialising in unknown classical piano music, was founded in 1986 by Peter Froundjian, and takes place in the town's castle.
The <a href="Spielmannszug%20R%C3%B6demis">Spielmannszug Rödemis</a> is a famous <a href="marching%20band">marching band</a> from the district of Rödemis. Husum is also home of two football clubs, the "Husumer SV" and the "Rödemisser SV". Husum Cricket Club is based at the <a href="Mikkelberg-Kunst-und-Cricket%20Center">Mikkelberg-Kunst-und-Cricket Center</a> which has in the past hosted international women's <a href="cricket">cricket</a> matches. The ground is located in nearby <a href="Hattstedt">Hattstedt</a>.
Husum is <a href="town%20twinning">twinned</a> with:
<a href="Husum%20%28Germany%29%20station">Husum station</a> is located on the <a href="Westerland%2C%20Germany">Westerland</a>–<a href="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> line (<a href="Marsh%20Railway">Marsh Railway</a>), the <a href="Husum%E2%80%93Bad%20St.%20Peter-Ording%20railway">Husum–Bad St. Peter-Ording line</a> to the <a href="Eiderstedt">Eiderstedt</a> peninsula and the <a href="Husum%E2%80%93Kiel%20railway">Husum–Jübek line</a>, which connects to the <a href="Neum%C3%BCnster%E2%80%93Flensburg%20railway">Neumünster–Flensburg line</a> and Kiel.

</doc>
<doc id="90653" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90653" title="Alberto Mercado">
Alberto Mercado

Alberto Mercado (born January 2, 1961 in <a href="Cayey%2C%20Puerto%20Rico">Cayey, Puerto Rico</a>) was a Jr. <a href="Featherweight">Featherweight</a> <a href="boxing">boxer</a> who was on the verge of fighting for a world title at least twice in his career.
Mercado was one of only three <a href="United%20States">American</a> citizens who challenged the boycott of the <a href="1980%20Summer%20Olympics">1980 Olympics</a> celebrated in <a href="Moscow%2C%20Russia">Moscow, Russia</a>, competing in boxing for <a href="Puerto%20Rico">Puerto Rico</a> after having won the gold medal at the <a href="Boxing%20at%20the%201979%20Pan%20American%20Games">1979 Pan American Games</a>. The other two were also representants from Puerto Rico and boxers: <a href="Luis%20Pizarro">Luis Pizarro</a> and <a href="Jos%C3%A9%20Angel%20Molina">José Angel Molina</a>.
In the professional ranks Mercado had a winning record, but also had some bad luck. He lost to <a href="John%20Montes">John Montes</a> in a <a href="United%20States%20Boxing%20Association">USBA</a> title try on points, and on a fight to decide the <a href="International%20Boxing%20Federation">IBF</a>'s #1 challenger, he lost by a knockout in 7 rounds to eventual world champion <a href="Antonio%20Rivera">Antonio Rivera</a>, after leading the fight on all scorecards at the end of round 6.
Mercado worked as a fireman in <a href="Dade%20County%2C%20Florida">Dade County, Florida</a> for many years. He used to train at the famous <a href="Bairoa%20Gym">Bairoa Gym</a> in <a href="Caguas%2C%20Puerto%20Rico">Caguas, Puerto Rico</a>, but he resided in <a href="Cayey">Cayey</a> during his years as a top boxing contender.
He had a professional record of 31 wins, 14 losses and 1 draw (tie), with 27 wins by <a href="knockout">knockout</a>.
Mercado is currently working at the University of Puerto Rico at Cayey.
<br>

</doc>
<doc id="90655" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90655" title="Throat">
Throat

In <a href="vertebrate">vertebrate</a> <a href="anatomy">anatomy</a>, the throat () is the anterior part of the <a href="neck">neck</a>, positioned in front of the <a href="vertebra">vertebra</a>. It contains the <a href="Human%20pharynx">pharynx</a> and <a href="larynx">larynx</a>. An important section of it is the <a href="epiglottis">epiglottis</a>, which is a flap separating the <a href="esophagus">esophagus</a> from the <a href="trachea">trachea</a> (windpipe) preventing food and drink being inhaled into the lungs. The throat contains various <a href="blood%20vessel">blood vessel</a>s, pharyngeal muscles, the <a href="adenoid">nasopharyngeal tonsil</a>, the tonsils, the palatine uvula, the trachea, the <a href="esophagus">esophagus</a>, and the vocal chords. Mammal throats consist of two bones, the <a href="hyoid%20bone">hyoid bone</a> and the <a href="clavicle">clavicle</a>. The "throat" is sometimes thought to be synonymous for the <a href="isthmus%20of%20the%20fauces">isthmus of the fauces</a>.
It works with the mouth, ears and nose, as well as a number of other parts of the body. Its pharynx is connected to the mouth, allowing speech to occur, and food and liquid to pass down the throat. It is joined to the nose by the <a href="nasopharynx">nasopharynx</a> at the top of the throat, and to ear by its <a href="Eustachian%20tube">Eustachian tube</a>. The throat's trachea carries inhaled air to the <a href="bronchi">bronchi</a> of the lungs. The esophagus carries food through the throat to the stomach. Adenoids and tonsils help prevent infection and are composed of lymph tissue. The larynx contains vocal chords, the epiglottis (preventing food/liquid inhalation), and an area known as the subglottic larynx—the narrowest section of the upper part of the throat. In the larynx, the vocal chords consist of two membranes that act according to the pressure of the air.
The "Jugulum" is a low part of the throat, located slightly above the breast. The term "Jugulum" is reflected both by the internal and external <a href="jugular%20vein">jugular vein</a>s, which pass through the "Jugulum".

</doc>
<doc id="90664" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90664" title="Manifest destiny">
Manifest destiny

In the 19th century, Manifest Destiny was a widely held belief in the <a href="United%20States">United States</a> that American settlers were destined to expand throughout the continent. Historians have for the most part agreed that there are three basic themes to Manifest Destiny:
Historian <a href="Frederick%20Merk">Frederick Merk</a> says this concept was born out of "a sense of mission to redeem the Old World by high example ... generated by the potentialities of a new earth for building a new heaven".
Historians have emphasized that "Manifest Destiny" was a contested concept—Democrats endorsed the idea but many prominent Americans (such as <a href="Abraham%20Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, <a href="Ulysses%20S.%20Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>, and most <a href="Whig%20Party%20%28United%20States%29">Whigs</a>) rejected it. Historian <a href="Daniel%20Walker%20Howe">Daniel Walker Howe</a> writes, "American imperialism did not represent an American consensus; it provoked bitter dissent within the national polity... "Whigs" saw America's moral mission as one of democratic example rather than one of conquest."
Newspaper editor <a href="John%20L.%20O%27Sullivan">John O'Sullivan</a> coined the term Manifest Destiny in 1845 to describe the essence of this mindset, which was a rhetorical tone. It was used by <a href="History%20of%20the%20Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29">Democrats</a> in the 1840s to justify the <a href="Mexican%E2%80%93American%20War">war with Mexico</a> and it was also used to divide half of <a href="Oregon%20country">Oregon</a> with the <a href="United%20Kingdom%20of%20Great%20Britain%20and%20Ireland">United Kingdom</a>. But Manifest Destiny always limped along because of its internal limitations and the issue of slavery, says Merk. It never became a national priority. By 1843 <a href="John%20Quincy%20Adams">John Quincy Adams</a>, originally a major supporter of the concept underlying manifest destiny, had changed his mind and repudiated expansionism because it meant the expansion of slavery in Texas.
Merk concludes:
There was never a set of principles defining manifest destiny therefore Manifest Destiny was always a general idea rather than a specific policy made with a motto. Ill-defined but keenly felt, manifest destiny was an expression of conviction in the morality and value of expansionism that complemented other popular ideas of the era, including <a href="American%20exceptionalism">American exceptionalism</a> and <a href="Romantic%20nationalism">Romantic nationalism</a>. <a href="Andrew%20Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a>, who spoke of "extending the area of freedom", typified the conflation of America's potential greatness, the nation's budding sense of Romantic self-identity, and its expansion.
Yet Jackson would not be the only president to elaborate on the principles underlying manifest destiny. Owing in part to the lack of a definitive narrative outlining its rationale, proponents offered divergent or seemingly conflicting viewpoints. While many writers focused primarily upon American expansionism, be it into Mexico or across the Pacific, others saw the term as a call to example. Without an agreed upon interpretation, much less an elaborated political philosophy, these conflicting views of America's destiny were never resolved. This variety of possible meanings was summed up by Ernest Lee Tuveson, who writes:
A vast complex of ideas, policies, and actions is comprehended under the phrase "Manifest Destiny". They are not, as we should expect, all compatible, nor do they come from any one source. 
Journalist <a href="John%20L.%20O%27Sullivan">John L. O'Sullivan</a>, an influential advocate for <a href="Jacksonian%20democracy">Jacksonian democracy</a> and a complex character described by <a href="Julian%20Hawthorne">Julian Hawthorne</a> as "always full of grand and world-embracing schemes", wrote an article in 1839, which, while not using the term "manifest destiny", did predict a "divine destiny" for the United States based upon values such as equality, rights of conscience, and personal enfranchisement "to establish on earth the moral dignity and salvation of man". This destiny was not explicitly territorial, but O'Sullivan predicted that the United States would be one of a "Union of many Republics" sharing those values.
Six years later, in 1845, O'Sullivan wrote another essay titled "Annexation" in the "Democratic Review", in which he first used the phrase "manifest destiny". In this article he urged the U.S. to annex the <a href="Republic%20of%20Texas">Republic of Texas</a>, not only because Texas desired this, but because it was "our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by <a href="Divine%20providence">Providence</a> for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions". Overcoming Whig opposition, Democrats <a href="Annexation%20of%20Texas">annexed Texas</a> in 1845. O'Sullivan's first usage of the phrase "manifest destiny" attracted little attention.
O'Sullivan's second use of the phrase became extremely influential. On December 27, 1845, in his newspaper the "New York Morning News", O'Sullivan addressed the <a href="Oregon%20boundary%20dispute">ongoing boundary dispute</a> with Britain. O'Sullivan argued that the United States had the right to claim "the whole of Oregon":
And that claim is by the right of our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty and federated self-government entrusted to us.
That is, O'Sullivan believed that Providence had given the United States a mission to spread <a href="republican%20democracy">republican democracy</a> ("the great experiment of liberty"). Because Britain would not spread democracy, thought O'Sullivan, British claims to the territory should be overruled. O'Sullivan believed that manifest destiny was a moral ideal (a "higher law") that superseded other considerations.
O'Sullivan's original conception of manifest destiny was not a call for territorial expansion by force. He believed that the expansion of the United States would happen without the direction of the U.S. government or the involvement of the military. After Americans emigrated to new regions, they would set up new democratic governments, and then seek admission to the United States, as Texas had done. In 1845, O'Sullivan predicted that California would follow this pattern next, and that Canada would eventually request annexation as well. He disapproved of the <a href="Mexican%E2%80%93American%20War">Mexican–American War</a> in 1846, although he came to believe that the outcome would be beneficial to both countries.
Ironically, O'Sullivan's term became popular only after it was criticized by <a href="Whig%20Party%20%28United%20States%29">Whig</a> opponents of the <a href="James%20K.%20Polk">Polk administration</a>. Whigs denounced manifest destiny, arguing, "that the designers and supporters of schemes of conquest, to be carried on by this government, are engaged in treason to our Constitution and Declaration of Rights, giving aid and comfort to the enemies of republicanism, in that they are advocating and preaching the doctrine of the right of conquest". On January 3, 1846, Representative <a href="Robert%20Charles%20Winthrop">Robert Winthrop</a> ridiculed the concept in Congress, saying "I suppose the right of a manifest destiny to spread will not be admitted to exist in any nation except the universal Yankee nation". Winthrop was the first in a long line of critics who suggested that advocates of manifest destiny were citing "Divine Providence" for justification of actions that were motivated by chauvinism and self-interest. Despite this criticism, expansionists embraced the phrase, which caught on so quickly that its origin was soon forgotten.
Historian William E. Weeks has noted that three key themes were usually touched upon by advocates of manifest destiny:
The origin of the first theme, later known as <a href="American%20Exceptionalism">American Exceptionalism</a>, was often traced to America's <a href="Puritan">Puritan</a> heritage, particularly <a href="John%20Winthrop">John Winthrop</a>'s famous "<a href="City%20upon%20a%20Hill">City upon a Hill</a>" sermon of 1630, in which he called for the establishment of a virtuous community that would be a shining example to the <a href="Old%20World">Old World</a>. In his influential 1776 pamphlet "<a href="Common%20Sense%20%28pamphlet%29">Common Sense</a>", <a href="Thomas%20Paine">Thomas Paine</a> echoed this notion, arguing that the <a href="American%20Revolution">American Revolution</a> provided an opportunity to create a new, better society:
We have it in our power to begin the world over again. A situation, similar to the present, hath not happened since the days of Noah until now. The birthday of a new world is at hand...
Many Americans agreed with Paine, and came to believe that the United States' virtue was a result of its special experiment in freedom and democracy. Thomas Jefferson, in a letter to <a href="James%20Monroe">James Monroe</a>, wrote, "it is impossible not to look forward to distant times when our rapid multiplication will expand itself beyond those limits, and cover the whole northern, if not the southern continent." To Americans in the decades that followed their proclaimed freedom for mankind, embodied in the Declaration of Independence, could only be described as the inauguration of "a new time scale" because the world would look back and define history as events that took place before, and after, the Declaration of Independence. It followed that Americans owed to the world an obligation to expand and preserve these beliefs.
The second theme's origination is less precise. A popular expression of America's mission was elaborated by President Abraham Lincoln's description in his December 1, 1862, message to Congress. He described the United States as "the last, best hope of Earth". The "mission" of the United States was further elaborated during Lincoln's <a href="Gettysburg%20Address">Gettysburg Address</a>, in which he interpreted the <a href="American%20Civil%20War">Civil War</a> as a struggle to determine if any nation with democratic ideals could survive; this has been called by historian Robert Johannsen "the most enduring statement of America's Manifest Destiny and mission".
The third theme can be viewed as a natural outgrowth of the belief that God had a direct influence in the foundation and further actions of the United States. <a href="Clinton%20Rossiter">Clinton Rossiter</a>, a scholar, described this view as summing "that God, at the proper stage in the march of history, called forth certain hardy souls from the old and privilege-ridden nations ... and that in bestowing his grace He also bestowed a peculiar responsibility". Americans presupposed that they were not only divinely elected to maintain the North American continent, but also to "spread abroad the fundamental principles stated in the Bill of Rights". In many cases this meant neighboring colonial holdings and countries were seen as obstacles rather than the destiny God had provided the United States.
<a href="John%20Mack%20Faragher">Faragher's</a> analysis of the political polarization between the <a href="History%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Democratic%20Party">Democratic Party</a> and the <a href="Whig%20Party%20%28United%20States%29">Whig Party</a> is that:
Another possible influence is racial predominance, namely the idea that the American Anglo-Saxon race was "separate, innately superior" and "destined to bring good government, commercial prosperity and Christianity to the American continents and the world". This view also held that "inferior races were doomed to subordinate status or extinction." This was used to justify "the enslavement of the blacks and the expulsion and possible extermination of the Indians".
With the <a href="Louisiana%20Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> in 1803, which doubled the size of the United States, <a href="Thomas%20Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> set the stage for the continental expansion of the United States. Many began to see this as the beginning of a new <a href="providentialism">providential</a> mission: If the United States was successful as a "<a href="City%20upon%20a%20Hill">shining city upon a hill</a>", people in other countries would seek to establish their own democratic republics.
However, not all Americans or their political leaders believed that the United States was a divinely favored nation, or thought that it ought to expand. For example, many <a href="Whig%20Party%20%28United%20States%29">Whigs</a> opposed territorial expansion based on the Democratic claim that the United States was destined to serve as a virtuous example to the rest of the world, and also had a divine obligation to spread its superordinate political system and a way of life throughout North American continent. Many in the Whig party "were fearful of spreading out too widely", and they "adhered to the concentration of national authority in a limited area". In July 1848, <a href="Alexander%20H.%20Stephens">Alexander Stephens</a> denounced <a href="James%20K.%20Polk">President Polk's</a> expansionist interpretation of America's future as "mendacious".
In the mid‑19th century, expansionism, especially southward toward Cuba, also faced opposition from those Americans who were trying to abolish slavery. As more territory was added to the United States in the following decades, "extending the area of freedom" in the minds of southerners also meant extending the institution of slavery. That is why slavery became one of the central issues in the continental expansion of the United States before the Civil War.
Before and during the Civil War both sides claimed that America's destiny were rightfully their own. Lincoln opposed anti-immigrant <a href="Nativism%20%28politics%29">nativism</a>, and the imperialism of manifest destiny as both unjust and unreasonable. He objected to the Mexican War and believed each of these disordered forms of patriotism threatened the inseparable moral and fraternal bonds of liberty and Union that he sought to perpetuate through a patriotic love of country guided by wisdom and critical self-awareness. Lincoln's "", June 6, 1852, provides the most cogent expression of his reflective patriotism.
The phrase "manifest destiny" is most often associated with the <a href="United%20States%20territorial%20acquisitions">territorial expansion of the United States</a> from 1812 to 1860. This era, from the end of the <a href="War%20of%201812">War of 1812</a> to the beginning of the <a href="American%20Civil%20War">American Civil War</a>, has been called the "age of manifest destiny". During this time, the United States expanded to the Pacific Ocean—"from sea to shining sea"—largely defining the borders of the <a href="contiguous%20United%20States">contiguous United States</a> as they are today.
One of the causes of the War of 1812 may have been an American desire to annex or threaten to annex British Canada in order to stop the Indian raids into the Midwest, expel Britain from North America, and gain additional land. The American victories at the <a href="Battle%20of%20Lake%20Erie">Battle of Lake Erie</a> and the <a href="Battle%20of%20the%20Thames">Battle of the Thames</a> in 1813 ended the Indian raids and removed one of the reasons for annexation. The American failure to occupy any significant part of Canada prevented them from annexing it for the second reason, which was largely ended by the <a href="Era%20of%20Good%20Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a>, which ensued after the war between Britain and the United States.
To end the <a href="War%20of%201812">War of 1812</a> <a href="John%20Quincy%20Adams">John Quincy Adams</a>, <a href="Henry%20Clay">Henry Clay</a> and <a href="Albert%20Gallatin">Albert Gallatin</a> (former Treasury Secretary and a leading expert on Indians) and the other American diplomats negotiated the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Ghent">Treaty of Ghent</a> in 1814 with Britain. They rejected the British plan to set up an Indian state in U.S. territory south of the Great Lakes. They explained the American policy toward acquisition of Indian lands:
The 19th-century belief that the United States would eventually encompass all of North America is known as "continentalism". An early proponent of this idea was <a href="John%20Quincy%20Adams">John Quincy Adams</a>, a leading figure in U.S. expansion between the <a href="Louisiana%20Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> in 1803 and the <a href="James%20K.%20Polk">Polk administration</a> in the 1840s. In 1811, Adams wrote to <a href="John%20Adams">his father</a>:
The whole continent of North America appears to be destined by Divine Providence to be peopled by one "nation", speaking one language, professing one general system of religious and political principles, and accustomed to one general tenor of social usages and customs. For the common happiness of them all, for their peace and prosperity, I believe it is indispensable that they should be associated in one federal Union.
Adams did much to further this idea. He orchestrated the <a href="Treaty%20of%201818">Treaty of 1818</a>, which established the <a href="United%20States%E2%80%93Canada%20border">United States–Canada border</a> as far west as the Rocky Mountains, and provided for the joint occupation of the region known in American history as the <a href="Oregon%20Country">Oregon Country</a> and in British and Canadian history as the <a href="New%20Caledonia%20%28Canada%29">New Caledonia</a> and <a href="Columbia%20District">Columbia District</a>s. He negotiated the <a href="Adams%E2%80%93On%C3%ADs%20Treaty">Transcontinental Treaty</a> in 1819, purchasing Florida from Spain and extending the U.S. border with Spanish Mexico all the way to the Pacific Ocean. And he formulated the <a href="Monroe%20Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a> of 1823, which warned Europe that the <a href="Western%20Hemisphere">Western Hemisphere</a> was no longer open for European colonization.
The Monroe Doctrine and manifest destiny were closely related ideas: historian Walter McDougall calls manifest destiny a corollary of the Monroe Doctrine, because while the Monroe Doctrine did not specify expansion, expansion was necessary in order to enforce the Doctrine. Concerns in the United States that European powers (especially Great Britain) were seeking to acquire colonies or greater influence in North America led to calls for expansion in order to prevent this. In his influential 1935 study of manifest destiny, Albert Weinberg wrote, "the expansionism of the [1830s] arose as a defensive effort to forestall the encroachment of Europe in North America."
Manifest destiny played its most important role in, and was coined during the course of, the <a href="Oregon%20boundary%20dispute">Oregon boundary dispute</a> with Britain. The <a href="Anglo-American%20Convention%20of%201818">Anglo-American Convention of 1818</a> had provided for the joint occupation of the <a href="Oregon%20Country">Oregon Country</a>, and thousands of Americans migrated there in the 1840s over the <a href="Oregon%20Trail">Oregon Trail</a>. The British rejected a proposal by President <a href="John%20Tyler">John Tyler</a> to divide the region along the <a href="49th%20parallel%20north">49th parallel</a>, and instead proposed a boundary line farther south along the <a href="Columbia%20River">Columbia River</a>, which would have made most of what later became the state of <a href="Washington%20%28state%29">Washington</a> part of British North America. Advocates of manifest destiny protested and called for the annexation of the entire Oregon Country up to the Alaska line (54°40ʹ N). Presidential candidate <a href="James%20K.%20Polk">James K. Polk</a> used this popular outcry to his advantage, and the Democrats called for the annexation of "All Oregon" in the <a href="U.S.%20presidential%20election%2C%201844">1844 U.S. Presidential election</a>.
As president, however, Polk sought compromise and renewed the earlier offer to divide the territory in half along the 49th parallel, to the dismay of the most ardent advocates of manifest destiny. When the British refused the offer, American expansionists responded with slogans such as "The Whole of Oregon or None!" and "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!", referring to the northern border of the region. (The latter slogan is often mistakenly described as having been a part of the 1844 presidential campaign.) When Polk moved to terminate the joint occupation agreement, the British finally agreed to divide the region along the 49th parallel in early 1846, keeping the lower Columbia basin as part of the United States, and the dispute was settled by the <a href="Oregon%20Treaty">Oregon Treaty</a> of 1846, which the administration was able to sell to Congress because the United States was about to begin the <a href="Mexican%E2%80%93American%20war">Mexican–American war</a>, and the president and others argued it would be foolish to also fight the British Empire.
Despite the earlier clamor for "All Oregon", the treaty was popular in the United States and was easily ratified by the Senate. The most fervent advocates of manifest destiny had not prevailed along the northern border because, according to <a href="Reginald%20C.%20Stuart">Reginald Stuart</a>, "the compass of manifest destiny pointed west and southwest, not north, despite the use of the term 'continentalism'."
Manifest Destiny played an important role in the expansion of Texas and American relationship with <a href="History%20of%20Mexico">Mexico</a>. In 1836, the <a href="Republic%20of%20Texas">Republic of Texas</a> <a href="Texas%20Declaration%20of%20Independence">declared independence</a> from Mexico and, after the <a href="Texas%20Revolution">Texas Revolution</a>, sought to join the United States as a new state. This was an idealized process of expansion that had been advocated from Jefferson to O'Sullivan: newly democratic and independent states would request entry into the United States, rather than the United States extending its government over people who did not want it. The annexation of Texas was controversial as it would add another slave state to the Union. Presidents Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren declined Texas's offer to join the United States in part because the slavery issue threatened to divide the Democratic Party.
Before the election of 1844, Whig candidate <a href="Henry%20Clay">Henry Clay</a> and the presumed Democratic candidate, former President Van Buren, both declared themselves opposed to the annexation of Texas, each hoping to keep the troublesome topic from becoming a campaign issue. This unexpectedly led to Van Buren being dropped by the Democrats in favor of Polk, who favored annexation. Polk tied the Texas annexation question with the Oregon dispute, thus providing a sort of regional compromise on expansion. (Expansionists in the North were more inclined to promote the occupation of Oregon, while Southern expansionists focused primarily on the annexation of Texas.) Although elected by a very slim margin, Polk proceeded as if his victory had been a mandate for expansion.
After the election of Polk, but before he took office, Congress approved the <a href="Texas%20annexation">annexation of Texas</a>. Polk moved to occupy a portion of Texas that had <a href="Texas%20Declaration%20of%20Independence">declared independence from Mexico</a> in 1836, but was still claimed by Mexico. This paved the way for the outbreak of the <a href="Mexican%E2%80%93American%20War">Mexican–American War</a> on April 24, 1846. With American successes on the battlefield, by the summer of 1847 there were calls for the annexation of "All Mexico", particularly among Eastern Democrats, who argued that bringing Mexico into the Union was the best way to ensure future peace in the region.
This was a controversial proposition for two reasons. First, idealistic advocates of manifest destiny like John L. O'Sullivan had always maintained that the laws of the United States should not be imposed on people against their will. The annexation of "All Mexico" would be a violation of this principle. And secondly, the annexation of Mexico was controversial because it would mean extending U.S. citizenship to millions of Mexicans. Senator <a href="John%20C.%20Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a> of <a href="South%20Carolina">South Carolina</a>, who had approved of the annexation of Texas, was opposed to the annexation of Mexico, as well as the "mission" aspect of manifest destiny, for racial reasons. He made these views clear in a speech to Congress on January 4, 1848:
We have never dreamt of incorporating into our Union any but the Caucasian race—the free white race. To incorporate Mexico, would be the very first instance of the kind, of incorporating an Indian race; for more than half of the Mexicans are Indians, and the other is composed chiefly of mixed tribes. I protest against such a union as that! Ours, sir, is the Government of a white race... We are anxious to force free government on all; and I see that it has been urged ... that it is the mission of this country to spread civil and religious liberty over all the world, and especially over this continent. It is a great mistake.
This debate brought to the forefront one of the contradictions of manifest destiny: on the one hand, while identitarian ideas inherent in manifest destiny suggested that Mexicans, as non-whites, would present a threat to white racial integrity and thus were not qualified to become Americans, the "mission" component of manifest destiny suggested that Mexicans would be improved (or "regenerated", as it was then described) by bringing them into American democracy. Identitarianism was used to promote manifest destiny, but, as in the case of Calhoun and the resistance to the "All Mexico" movement, identitarianism was also used to oppose manifest destiny. Conversely, proponents of annexation of "All Mexico" regarded it as an anti-slavery measure.
The controversy was eventually ended by the <a href="Mexican%20Cession">Mexican Cession</a>, which added the territories of <a href="Alta%20California">Alta California</a> and <a href="Santa%20Fe%20de%20Nuevo%20M%C3%A9xico">Nuevo México</a> to the United States, both more sparsely populated than the rest of Mexico. Like the All Oregon movement, the All Mexico movement quickly abated.
Historian <a href="Frederick%20Merk">Frederick Merk</a>, in "Manifest Destiny and Mission in American History: A Reinterpretation" (1963), argued that the failure of the "All Oregon" and "All Mexico" movements indicates that manifest destiny had not been as popular as historians have traditionally portrayed it to have been. Merk wrote that, while belief in the beneficent mission of democracy was central to American history, aggressive "continentalism" were aberrations supported by only a minority of Americans, all of them Democrats. Some Democrats were also opposed; the Democrats of Louisiana opposed annexation of Mexico, while those in Mississippi supported it.
After the Mexican–American War ended in 1848, disagreements over the expansion of slavery made further annexation by conquest too divisive to be official government policy. Some, such as <a href="John%20Quitman">John Quitman</a>, governor of Mississippi, offered what public support they could offer. In one memorable case, Quitman simply explained that the state of Mississippi had "lost" its state arsenal, which began showing up in the hands of filibusters. Yet these isolated cases only solidified opposition in the North as many Northerners were increasingly opposed to what they believed to be efforts by Southern slave owners—and their friends in the North—to expand slavery through <a href="filibuster%20%28military%29">filibustering</a>. <a href="Sarah%20Parker%20Remond">Sarah P. Remond</a> on January 24, 1859, delivered an impassioned speech at <a href="Warrington%2C%20England">Warrington, England</a>, that the connection between filibustering and slave power was clear proof of "the mass of corruption that underlay the whole system of American government". The <a href="Wilmot%20Proviso">Wilmot Proviso</a> and the continued "<a href="Slave%20Power">Slave Power</a>" narratives thereafter, indicated the degree to which manifest destiny had become part of the sectional controversy.
Without official government support the most radical advocates of manifest destiny increasingly turned to <a href="filibuster%20%28military%29">military filibustering</a>. Originally filibuster had come from the Dutch "vrijbuiter" and referred to buccaneers in the West Indies that preyed on Spanish commerce. While there had been some filibustering expeditions into Canada in the late 1830s, it was only by mid-century did filibuster become a definitive term. By then, declared the "<a href="The%20New%20York%20Times">New-York Daily Times</a>" "the fever of Fillibusterism is on our country. Her pulse beats like a hammer at the wrist, and there's a very high color on her face." Millard Fillmore's second annual message to Congress, submitted in December 1851, gave double the amount of space to filibustering activities than the brewing sectional conflict. The eagerness of the filibusters, and the public to support them, had an international hue. Clay's son, diplomat to Portugal, reported that Lisbon had been stirred into a "frenzy" of excitement and were waiting on every dispatch.
Although they were illegal, filibustering operations in the late 1840s and early 1850s were romanticized in the United States. The Democratic Party's national platform included a plank that specifically endorsed William Walker's filibustering in <a href="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>. Wealthy American expansionists financed dozens of expeditions, usually based out of <a href="New%20Orleans">New Orleans</a>, <a href="New%20York%20City">New York</a>, and <a href="San%20Francisco">San Francisco</a>. The primary target of manifest destiny's filibusters was Latin America but there were isolated incidents elsewhere. Mexico was a favorite target of organizations devoted to filibustering, like the Knights of the Golden Circle. William Walker got his start as a filibuster in an ill-advised attempt to separate the Mexican states Sonora and Baja California. <a href="Narciso%20L%C3%B3pez">Narciso López</a>, a near second in fame and success, spent his efforts trying to secure Cuba from the <a href="Spanish%20Empire">Spanish Empire</a>.
The United States had long been interested in acquiring Cuba from the declining <a href="Spanish%20Empire">Spanish Empire</a>. As with Texas, Oregon, and California, American policy makers were concerned that Cuba would fall into British hands, which, according to the thinking of the Monroe Doctrine, would constitute a threat to the interests of the United States. Prompted by John L. O'Sullivan, in 1848 President Polk offered to buy Cuba from Spain for $100 million. Polk feared that filibustering would hurt his effort to buy the island, and so he informed the Spanish of an attempt by the Cuban filibuster Narciso López to seize Cuba by force and annex it to the United States, foiling the plot. Nevertheless, Spain declined to sell the island, which ended Polk's efforts to acquire Cuba. O'Sullivan, on the other hand eventually landed in legal trouble.
Filibustering continued to be a major concern for presidents after Polk. Whigs presidents <a href="Zachary%20Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a> and <a href="Millard%20Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</a> tried to suppress the expeditions. When the Democrats recaptured the White House in 1852 with the election of <a href="Franklin%20Pierce">Franklin Pierce</a>, a filibustering effort by <a href="John%20A.%20Quitman">John A. Quitman</a> to acquire Cuba received the tentative support of the president. Pierce backed off, however, and instead renewed the offer to buy the island, this time for $130 million. When the public learned of the <a href="Ostend%20Manifesto">Ostend Manifesto</a> in 1854, which argued that the United States could seize Cuba by force if Spain refused to sell, this effectively killed the effort to acquire the island. The public now linked expansion with slavery; if manifest destiny had once enjoyed widespread popular approval, this was no longer true.
Filibusters like <a href="William%20Walker%20%28filibuster%29">William Walker</a> continued to garner headlines in the late 1850s, but to little effect. Expansionism was among the various <a href="origins%20of%20the%20American%20Civil%20War">issues that played a role</a> in the coming of the war. With the divisive question of the expansion of slavery, Northerners and Southerners, in effect, were coming to define manifest destiny in different ways, undermining nationalism as a unifying force. According to Frederick Merk, "The doctrine of Manifest Destiny, which in the 1840s had seemed Heaven-sent, proved to have been a bomb wrapped up in idealism."
The Homestead Act of 1862 encouraged 600,000 families to settle the West by giving them land (usually 160 acres) almost free. They had to live on and improve the land for five years. Before the Civil War, Southern leaders opposed the <a href="Homestead%20Acts">Homestead Acts</a> because they feared it would lead to more free states and free territories. After the mass resignation of Southern senators and representatives at the beginning of the war, Congress was subsequently able to pass the Homestead Act.
Manifest destiny had serious consequences for <a href="Native%20Americans%20in%20the%20United%20States">Native Americans</a>, since continental expansion implicitly meant the occupation and annexation of Native American land, sometimes to expand slavery. This ultimately led to the ethnic cleansing of several groups of native peoples via <a href="Indian%20removal">Indian removal</a>. The United States continued the European practice of recognizing only limited land rights of <a href="Indigenous%20peoples%20of%20the%20Americas">indigenous peoples</a>. In a policy formulated largely by <a href="Henry%20Knox">Henry Knox</a>, <a href="Secretary%20of%20War">Secretary of War</a> in the Washington Administration, the U.S. government sought to expand into the west through the purchase of Native American land in treaties. Only the Federal Government could purchase Indian lands and this was done through treaties with tribal leaders. Whether a tribe actually had a decision-making structure capable of making a treaty was a controversial issue. The national policy was for the Indians to join American society and become "civilized", which meant no more wars with neighboring tribes or raids on white settlers or travelers, and a shift from hunting to farming and ranching. Advocates of civilization programs believed that the process of settling native tribes would greatly reduce the amount of land needed by the Native Americans, making more land available for homesteading by white Americans. <a href="Thomas%20Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> believed that while American Indians were the intellectual equals of whites, they had to live like the whites or inevitably be pushed aside by them. Jefferson's belief, rooted in <a href="Age%20of%20Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> thinking, that whites and Native Americans would merge to create a single nation did not last his lifetime, and he began to believe that the natives should emigrate across the <a href="Mississippi%20River">Mississippi River</a> and maintain a separate society, an idea made possible by the <a href="Louisiana%20Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> of 1803.
In the age of manifest destiny, this idea, which came to be known as "<a href="Indian%20removal">Indian removal</a>", gained ground. Humanitarian advocates of removal believed that American Indians would be better off moving away from whites. As historian Reginald Horsman argued in his influential study "Race and Manifest Destiny", racial rhetoric increased during the era of manifest destiny. Americans increasingly believed that Native American ways of life would fade away as the United States expanded. As an example, this idea was reflected in the work of one of America's first great historians, <a href="Francis%20Parkman">Francis Parkman</a>, whose landmark book "<a href="Pontiac%27s%20Rebellion">The Conspiracy of Pontiac</a>" was published in 1851. Parkman wrote that after the British conquest of Canada in 1760, Indians were "destined to melt and vanish before the advancing waves of Anglo-American power, which now rolled westward unchecked and unopposed". Parkman emphasized that the collapse of Indian power in the late 18th century had been swift and was a past event.
As the Civil War faded into history, the term "manifest destiny" experienced a brief revival. Protestant missionary <a href="Josiah%20Strong">Josiah Strong</a>, in his best seller of 1885 <a href="Our%20Country%20%28book%29">"Our Country"</a> argued that the future was devolved upon America since it had perfected the ideals of civil liberty, "a pure spiritual Christianity", and concluded "My plea is not, Save America for America's sake, but, Save America for the world's sake."
In the <a href="U.S.%20presidential%20election%2C%201892">1892 U.S. presidential election</a>, the <a href="History%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Republican%20Party">Republican Party</a> platform proclaimed: "We reaffirm our approval of the <a href="Monroe%20doctrine">Monroe doctrine</a> and believe in the achievement of the manifest destiny of the Republic in its broadest sense." What was meant by "manifest destiny" in this context was not clearly defined, particularly since the Republicans lost the election.
In the <a href="U.S.%20presidential%20election%2C%201896">1896 election</a>, however, the Republicans recaptured the White House and held on to it for the next 16 years. During that time, manifest destiny was cited to promote <a href="history%20of%20United%20States%20overseas%20expansion">overseas expansion</a>. Whether or not this version of manifest destiny was consistent with the continental expansionism of the 1840s was debated at the time, and long afterwards.
For example, when President <a href="William%20McKinley">William McKinley</a> advocated annexation of the <a href="Territory%20of%20Hawaii">Republic of Hawaii</a> in 1898, he said that "We need Hawaii as much and a good deal more than we did California. It is manifest destiny." On the other hand, former President <a href="Grover%20Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a>, a Democrat who had blocked the annexation of Hawaii during his administration, wrote that McKinley's annexation of the territory was a "perversion of our national destiny". Historians continued that debate; some have interpreted American acquisition of other Pacific island groups in the 1890s as an extension of manifest destiny across the <a href="Pacific%20Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>. Others have regarded it as the antithesis of manifest destiny and merely <a href="imperialism">imperialism</a>.
In 1898, the United States intervened in the Cuban insurrection and launched the <a href="Spanish%E2%80%93American%20War">Spanish–American War</a> to force Spain out. According to the terms of the <a href="Treaty%20of%20Paris%20%281898%29">Treaty of Paris</a>, Spain relinquished sovereignty over Cuba and ceded the <a href="The%20Philippines">Philippine Islands</a>, <a href="Puerto%20Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, and <a href="Guam">Guam</a> to the United States. The terms of cession for the Philippines involved a payment of the sum of $20 million by the United States to Spain. The treaty was highly contentious and denounced by <a href="William%20Jennings%20Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a>, who tried to make it a central issue <a href="United%20States%20presidential%20election%2C%201900">in the 1900 election.</a> He was defeated in landslide by McKinley.
The <a href="Teller%20Amendment">Teller Amendment</a>, passed unanimously by the U.S. Senate before the war, which proclaimed Cuba "free and independent", forestalled annexation of the island. The <a href="Platt%20Amendment">Platt Amendment</a> (1902), however, established Cuba as a virtual <a href="protectorate">protectorate</a> of the United States.
The acquisition of <a href="Guam">Guam</a>, <a href="Puerto%20Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, and the <a href="Philippines">Philippines</a> after the war with <a href="Spain">Spain</a> marked a new chapter in U.S. history. Traditionally, territories were acquired by the United States for the purpose of becoming new states on equal footing with already existing states. These islands, however, were acquired as <a href="colonialism">colonies</a> rather than prospective states. The process was validated by the <a href="Insular%20Cases">Insular Cases</a>. The Supreme Court ruled that full constitutional rights did not automatically extend to all areas under American control. Nevertheless, in 1917, Puerto Ricans were all made full American citizens via the <a href="Jones%E2%80%93Shafroth%20Act">Jones Act</a>. This also provided for a popularly elected legislature, a bill of rights and authorized the election of a Resident Commissioner who has a voice (but no vote) in Congress.
According to Frederick Merk, these colonial acquisitions marked a break from the original intention of manifest destiny. Previously, "Manifest Destiny had contained a principle so fundamental that a Calhoun and an O'Sullivan could agree on it—that a people not capable of rising to statehood should never be annexed. That was the principle thrown overboard by the imperialism of 1899." <a href="Albert%20Beveridge">Albert J. Beveridge</a> maintained the contrary at his September 25, 1900, speech in the Auditorium, at Chicago. He declared that the current desire for Cuba and the other acquired territories was identical to the views expressed by Washington, Jefferson and Marshall. Moreover, "the sovereignty of the Stars and Stripes can be nothing but a blessing to any people and to any land." The Philippines was eventually given its independence in 1946; Guam and Puerto Rico have special status to this day, but all their people have United States citizenship.
<a href="Rudyard%20Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a>'s poem "<a href="The%20White%20Man%27s%20Burden">The White Man's Burden</a>", which was subtitled "The United States and the Philippine Islands", was a famous expression of imperialist sentiments, which were common at the time. The nascent <a href="First%20Philippine%20Republic">revolutionary government</a> desirous of independence, however, resisted the United States in the <a href="Philippine%E2%80%93American%20War">Philippine–American War</a> in 1899. After the war began, <a href="William%20Jennings%20Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a>, an opponent of overseas expansion, wrote, Destiny' is not as manifest as it was a few weeks ago."
The belief in an American mission to promote and defend democracy throughout the world, as expounded by <a href="Thomas%20Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> and his "<a href="Empire%20of%20Liberty">Empire of Liberty</a>" and <a href="Abraham%20Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, was continued by Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson. Under Harry Truman (and <a href="Douglas%20MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a>) it was implemented in practice in the American rebuilding of Japan and Germany after World War II. George W. Bush in the 21st century applied it to the Middle East, in Afghanistan and Iraq. Tyner argues that in proclaiming a mission to combat terror, Bush was continuing a long tradition of prophetic presidential action to be the beacon of freedom in the spirit of Manifest Destiny.
After the turn of the nineteenth century to the twentieth, the phrase "manifest destiny" declined in usage, as territorial expansion ceased to be promoted as being a part of America's "destiny". Under President <a href="Theodore%20Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> the role of the United States in the New World was defined, in the 1904 <a href="Roosevelt%20Corollary">Roosevelt Corollary</a> to the <a href="Monroe%20Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a>, as being an "international police power" to secure American interests in the Western Hemisphere. Roosevelt's corollary contained an explicit rejection of territorial expansion. In the past, manifest destiny had been seen as necessary to enforce the Monroe Doctrine in the Western Hemisphere, but now expansionism had been replaced by <a href="interventionism%20%28politics%29">interventionism</a> as a means of upholding the doctrine.
President <a href="Woodrow%20Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> continued the policy of interventionism in the Americas, and attempted to redefine both manifest destiny and America's "mission" on a broader, worldwide scale. Wilson led the United States into <a href="World%20War%26amp%3Bnbsp%3BI">World War I</a> with the argument that "The world must be made safe for democracy." In his 1920 message to Congress after the war, Wilson stated:
... I think we all realize that the day has come when Democracy is being put upon its final test. The Old World is just now suffering from a wanton rejection of the principle of democracy and a substitution of the principle of autocracy as asserted in the name, but without the authority and sanction, of the multitude. This is the time of all others when Democracy should prove its purity and its spiritual power to prevail. It is surely the manifest destiny of the United States to lead in the attempt to make this spirit prevail.
This was the only time a president had used the phrase "manifest destiny" in his annual address. Wilson's version of manifest destiny was a rejection of expansionism and an endorsement (in principle) of <a href="self-determination">self-determination</a>, emphasizing that the United States had a mission to be a world leader for the cause of democracy. This U.S. vision of itself as the leader of the "<a href="Free%20World">Free World</a>" would grow stronger in the 20th century after <a href="World%20War%26amp%3Bnbsp%3BII">World War II</a>, although rarely would it be described as "manifest destiny", as Wilson had done.
"Manifest Destiny" is sometimes used by critics of U.S. foreign policy to characterize interventions in the Middle East and elsewhere. In this usage, "manifest destiny" is interpreted as the underlying cause of what is denounced by some as "<a href="American%20imperialism">American imperialism</a>". The positive phrasing is "nation building", and State Department official Karin Von Hippel notes that the U.S. has "been involved in nation-building and promoting democracy since the middle of the nineteenth century and 'Manifest Destiny.
The legacy is a complex one. The belief in an American mission to promote and defend democracy throughout the world, as expounded by <a href="Thomas%20Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> and his "<a href="Empire%20of%20Liberty">Empire of Liberty</a>", and by <a href="Abraham%20Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, <a href="Woodrow%20Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> and <a href="George%20W.%20Bush">George W. Bush</a>, continues to have an influence on American political ideology. Bush looked at the American success after 1945 in imposing democracy in Japan as a model. Under <a href="Douglas%20MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a>, the Americans "were imbued with a sense of manifest destiny" says historian John Dower.
German geographer <a href="Friedrich%20Ratzel">Friedrich Ratzel</a> visited North America beginning in 1873 and saw the effects of American manifest destiny. Ratzel sympathized with the results of "manifest destiny", but he never used the term. Instead he relied on the <a href="Frontier%20Thesis">Frontier Thesis</a> of <a href="Frederick%20Jackson%20Turner">Frederick Jackson Turner</a>. Ratzel promoted overseas colonies for Germany in Asia and Africa, but not an expansion into Slavic lands. Later German publicists misinterpreted Ratzel to argue for the right of the German race to expand within Europe; that notion was later incorporated into Nazi ideology, as "<a href="Lebensraum">Lebensraum</a>". Harriet Wanklyn (1961) argues that Ratzel's theory was designed to advance science, and that politicians distorted it for political goals.
Authors and literature
Topics

</doc>
<doc id="90665" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90665" title="Holmfirth">
Holmfirth

Holmfirth is a small town on the <a href="A6024%20road">A6024</a> Woodhead Road in the <a href="Holme%20Valley">Holme Valley</a>, within the <a href="Kirklees">Metropolitan Borough of Kirklees</a>, <a href="West%20Yorkshire">West Yorkshire</a>, England. Centred upon the <a href="confluence">confluence</a> of the <a href="River%20Holme">Holme</a> and Ribble rivers, Holmfirth is south of <a href="Huddersfield">Huddersfield</a> and northeast of <a href="Glossop">Glossop</a>. It mostly consists of stone-built cottages nestled in the <a href="Pennines">Pennine hills</a>. The <a href="Peak%20District%20National%20Park">Peak District National Park</a> around <a href="Holme%20Moss">Holme Moss</a> is to the south of the town.
<a href="Historic%20counties%20of%20England">Historically</a> part of the <a href="West%20Riding%20of%20Yorkshire">West Riding of Yorkshire</a>, Holmfirth was once a centre for pioneering film-making by <a href="Bamforth%20%26amp%3B%20Co%20Ltd">Bamforth & Co.</a>, which later switched to the production of saucy seaside postcards. Between 1973 and 2010 both Holmfirth and the Holme Valley became well known as the filming location of the BBC's situation comedy "<a href="Last%20of%20the%20Summer%20Wine">Last of the Summer Wine</a>".
The town originally grew up around a corn mill and bridge in the 13th century. Three hundred years later Holmfirth expanded rapidly as the growing cloth trade grew and the production of stone and slates from the surrounding quarries increased. The present <a href="parish%20church">parish church</a> was built in 1778 after the church built in 1476 was swept away in a flood the previous year. In 1850 <a href="Holmfirth%20railway%20station">Holmfirth railway station</a> opened, on the branch line built by the <a href="Lancashire%20and%20Yorkshire%20Railway">Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway</a> Company.
Ancient documents have the town's name spelt 'Holm Frith' which can be translated as 'Holly Wood', though the word "Firth" is an old English name meaning 'wood and woodland' indicating the name means Holme woods.
Local men who served and died in the First and Second World Wars are commemorated on the Holme Valley War Memorial found outside Holme Valley Memorial Hospital.
Holmfirth was the home of <a href="Bamforth%20%26amp%3B%20Co%20Ltd">Bamforth & Co Ltd</a>, who were well known for their <a href="Postcard%23British%20seaside%20postcards">cheeky seaside postcards</a> – although around the time of the <a href="First%20World%20War">First World War</a>, they produced postcards of a more sober nature. The printing works on Station Road has now been converted into residential flats.
Bamforth's company were early pioneers of film-making, before they abandoned the business in favour of postcards. During the early 1900s Holmfirth was well known for film making; During the periods 1898–1900 and 1913–1915 Bamforth and Co. produced what the <a href="British%20Film%20Institute">British Film Institute</a> describes as 'a modest but historically significant collection of films'.
There are a number of instances when <a href="flood">flood</a>ing has occurred in the Holme Valley affecting Holmfirth and other settlements in the valley. The earliest recorded Holmfirth flood was in 1738 and the most recent was 1944. The most severe flood occurred early on the morning of 5 February 1852, when the embankment of the Bilberry Reservoir collapsed causing the deaths of 81 people. Following a severe storm in 1777 the <a href="River%20Holme">River Holme</a> burst its banks, sweeping away people and property with the loss of three lives; the stone church built in 1476, was also swept away. A storm in 1821 again caused the river to burst its banks. The flooding on the night of 29 May 1944 was not nationally reported and it was then overshadowed by the <a href="Normandy%20Landings">D-Day landings</a> the following week.
Holmfirth (and the surrounding countryside) is the setting for the <a href="BBC">BBC</a>'s long-running comedy "<a href="Last%20of%20the%20Summer%20Wine">Last of the Summer Wine</a>". Thousands of tourists flock to the area each year to enjoy scenery and locations familiar from the series. Filming of the TV <a href="Slaithwaite">Slaithwaite</a>-based drama, <a href="Where%20the%20Heart%20Is%20%281997%20TV%20series%29">"Where the Heart Is"</a>, had also taken place in and around the area.
The former Lodge's <a href="supermarket">supermarket</a> building had been sitting empty in the heart of the town since the <a href="Co-op">Co-op</a> moved to new premises in Crown Bottom. Lodge's was built in the 1970s by the prominent local grocery company. It was opened by <a href="BBC%20Radio%201">Radio 1</a> <a href="Disc%20Jockey">DJ</a> <a href="Tony%20Blackburn">Tony Blackburn</a> and occupied an unusual location over the River Holme beside the town's small bus station. Lodge's was bought in the 1990s by <a href="Co-operative%20Retail%20Services">Co-operative Retail Services</a> who eventually closed the store down in 1997, after investing in a brand new £2 million supermarket for the town. Local residents, led by the Holme Valley Business Association, campaigned for its demolition. Their campaign was featured in the 2005 <a href="Channel%204">Channel 4</a> documentary, "<a href="Demolition%20%28TV%20series%29">Demolition</a>". The building has since undergone extensive modernisation into several smaller shops, with some accommodation on the top floor.
Holmfirth's economy is dominated by rural and tourism activities. A 2013 youth survey identified reducing opportunities for young adults in the area and an intention to leave to find employment. The survey resulted in a successful bid for lottery funding to create new opportunities and training to increase employment opportunities in the area. Tourism economic activity is increasing with several accommodation and tourist pursuits developing in the town including booking software to manage and market accommodation. New holiday accommodation includes that linked to the new Winery in Cartworth Moor.
Longley Farm, founded in 1948, is a significant employer in the town.
On 6 July 2014 Stage 2 of the 2014 <a href="Tour%20de%20France">Tour de France</a>, from York to Sheffield, passed through the town. The event was televised internationally and attracted huge crowds cheering the riders through the town.
Holmfirth used to have its own branch line, off the <a href="Huddersfield">Huddersfield</a> to <a href="Sheffield">Sheffield</a> line (commonly referred to as the <a href="Penistone%20Line">Penistone Line</a>), this short, 2 mile (3 km), line branched from the mainline just south of <a href="Brockholes">Brockholes</a>. A <a href="viaduct">viaduct</a> took the line across the valley and into <a href="Thongsbridge">Thongsbridge</a> where a station was sited. The line then went along the side of the valley coming to a halt just outside the town centre on Station Road. Plans did exist for the line to be extended up the valley and then tunnel under Black Hill to join the <a href="Sheffield%2C%20Ashton-under-Lyne%20and%20Manchester%20Railway">Sheffield to Manchester line</a> near <a href="Woodhead%2C%20Derbyshire">Woodhead</a>. The line closed to passengers in 1959, with goods traffic lasting until 1965. The <a href="Holmfirth%20railway%20station">station building and platform</a> still remain as a private house. Other sections of the line further down the valley have been sold off for private housing and the viaduct, crossing the valley from the A616 (New Mill Road), at Brockholes, over Spring Wood, has been demolished.
The Holmfirth bus station is located in the centre of Holmfirth from which regular bus services take varying routes around the outlying villages and to Huddersfield's bus and railway stations. Additional services run to the town, from <a href="Barnsley">Barnsley</a>, <a href="Sheffield">Sheffield</a> and <a href="Wakefield">Wakefield</a> via <a href="Denby%20Dale">Denby Dale</a> or <a href="Penistone">Penistone</a>. Most services are operated by <a href="First%20Calderdale%20%26amp%3B%20Huddersfield">First Calderdale & Huddersfield</a>, using the town's bus station. Weekend and bank holiday services operate to <a href="Glossop">Glossop</a> in north <a href="Derbyshire">Derbyshire</a>. In October 2006, First bus services were re-branded as the 'Holmfirth Connection'.
The Holmfirth Choral Society hold regular classical choral music concerts in Holmfirth Civic Hall and the Holme Valley Orchestra plays throughout the year 
The town is particularly associated with an unusual choral <a href="folk%20song">folk song</a>, known as the <a href="Holmfirth%20Anthem">Holmfirth Anthem</a>.
Holmfirth's Film Festival and Festival of Folk are held every May, and its Arts Festival takes place over two weeks in June.
The town's cinema, the Picturedrome, which opened in 1912 as the Valley Theatre, is now a live music venue and has been nominated for the NME Best Small Venue. It hosts various music events. Acts such as <a href="Adam%20Ant">Adam Ant</a>, <a href="Bad%20Manners">Bad Manners</a>, the <a href="Buzzcocks">Buzzcocks</a>, <a href="Evile">Evile</a>, <a href="Fish%20%28singer%29">Fish</a>, <a href="Half%20Man%20Half%20Biscuit">Half Man Half Biscuit</a>, <a href="Hawkwind">Hawkwind</a>, <a href="John%20Martyn">John Martyn</a>, <a href="Ocean%20Colour%20Scene">Ocean Colour Scene</a>, the <a href="Red%20Hot%20Chilli%20Pipers">Red Hot Chilli Pipers</a>, <a href="Ron%20Sexsmith">Ron Sexsmith</a>, <a href="Saxon%20%28band%29">Saxon</a>, <a href="Suzi%20Quatro">Suzi Quatro</a>, and <a href="The%20Beat%20%28British%20band%29">The Beat</a> have performed.
Holmfirth Art Week, with its July exhibition in the Civic Hall, raises money for <a href="Macmillan%20Cancer%20Support">Macmillan Cancer Relief</a>.
The Holmfirth Festival of Folk takes place in May of each year, featuring a wide selection of <a href="Folk%20Music">Folk Music</a> and <a href="Folk%20Dance">Folk Dance</a> acts from around the UK. Performances take place in a variety of indoor and outdoor venues throughout the town. 
The Holme Valley <a href="Brass%20Band">Brass Band</a> Contest takes place each year at the Civic Hall.
Holmfirth constitutes a town of its own almost seven miles (11 km) south of the larger town of Huddersfield. While the town of Holmfirth itself is comparatively small, it is surrounded by several <a href="Hamlet%20%28place%29">hamlets</a> and villages. These neighbouring settlements are often collectively referred to as "Holmfirth" and include:- Austonley, Arrunden, Burnlee, Cinderhills, Cliff, Deanhouse, Gully, Flushhouse, <a href="Hade%20Edge">Hade Edge</a>, <a href="Thongsbridge">Thongsbridge</a>, <a href="Upperthong">Upperthong</a> and Washpit. Many of these are located on Cartworth Moor.
Other villages and hamlets within the Holmfirth <a href="post%20town">post town</a> include:- <a href="Brockholes">Brockholes</a>, <a href="Fulstone">Fulstone</a>, <a href="Jackson%20Bridge">Jackson Bridge</a>, <a href="Hepworth%2C%20West%20Yorkshire">Hepworth</a>, <a href="Holme%2C%20West%20Yorkshire">Holme</a>, <a href="Holmbridge">Holmbridge</a>, <a href="Honley">Honley</a>, <a href="Meltham">Meltham</a>, <a href="Netherthong">Netherthong</a>, <a href="New%20Mill%2C%20West%20Yorkshire">New Mill</a>, <a href="Scholes%2C%20Holme%20Valley">Scholes</a>, <a href="Totties%2C%20Holmfirth">Totties</a>, Underbank and <a href="Wooldale">Wooldale</a>.

</doc>
<doc id="90666" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90666" title="Thora Hird">
Thora Hird

Dame Thora Hird, <a href="Order%20of%20the%20British%20Empire">DBE</a> (28 May 1911 – 15 March 2003) was an English actress.
Hird was born in the <a href="Lancashire">Lancashire</a> seaside town of <a href="Morecambe">Morecambe</a>. She first appeared on stage at the age of two months in a play her father was managing. She worked at the local Co-op before joining the Morecambe Repertory Theatre. Her family background was largely theatrical: her mother, Marie Mayor, had been an actress, while her father managed a number of entertainment venues in Morecambe, including the Royalty Theatre where she made her first appearance, and the Central Pier. Thora often described her father, who initially did not want her to be an actress, as her sternest critic and attributed much of her talent as an actress and comedienne to his guidance. Although Hird left Morecambe in the late 1940s, she retained her affection for the town, referring to herself as a "sand grown'un", the colloquial term for anyone born in Morecambe.
Initially she made regular appearances in films, including the wartime propaganda film "<a href="Went%20the%20Day%20Well%3F">Went the Day Well?</a>" (1942, known as "48 Hours" in the USA), in which she is shown wielding a rifle to defend a house from <a href="Fallschirmj%C3%A4ger%20%28Nazi%20Germany%29">German paratroopers</a>. She worked with the British film comedian <a href="Will%20Hay">Will Hay</a>, and featured in "<a href="The%20Entertainer%20%28film%29">The Entertainer</a>" (1960), which starred <a href="Laurence%20Olivier">Laurence Olivier</a>, and in "<a href="A%20Kind%20of%20Loving%20%28film%29">A Kind of Loving</a>" (1962), with <a href="Alan%20Bates">Alan Bates</a>.
Thora Hird gained her highest profile in <a href="television%20comedy">television comedy</a>, notably the <a href="situation%20comedy">sitcoms</a> "<a href="Meet%20the%20Wife">Meet the Wife</a>" (1963–66), "<a href="In%20Loving%20Memory%20%28TV%20series%29">In Loving Memory</a>" (1979–86), "<a href="Hallelujah%21%20%28TV%20series%29">Hallelujah!</a>" (1981-1984), and for nearly two decades in "<a href="Last%20of%20the%20Summer%20Wine">Last of the Summer Wine</a>" (1986–2003). However, she played a variety of roles, including the nurse in "<a href="Romeo%20and%20Juliet">Romeo and Juliet</a>", and won <a href="British%20Academy%20of%20Film%20and%20Television%20Arts">BAFTA</a> Best Actress awards for her roles in two of <a href="Alan%20Bennett">Alan Bennett</a>'s "<a href="Talking%20Heads%20%28Plays%29">Talking Heads</a>" monologues. She starred as Captain Emily Ridley in the sitcom "<a href="Hallelujah%21%20%28TV%20series%29">Hallelujah!</a>" (1981–84) about the <a href="Salvation%20Army">Salvation Army</a>, a movement for which she had a soft spot throughout her life. Hird also portrayed Mrs Speck, the housekeeper of the Mayor of <a href="Gloucester">Gloucester</a> in "<a href="The%20Tailor%20of%20Gloucester%20%28Television%20Film%29">The Tailor of Gloucester</a>" (1989). She played the screen mother of <a href="Deric%20Longden">Deric Longden</a> in "Wide Eyed and Legless" (aka "the Wedding Gift") and "<a href="Lost%20for%20Words%20%28film%29">Lost for Words</a>" which won her a <a href="BAFTA">BAFTA</a> for Best Actress.
Hird was a committed <a href="Christian">Christian</a>, hosting the religious programme "Praise Be!", a spin-off from "<a href="Songs%20of%20Praise">Songs of Praise</a>" on the <a href="BBC">BBC</a>. Her work for <a href="Charitable%20organization">charity</a> and on television in spite of old age and ill health made her an institution. Her advertisements for Churchill <a href="stairlift">stairlift</a>s also maintained her in the public eye.
She was created an <a href="Order%20of%20the%20British%20Empire">Officer of the Order of the British Empire</a> (OBE) in 1983, and raised to Dame Commander (DBE) in 1993. She received an honorary <a href="Doctor%20of%20Letters">D.Litt.</a> from <a href="Lancaster%20University">Lancaster University</a> in 1989.
In December 1998, already using a wheelchair, Dame Thora played a brief but energetic cameo role as the mother of Dolly on "<a href="Dinnerladies">Dinnerladies</a>", a sarcastic character, who was particularly bitter towards her daughter.
Her last work was for <a href="BBC%20Radio%207">BBC Radio 7</a>: a final monologue written for her by Alan Bennett entitled "The Last of the Sun", in which she played a forthright, broad-minded woman, immobile in an old people's home but still able to take a stand against the censorious and politically correct attitudes of her own daughter.
She was the subject of "<a href="This%20Is%20Your%20Life%20%28UK%20TV%20series%29">This Is Your Life</a>" on two occasions: in January 1964 when she was surprised by <a href="Eamonn%20Andrews">Eamonn Andrews</a>, and in December 1996, when <a href="Michael%20Aspel">Michael Aspel</a> surprised her while filming on location for "<a href="Last%20of%20the%20Summer%20Wine">Last of the Summer Wine</a>".
Hird died on 15 March 2003 aged 91 at <a href="Brinsworth%20House">Brinsworth House</a>, Twickenham, London, after suffering a <a href="stroke">stroke</a>.
A memorial service was held on 15 September 2003 at <a href="Westminster%20Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a> attended by over 2,000 people, including <a href="Alan%20Bennett">Alan Bennett</a>, <a href="Sir%20David%20Frost">Sir David Frost</a>, <a href="Melvyn%20Bragg">Melvyn Bragg</a> and <a href="Victoria%20Wood">Victoria Wood</a>.
Hird married James Scott in 1937. They had a daughter, actress <a href="Janette%20Scott">Janette Scott</a>, in 1938. Hird was widowed in 1994.

</doc>
<doc id="90670" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90670" title="Côtes-d'Armor">
Côtes-d'Armor

Côtes-d'Armor (; ), formerly named Côtes-du-Nord, is a <a href="departments%20of%20France">department</a> in the north of <a href="Brittany">Brittany</a>, in northwestern France.
"Côtes-du-Nord" was one of the original 83 departments created during the <a href="French%20Revolution">French Revolution</a> on 4 March 1790. It was created from part of the former <a href="provinces%20of%20France">province</a> of <a href="Brittany">Brittany</a>. Its name was changed in 1990 to "Côtes-d'Armor" ("ar mor" meaning "the sea" in <a href="Breton%20language">Breton</a> and "Côtes" meaning coast in French). The name also has a historical connotation recalling the <a href="Roman%20province">Roman province</a> of <a href="Armorica">Armorica</a>.
The present department corresponds to most of historical <a href="Tr%C3%A9gor">Trégor</a>, part of <a href="Cornouaille">Cornouaille</a>, and most of <a href="Saint-Brieuc">Saint-Brieuc</a>.
Côtes-d'Armor is part of the current administrative region of <a href="Brittany%20%28administrative%20region%29">Brittany</a> and is surrounded by the departments of <a href="Finist%C3%A8re">Finistère</a>, <a href="Morbihan">Morbihan</a>, and <a href="Ille-et-Vilaine">Ille-et-Vilaine</a>, with the <a href="English%20Channel">English Channel</a> to the north.
The inhabitants of the department are called "Costarmoricains".
The Côtes-d'Armor has usually been a left-wing holdout in a historically strongly clerical and right-wing <a href="Brittany">Brittany</a>, due to the department's more <a href="anti-clerical">anti-clerical</a> nature, especially in the inland area around <a href="Guingamp">Guingamp</a>, a former <a href="French%20Communist%20Party">Communist</a> stronghold.
The President of the General Council is <a href="Claudy%20Lebreton">Claudy Lebreton</a> of the <a href="Socialist%20Party%20%28France%29">Socialist Party</a>.
The western part of the "département" is part of the traditionally <a href="Breton%20language">Breton</a>-speaking "Lower Brittany" ("Breizh-Izel" in Breton). The boundary runs from <a href="Plouha">Plouha</a> to <a href="M%C3%BBr-de-Bretagne">Mûr-de-Bretagne</a>. The Breton language has become an intense issue in many parts of Brittany, and many Breton-speakers advocate for bilingual schools. <a href="Gallo%20language">Gallo</a> is also spoken in the east and is offered as a language in the schools and on the baccalaureat exams.
The English born poet <a href="Robert%20W.%20Service">Robert William Service</a> (1874-1958) known as the "Bard of the Yukon" is buried in Lancieux.

</doc>
<doc id="90675" url="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90675" title="NAPLPS">
NAPLPS

NAPLPS (North American Presentation Level Protocol Syntax) is a <a href="Vector%20graphics%20markup%20language">graphics language</a> for use originally with <a href="videotex">videotex</a> and <a h