This document outlines many of the key aspects of operating systems, and provides resources to learn more about each part. There are a lot of things missing (i'm on human), but these are enough to get you up and running. The intention is to be able to understand how you go from electricity entering your PC to being at a login screen you can see.
Most of this is relevent to linux primarily because it's open source, so there's much more information available about it, but these principles are the same across systems they just may have different names for things.
- You know how to use a terminal