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Pked01/web_article_extractor.ipynb

Created March 10, 2018 05:52
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web_extractor_demo.ipynb
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web_article_extractor.ipynb
{
"cells": [
{
"metadata": {
"run_control": {
"read_only": false,
"frozen": false
},
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"end_time": "2018-03-10T03:37:28.839235Z"
},
"trusted": true,
"collapsed": true
},
"cell_type": "code",
"source": "import pandas as pd\nimport numpy as np",
"execution_count": 1,
"outputs": []
},
{
"metadata": {
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"start_time": "2018-03-10T04:19:22.780446Z",
"end_time": "2018-03-10T04:19:22.783975Z"
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"cell_type": "code",
"source": "import IPython.display as Disp\nimport matplotlib.pyplot as plt",
"execution_count": 62,
"outputs": []
},
{
"metadata": {
"ExecuteTime": {
"start_time": "2018-03-10T04:14:23.722354Z",
"end_time": "2018-03-10T04:14:23.982503Z"
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"cell_type": "code",
"source": "%matplotlib inline",
"execution_count": 39,
"outputs": []
},
{
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"cell_type": "code",
"source": "!pip install html2text",
"execution_count": 2,
"outputs": [
{
"output_type": "stream",
"text": "Collecting html2text\n Downloading html2text-2018.1.9-py3-none-any.whl\nInstalling collected packages: html2text\nSuccessfully installed html2text-2018.1.9\n",
"name": "stdout"
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},
{
"metadata": {},
"cell_type": "markdown",
"source": "### html2text"
},
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"cell_type": "code",
"source": "import html2text\nimport requests\n#Make the proxy settings, if your access is through a proxy server\n\nurl1 =\"https://medium.com/@alexbaldo/a-comparison-between-nvidias-geforce-gtx-1080-and-tesla-p100-for-deep-learning-81a918d5b2c7\"\nurl2=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy\"",
"execution_count": 98,
"outputs": []
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{
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"cell_type": "code",
"source": "res = requests.get(url1, timeout=5.0 )\nhtml = res.text\n# extract the text from the html version\ntext = html2text.html2text(html)\nprint(text)",
"execution_count": 96,
"outputs": [
{
"output_type": "stream",
"text": "[Homepage](https://medium.com/)\n\n[About membership](https://medium.com/membership?source=upgrade_membership---\nnav_full)\n\n[Sign\nin](https://medium.com/m/signin?redirect=https%3A%2F%2Fmedium.com%2F%40alexbaldo%2Fa-\ncomparison-between-nvidias-geforce-gtx-1080-and-tesla-p100-for-deep-\nlearning-81a918d5b2c7&source=--------------------------nav_reg&operation=login)[Get\nstarted](https://medium.com/m/signin?redirect=https%3A%2F%2Fmedium.com%2F%40alexbaldo%2Fa-\ncomparison-between-nvidias-geforce-gtx-1080-and-tesla-p100-for-deep-\nlearning-81a918d5b2c7&source=--------------------------nav_reg&operation=register)\n\n[Homepage](https://medium.com/)\n\n[![Go to the profile of Alejandro Baldominos](https://cdn-\nimages-1.medium.com/fit/c/80/80/1*fWxrickyho9HGQ_b1n3DIw.jpeg)](https://medium.com/@alexbaldo?source=post_header_lockup)\n\n[Alejandro\nBaldominos](https://medium.com/@alexbaldo?source=post_header_lockup)BlockedUnblockFollowFollowing\n\nOct 4, 2017\n\n* * *\n\n# A Comparison between NVIDIA’s GeForce GTX 1080 and Tesla P100 for Deep\nLearning\n\n## Is it worth the dollar?\n\n![](https://cdn-images-1.medium.com/max/1600/1*pfxjGkV81xGm_POGuN1wtA.jpeg)\n\nNVIDIA Tesla P100 (Source: NVIDIA)\n\nToday, we are going to confront two different pieces of hardware that are\noften used for Deep Learning tasks. The first is a GTX 1080 GPU, a gaming\ndevice which is worth the dollar due to its high performance. The second is a\nTesla P100 GPU, a high-end device devised for datacenters which provide high-\nperformance computing for Deep Learning.\n\n#### Introduction\n\nFor over a year now, I have dedicated most of my academic life to research in\nDeep Learning, working as a pre-doctoral researcher in the EVANNAI Group of\nComputer Science Department of Universidad Carlos III de Madrid. I started\nworking with convolutional neural networks soon after Google released\n[TensorFlow](https://www.tensorflow.org) in late 2015. Since then, I started\nexploring the use of _convolutional neural networks_ (CNNs) in order to\nautomatically extract features from raw data which can be used to succesfully\ncarry out _supervised learning_ , or, in other words, **training predictive\nmodels**.\n\nAlso, since early 2015 one of the research fields I have spent most time\nworking in was _human activity recognition_ , i.e., developing systems that\ncould recognize the activity performed by a user (e.g. running, walking, or\neven smoking) based on data provided by sensors such as those already present\nin smartphones or smartwatches.\n\nEarly in 2016, I found a paper by [Ordoñez and\nRoggen](http://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/16/1/115/htm) where they applied Deep\nLearning for achieving human activity recognition. In particular, they used\nCNNs along with LSTM (long short-term memory) cells, which are a specific\nimplementation of a recurrent network that turns out to be useful to capture\ntemporal patterns such as those present in human activities.\n\nLater that year, I found myself spending a lot of time working with this kind\nof things: TensorFlow, convolutional networks, LSTM cells… in fact, I started\nto search for the best architectures for a given problem. This involves\nsignificant amounts of trial-and-error, and therefore **a lot of time for\ntraining and evaluating networks**.\n\nBy that time, I needed to find a way to be able to iterate quickly over\ndifferent architectures of these deep neural networks. It is commonly\nacknowledged that **GPUs are way faster than CPUs** in performing these kind\nof tasks, mostly because they comprise a larger number of cores and faster\nmemory. However, our budget for acquiring hardware was quite limited, so **my\nresearch group eventually acquired one computer featuring 2 NVIDIA GeForce GTX\n1080** (followed few months later by another computer with the exact same\nspecs).\n\nNVIDIA GeForce is not really Deep Learning-dedicated hardware. However, if you\nlook out there you will see that many people actually use them for this\npurpose. Why? Because they are cheap for the performance they offer, specially\nwhen compared to other NVIDIA solutions such as the Tesla family.\n\nI have been working with these NVIDIA devices for over a year. Recently, the\nstaff from [Azken Muga S.L.](http://www.azken.com) (official NVIDIA provider\nin Spain) let me participate in a Test Drive program to evaluate the\nperformance of Tesla P100 devices.\n\nIn this post I will try to summarize the main conclusions obtained from this\ntest drive.\n\n#### Hardware\n\nIn this post I will compare three different hardware setups when running\ndifferent deep learning tasks:\n\n * Intel Core i7–6700 3.4 GHz (4-core); 2 x NVIDIA GeForce GTX 1080; 32 GB DDR4 2133 MHz.\n * 2 x Intel Xeon E5–2667 v4 3.2 GHz (8-core); 4 x NVIDIA Tesla P100; 128 GB DDR4 2400 MHz.\n * MacBook Pro mid-2014; Intel Core i7–4578U 3 GHz (2-core); 16 GB DDR3 1600 MHz.\n\nThe latter have been included only for the sake of comparing GPU vs. CPU when\nworking on Deep Learning tasks.\n\nIt is remarkable that for the first two systems, our tests will be performed\nusing only the GPU (yet other components may be used as well, for example,\ndata may be moved from main memory to GPU memory). The GPUs most remarkable\nspecs are:\n\n * [ **GeForce GTX 1080**](https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/geforce/products/10series/geforce-gtx-1080/): PASCAL; 2560 CUDA cores; 8 TFLOPS (single-prec); 8 GB GDDRX5 320 GB/s; max 180 W.\n * [ **Tesla P100**](https://images.nvidia.com/content/tesla/pdf/nvidia-tesla-p100-PCIe-datasheet.pdf): PASCAL; 3584 CUDA cores; 9.3 TFLOPS (single-prec); 16 GB HBM2 732 GB/s; max 250 W.\n\nIt can be seen how Tesla P100 has 1.4 times more CUDA cores, slighly higher\nsingle precision FLOPS and twice the amount of memory. Also, HBM2 memory is\nsignificantly faster than GDDR5X. However, all these advantages can be easily\neclipsed when looking at the price (prices in Spain, including VAT):\n\n * GeForce GTX 1080: **795€**.\n * Tesla P100: **5,917.28€**.\n\n#### Software\n\nFor the software stack, we have used the following components:\n\n * NVIDIA CUDA Toolkit 8.0\n * NVIDIA cuDNN 6.0\n * Python 2.7\n * NumPy 1.12.1\n * Theano 0.8.0\n * Lasagne 0.2.dev1\n * TensorFlow 1.3.0\n\n#### Benchmarks\n\nIn order to compare the three different hardware configurations, we will use\ntwo benchmarks. I have tried these benchmarks to accurately mimic my daily\nresearch tasks. These benchmarks are the following:\n\n * **MNIST+ConvNet** : in this case, we will use TensorFlow following their “[Deep MNIST for Experts](https://www.tensorflow.org/get_started/mnist/pros)” tutorial. The objective is to solve a handwritten recognition problem by using a simple convolutional neural network with two convolutional layers and two dense layers. It is remarkable that, in this tutorial, each training epoch does not use the whole training set but only one mini-batch of 50 images. For this reason, epochs are very fast.\n * **DeepConvLSTM** : in this case, we will replicate the experiments described by Ordoñez and Roggen in [their paper](http://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/16/1/115/htm), and whose [source code](https://github.com/sussexwearlab/DeepConvLSTM) is also publicly available. In this case, we will use Theano + Lasagne (a library for abstracting the development of networks in Theano by stacking layers) to train a much more complex network, involving four convolutional layers and two recurrent layers with LSTM cells. Even if batch gradient descen is used, each epoch passes through the whole training set. This problem is a good proxy for the kind of problems I work with in my daily life.\n\nIn order to obtain robust results, each experiment has been run 10 times, and\nfinally metrics are averaged for each epoch.\n\n#### Results\n\nNow, let’s take a look at the results:\n\n \n \n ╔═════════════════╦═══════════════╦══════════════════╦════════════╗ \n ║ Benchmark ║ Intel Core i7 ║ GeForce GTX 1080 ║ Tesla P100 ║ \n ╠═════════════════╬═══════════════╬══════════════════╬════════════╣ \n ║ MNIST + ConvNet ║ 0.3777 s ║ 0.005 s ║ 0.005 s ║ \n ║ DeepConvLSTM ║ 1665.2 s ║ 26.45 s ║ 21.21 s ║ \n ╚═════════════════╩═══════════════╩══════════════════╩════════════╝\n\nIt is worth recalling that these numbers refer to the average time for each\ntraining epoch.\n\nIt can be seen how GPU computing is significantly faster than CPU computing:\nabout 70x — 80x in both benchmarks. This is an improvement of almost two\norders of magnitude. Or, to put it in different words, the time required by\nthe GPU to complete a training epoch is only slightly over 1% compared with\nthe CPU.\n\nRegarding the comparison between the two GPUs, Tesla outperforms GeForce in\nthe latter benchmark; however, there is only a 1.25x speedup (or equivalently,\nthe training time is reduced in a 20%). The difference is not noticeable in\nthe MNIST benchmark, probably due to the fact of epochs being so fast.\n\nFinally, let’s take a look at the average operating temperatures and\nconsumption of these devices during the second benchmark:\n\n \n \n ╔══════════════════╦════════════╗ \n ║ GeForce GTX 1080 ║ Tesla P100 ║ \n ╠══════════════════╬════════════╣ \n ║ 77ºC ║ 43ºC ║ \n ║ 118/180W ║ 110/250W ║ \n ╚══════════════════╩════════════╝\n\nWe can see how energy consumption is quite similar, but temperature is\nsignificantly higher in the GeForce devices. At this point, I must say that\nboth configurations are not comparable since the GeForce GPUs are installed in\nan ATX computer tower located in an office, and do not have any special\ncooling system besides the heatsinks and fans located in the devices and the\ntower.\n\n#### Conclusions\n\nIn this post, we have compared two different GPUs by running a couple of Deep\nLearning benchmarks. These devices were GeForce GTX 1080 (GPUs devised for\ngaming) and Tesla P100 (GPUs specifically designed for high-performance\ncomputing in a datacenter).\n\nAfter looking at the results: is the P100 worth the dollar? Given that its\ncost is about 7–8 times the cost of the GeForce, it could be argued that the\nexpense is not worthy.\n\nHowever, a disclaimer should be added at this point: Tesla P100 seems to have\na better construction, and may last longer given an intensive usage.\nPersonally, I don’t think our GTX 1080 will last long given they are running\nheavy processes almost 24x7.\n\nTesla P100 has an additional advantage: the amount of GPU memory is doubled\ncompared to the GeForce GTX 1080. This would enable us to either work with\nlarger networks or with larger batches. The former case could make a\ndifference: maybe a certain problem cannot be solved given the memory\nconstraint imposed by the GeForce device. As for the latter case, larger\nbatches could lead to better convergence of the gradient descent process,\nenabling us to train a successful model in a smaller number of epochs (even if\nthe cost per epoch is only slightly better than in the GeForce GPU).\n\n#### What’s next?\n\nIt could be interesting to try the [Volta\narchitecture](https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/volta-gpu-\narchitecture/), recently announced by NVIDIA. Used along with CUDA Toolkit 9.0\nand cuDNN 7.0, NVIDIA promises up to a 5x speedup compared to the PASCAL\narchitecture, given the inclusion of tensor cores specifically designed for\nDeep Learning computating). The Tesla V100 would become the successor of the\nTesla P100 and it would be great to extend this benchmark to consider this new\ndevice.\n\n#### Acknowledgements\n\nI sincerely acknowledge Azken Muga S.L. for letting us test the performance of\nNVIDIA Tesla P100 GPUs as part of their Test Drive program.\n\nAcknowledgements are also aimed at EVANNAI Group of Computer Science\nDepartment of Universidad Carlos III de Madrid for acquiring the computers\nwith NVIDIA GeForce GTX 1080, with which I have been working for almost a\nyear.\n\n * [Deep Learning](https://medium.com/tag/deep-learning?source=post)\n * [Machine Learning](https://medium.com/tag/machine-learning?source=post)\n * [Nvidia](https://medium.com/tag/nvidia?source=post)\n * [Benchmark](https://medium.com/tag/benchmark?source=post)\n * [Review](https://medium.com/tag/review?source=post)\n\nOne clap, two clap, three clap, forty?\n\nBy clapping more or less, you can signal to us which stories really stand out.\n\n52\n\n1\n\n* BlockedUnblockFollowFollowing\n\n[![Go to the profile of Alejandro Baldominos](https://cdn-\nimages-1.medium.com/fit/c/120/120/1*fWxrickyho9HGQ_b1n3DIw.jpeg)](https://medium.com/@alexbaldo?source=footer_card\n\"Go to the profile of Alejandro Baldominos\")\n\n### [Alejandro Baldominos](https://medium.com/@alexbaldo \"Go to the profile of\nAlejandro Baldominos\")\n\n * 52\n\n * * * \n\n[![Go to the profile of Alejandro Baldominos](https://cdn-\nimages-1.medium.com/fit/c/80/80/1*fWxrickyho9HGQ_b1n3DIw.jpeg)](https://medium.com/@alexbaldo)\n\nNever miss a story from **Alejandro Baldominos** , when you sign up for\nMedium. [Learn more](https://medium.com/@Medium/personalize-your-medium-\nexperience-with-users-publications-tags-26a41ab1ee0c#.hx4zuv3mg)\n\nNever miss a story from **Alejandro Baldominos**\n\nBlockedUnblockFollowGet updates\n\n\n",
"name": "stdout"
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"cell_type": "code",
"source": "res = requests.get(url2, timeout=5.0 )\nhtml = res.text\n# extract the text from the html version\ntext = html2text.html2text(html)\nprint(text)",
"execution_count": 99,
"outputs": [
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"output_type": "stream",
"text": "[![Page semi-\nprotected](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-\nsilver.svg/20px-Padlock-\nsilver.svg.png)](/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi \"This article is semi-\nprotected.\")\n\n# Philosophy\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\n\nJump to: navigation, search\n\nFor other uses, see [Philosophy\n(disambiguation)](/wiki/Philosophy_\\(disambiguation\\) \"Philosophy\n\\(disambiguation\\)\").\n\n[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/330px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg)](/wiki/File:%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg)\n\n[](/wiki/File:%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg\n\"Enlarge\")\n\n_[The School of Athens](/wiki/The_School_of_Athens \"The School of Athens\")_\n(1509–1511) by [Raphael](/wiki/Raphael \"Raphael\"), depicting famous classical\n[Greek philosophers](/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy \"Ancient Greek\nphilosophy\") in an idealized setting inspired by [ancient Greek\narchitecture](/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture \"Ancient Greek architecture\")\n\nPart of [a series](/wiki/Category:Philosophy \"Category:Philosophy\") on \n--- \nPhilosophy \n[![Left to right: Plato, Kant, Nietzsche, Buddha, Confucius,\nAverroes](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Philbar_3.png)](/wiki/File:Philbar_3.png\n\"Left to right: Plato, Kant, Nietzsche, Buddha, Confucius, Averroes\")\n\n * [Plato](/wiki/Plato \"Plato\")\n * [Kant](/wiki/Immanuel_Kant \"Immanuel Kant\")\n * [Nietzsche](/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche \"Friedrich Nietzsche\")\n\n * [Buddha](/wiki/Gautama_Buddha \"Gautama Buddha\")\n * [Confucius](/wiki/Confucius \"Confucius\")\n * [Averroes](/wiki/Averroes \"Averroes\")\n\n \n \n[Philosophers](/wiki/Category:Philosophers \"Category:Philosophers\") \n \n * [Aestheticians](/wiki/List_of_aestheticians \"List of aestheticians\")\n * [Epistemologists](/wiki/List_of_epistemologists \"List of epistemologists\")\n * [Ethicists](/wiki/List_of_ethicists \"List of ethicists\")\n * [Logicians](/wiki/List_of_logicians \"List of logicians\")\n * [Metaphysicians](/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians \"List of metaphysicians\")\n * [Social and political philosophers](/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers \"Index of sociopolitical thinkers\")\n\n \n[Traditions](/wiki/Category:Philosophical_traditions \"Category:Philosophical\ntraditions\") \n \n * [African](/wiki/African_philosophy \"African philosophy\")\n * [Analytic](/wiki/Analytic_philosophy \"Analytic philosophy\")\n * [Aristotelian](/wiki/Aristotelianism \"Aristotelianism\")\n * [Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy \"Buddhist philosophy\")\n * [Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_philosophy \"Chinese philosophy\")\n * [Christian](/wiki/Christian_philosophy \"Christian philosophy\")\n * [Continental](/wiki/Continental_philosophy \"Continental philosophy\")\n * [Existentialism](/wiki/Existentialism \"Existentialism\")\n * [Hindu](/wiki/Hindu_philosophy \"Hindu philosophy\")\n * [Jain](/wiki/Jain_philosophy \"Jain philosophy\")\n * [Jewish](/wiki/Jewish_philosophy \"Jewish philosophy\")\n * [Pragmatism](/wiki/Pragmatism \"Pragmatism\")\n * [Eastern](/wiki/Eastern_philosophy \"Eastern philosophy\")\n * [Islamic](/wiki/Islamic_philosophy \"Islamic philosophy\")\n * [Platonic](/wiki/Platonism \"Platonism\")\n * [Western](/wiki/Western_philosophy \"Western philosophy\")\n\n \n[Periods](/wiki/Category:Philosophy_by_period \"Category:Philosophy by period\") \n \n * [Ancient](/wiki/Ancient_philosophy \"Ancient philosophy\")\n * [Medieval](/wiki/Medieval_philosophy \"Medieval philosophy\")\n * [Modern](/wiki/Modern_philosophy \"Modern philosophy\")\n * [Contemporary](/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy \"Contemporary philosophy\")\n\n \n[Literature](/wiki/Category:Philosophical_literature \"Category:Philosophical\nliterature\") \n \n * [Aesthetics](/wiki/Category:Aesthetics_literature \"Category:Aesthetics literature\")\n * [Epistemology](/wiki/Category:Epistemology_literature \"Category:Epistemology literature\")\n * [Ethics](/wiki/Category:Ethics_literature \"Category:Ethics literature\")\n * [Logic](/wiki/Category:Logic_literature \"Category:Logic literature\")\n * [Metaphysics](/wiki/Category:Metaphysics_literature \"Category:Metaphysics literature\")\n * [Political philosophy](/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy_literature \"Category:Political philosophy literature\")\n\n \n[Branches](/wiki/Category:Branches_of_philosophy \"Category:Branches of\nphilosophy\") \n \n * [Aesthetics](/wiki/Aesthetics \"Aesthetics\")\n * [Epistemology](/wiki/Epistemology \"Epistemology\")\n * [Ethics](/wiki/Ethics \"Ethics\")\n * [Legal philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy_of_law \"Philosophy of law\")\n * [Logic](/wiki/Logic \"Logic\")\n * [Metaphysics](/wiki/Metaphysics \"Metaphysics\")\n * [Political philosophy](/wiki/Political_philosophy \"Political philosophy\")\n * [Social philosophy](/wiki/Social_philosophy \"Social philosophy\")\n\n \n[Lists](/wiki/Category:Philosophy-related_lists \"Category:Philosophy-related\nlists\") \n \n * [Index](/wiki/Index_of_philosophy \"Index of philosophy\")\n * [Outline](/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy \"Outline of philosophy\")\n * [Years](/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy \"List of years in philosophy\")\n * [Problems](/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy \"List of unsolved problems in philosophy\")\n * [Publications](/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy \"List of important publications in philosophy\")\n * [Theories](/wiki/List_of_philosophies \"List of philosophies\")\n * [Glossary](/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy \"Glossary of philosophy\")\n * [Philosophers](/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers \"Lists of philosophers\")\n\n \nMiscellaneous \n \n * [Philosopher](/wiki/Philosopher \"Philosopher\")\n * [Philomath](/wiki/Philomath \"Philomath\")\n * [Philalethes](/wiki/Philalethes \"Philalethes\")\n * [Women in philosophy](/wiki/Women_in_philosophy \"Women in philosophy\")\n\n \n[![Socrates.png](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-\nSocrates.png)](/wiki/File:Socrates.png) [Philosophy\nportal](/wiki/Portal:Philosophy \"Portal:Philosophy\") \n \n * [v](/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar \"Template:Philosophy sidebar\")\n * [t](/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar \"Template talk:Philosophy sidebar\")\n * [e](//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Philosophy_sidebar&action=edit)\n\n \n \n**Philosophy** (from [Greek](/wiki/Greek_language \"Greek language\") φιλοσοφία,\n_philosophia_ , literally \"love of wisdom\"[1][2][3][4]) is the\n[study](/wiki/Education \"Education\") of general and fundamental\n[problems](/wiki/Problem_solving \"Problem solving\") concerning matters such as\n[existence](/wiki/Existence \"Existence\"), [knowledge](/wiki/Knowledge\n\"Knowledge\"), [values](/wiki/Value_\\(ethics\\) \"Value \\(ethics\\)\"),\n[reason](/wiki/Reason \"Reason\"), [mind](/wiki/Mind \"Mind\"), and\n[language](/wiki/Language \"Language\").[5][6] The term was probably coined by\n[Pythagoras](/wiki/Pythagoras \"Pythagoras\") (c. 570–495 BCE). [Philosophical\nmethods](/wiki/Philosophical_method \"Philosophical method\") include\n[questioning](/wiki/Socratic_questioning \"Socratic questioning\"), [critical\ndiscussion](/wiki/Socratic_method \"Socratic method\"), [rational\nargument](/wiki/Dialectic \"Dialectic\"), and systematic presentation.[7][8]\nClassic philosophical questions include: Is it possible to [know\nanything](/wiki/Pyrrhonism \"Pyrrhonism\") and to prove it?[9][10][11] What is\n[most real](/wiki/Absolute_\\(philosophy\\) \"Absolute \\(philosophy\\)\")?\nPhilosophers also pose more practical and concrete questions such as: Is there\na best way to live? Is it better to be [just or unjust](/wiki/Justice\n\"Justice\") (if one can get away with it)?[12] Do humans have [free\nwill](/wiki/Free_will \"Free will\")?[13]\n\nHistorically, \"philosophy\" encompassed any body of knowledge.[14] From the\ntime of Ancient Greek philosopher [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\") to\nthe 19th century, \"[natural philosophy](/wiki/Natural_philosophy \"Natural\nphilosophy\")\" encompassed [astronomy](/wiki/Astronomy \"Astronomy\"),\n[medicine](/wiki/Medicine \"Medicine\"), and [physics](/wiki/Physics\n\"Physics\").[15] For example, [Newton](/wiki/Isaac_Newton \"Isaac Newton\")'s\n1687 _[Mathematical Principles of Natural\nPhilosophy](/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica\n\"Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica\")_ later became classified as a\nbook of physics. In the 19th century, the growth of modern [research\nuniversities](/wiki/University \"University\") led academic philosophy and other\ndisciplines to [professionalize](/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy \"Contemporary\nphilosophy\") and specialize.[16][17] In the modern era, some investigations\nthat were traditionally part of philosophy became separate academic\ndisciplines, including [psychology](/wiki/Psychology \"Psychology\"),\n[sociology](/wiki/Sociology \"Sociology\"), [linguistics](/wiki/Linguistics\n\"Linguistics\"), and [economics](/wiki/Economics \"Economics\").\n\nOther investigations closely related to art, science, politics, or other\npursuits remained part of philosophy. For example, is [beauty](/wiki/Beauty\n\"Beauty\") objective or subjective?[18][19] Are there many [scientific\nmethods](/wiki/Scientific_method \"Scientific method\") or just one?[20] Is\npolitical [utopia](/wiki/Utopia \"Utopia\") a hopeful dream or hopeless\nfantasy?[21][22][23] Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include\n[metaphysics](/wiki/Metaphysics \"Metaphysics\") (\"concerned with the\nfundamental nature of reality and being\"),[24]\n[epistemology](/wiki/Epistemology \"Epistemology\") (about the \"nature and\ngrounds of knowledge [and]...its limits and validity\" [25]),\n[ethics](/wiki/Ethics \"Ethics\"), [aesthetics](/wiki/Aesthetics \"Aesthetics\"),\n[political philosophy](/wiki/Political_philosophy \"Political philosophy\"),\n[logic](/wiki/Logic \"Logic\"), [philosophy of\nscience](/wiki/Philosophy_of_science \"Philosophy of science\"), and the history\nof Western philosophy.\n\nSince the 20th century, professional [philosophers](/wiki/Philosopher\n\"Philosopher\") contribute to society primarily as [professors](/wiki/Professor\n\"Professor\"). However, many of those who study philosophy in undergraduate or\ngraduate programs contribute in the fields of law, journalism, politics,\nreligion, science, business and various art and entertainment activities.[26]\n\n## Contents\n\n * 1 Introduction\n * 1.1 Knowledge\n * 1.2 Philosophical progress\n * 2 Historical overview\n * 2.1 Western philosophy\n * 2.2 Middle Eastern philosophy\n * 2.3 Indian philosophy\n * 2.4 Buddhist philosophy\n * 2.5 East Asian philosophy\n * 2.6 African philosophy\n * 2.7 Indigenous American philosophy\n * 3 Categories\n * 3.1 Metaphysics\n * 3.2 Epistemology\n * 3.3 Value theory\n * 3.3.1 Ethics\n * 3.3.2 Aesthetics\n * 3.3.3 Political philosophy\n * 3.4 Logic, science and mathematics\n * 3.4.1 Logic\n * 3.4.2 Philosophy of science\n * 3.5 History of philosophy\n * 3.6 Philosophy of religion\n * 3.7 Philosophical schools\n * 4 Other approaches\n * 4.1 Applied philosophy\n * 5 Society\n * 6 Professional\n * 7 Non-professional\n * 8 Role of women\n * 9 Popular culture\n * 10 See also\n * 11 References\n * 12 Further reading\n * 13 External links\n\n## Introduction\n\n### Knowledge\n\nTraditionally, the term \"philosophy\" referred to any body of\n[knowledge](/wiki/Knowledge \"Knowledge\").[14][27] In this sense, philosophy is\nclosely related to religion, mathematics, natural science, education and\npolitics. Newton's 1687 \"[Mathematical Principles of Natural\nPhilosophy](/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica\n\"Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica\")\" is classified in the 2000s as\na book of physics; he used the term \"[natural\nphilosophy](/wiki/Natural_philosophy \"Natural philosophy\")\" because it used to\nencompass disciplines that later became associated with sciences such as\n[astronomy](/wiki/Astronomy \"Astronomy\"), [medicine](/wiki/Medicine\n\"Medicine\") and [physics](/wiki/Physics \"Physics\").[15]\n\nIn [Classical antiquity](/wiki/Classical_antiquity \"Classical antiquity\"),\nPhilosophy was traditionally divided into three major branches:\n\n * [Natural philosophy](/wiki/Science \"Science\") (\"physics\") was the study of the physical world ( _physis,_ lit: nature);\n * [Moral philosophy](/wiki/Ethics \"Ethics\") (\"ethics\") was the study of goodness, right and wrong, beauty, justice and virtue ( _ethos,_ lit: custom);\n * [Metaphysical philosophy](/wiki/Metaphysics \"Metaphysics\") (\"logic\") was the study of [existence](/wiki/Existence \"Existence\"), causation, [God](/wiki/God \"God\"), [logic](/wiki/Logic \"Logic\"), [forms](/wiki/Universal_\\(metaphysics\\) \"Universal \\(metaphysics\\)\") and other abstract objects (\" _meta-physika\"_ lit: \"what comes after physics\").[28]\n\nThis division is not obsolete but has changed. Natural philosophy has split\ninto the various natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics, chemistry,\nbiology, and cosmology. Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, but\nstill includes value theory (including aesthetics, ethics, political\nphilosophy, etc.). Metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as\nlogic, mathematics and philosophy of science, but still includes epistemology,\ncosmology and others.\n\n### Philosophical progress\n\nMany philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated\ntoday. [Colin McGinn](/wiki/Colin_McGinn \"Colin McGinn\") and others claim that\nno [philosophical progress](/wiki/Philosophical_progress \"Philosophical\nprogress\") has occurred during that interval.[29]\n[Chalmers](/wiki/David_Chalmers \"David Chalmers\") and others, by contrast, see\nprogress in philosophy similar to that in science,[30] while Talbot Brewer\nargued that \"progress\" is the wrong standard by which to judge philosophical\nactivity.[31]\n\n## Historical overview\n\nIn one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual\nculture and a search for knowledge. In that sense, all cultures and literate\nsocieties ask philosophical questions such as \"how are we to live\" and \"what\nis the nature of reality\". A broad and impartial conception of philosophy\nthen, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality and life\nin all world civilizations.[32]\n\n### Western philosophy\n\nMain article: [Western philosophy](/wiki/Western_philosophy \"Western\nphilosophy\")\n\n[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Socrates_Pio-\nClementino_Inv314.jpg/150px-Socrates_Pio-\nClementino_Inv314.jpg)](/wiki/File:Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg)\n\n[](/wiki/File:Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg \"Enlarge\")\n\nBust of Socrates in the [Vatican Museum](/wiki/Vatican_Museum \"Vatican\nMuseum\")\n\n[Western philosophy](/wiki/Western_philosophy \"Western philosophy\") is the\nphilosophical tradition of the [Western world](/wiki/Western_world \"Western\nworld\") and dates to [Pre-Socratic](/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy \"Pre-\nSocratic philosophy\") thinkers who were active in [Ancient\nGreece](/wiki/Ancient_Greece \"Ancient Greece\") in the 6th century BCE such as\n[Thales](/wiki/Thales \"Thales\") (c. 624–546 BCE) and\n[Pythagoras](/wiki/Pythagoras \"Pythagoras\") (c. 570–495 BCE) who practiced a\n\"love of wisdom\" ( _philosophia_ )[33] and were also termed _physiologoi_\n(students of _physis_ , or nature). [Socrates](/wiki/Socrates \"Socrates\") was\na very influential philosopher, who insisted that he possessed no _wisdom_ but\nwas a _pursuer of_ wisdom.[34] [Western philosophy](/wiki/Western_philosophy\n\"Western philosophy\") can be divided into three eras:\n[Ancient](/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy \"Ancient Greek philosophy\") (Greco-\nRoman), [Medieval philosophy](/wiki/Medieval_philosophy \"Medieval philosophy\")\n(Christian European), and [Modern philosophy](/wiki/Modern_philosophy \"Modern\nphilosophy\").\n\nThe Ancient era was dominated by [Greek philosophical\nschools](/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy \"Ancient Greek philosophy\") which\narose out of the various pupils of Socrates, such as [Plato](/wiki/Plato\n\"Plato\") who founded the [Platonic Academy](/wiki/Platonic_Academy \"Platonic\nAcademy\"), and was one of the most influential Greek thinkers for the whole of\nWestern thought.[35] Plato's student [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\")\nwas also extremely influential, founding the [Peripatetic\nschool](/wiki/Peripatetic_school \"Peripatetic school\"). Other traditions\ninclude [Cynicism](/wiki/Cynicism_\\(philosophy\\) \"Cynicism \\(philosophy\\)\"),\n[Stoicism](/wiki/Stoicism \"Stoicism\"), [Greek\nSkepticism](/wiki/Skepticism#Philosophical_skepticism \"Skepticism\") and\n[Epicureanism](/wiki/Epicureanism \"Epicureanism\"). Important topics covered by\nthe Greeks included [metaphysics](/wiki/Metaphysics \"Metaphysics\") (with\ncompeting theories such as [atomism](/wiki/Atomism \"Atomism\") and\n[monism](/wiki/Monism \"Monism\")), [cosmology](/wiki/Cosmology \"Cosmology\"),\nthe nature of the well-lived life ([eudaimonia](/wiki/Eudaimonia\n\"Eudaimonia\")), the possibility of knowledge and the nature of reason\n([logos](/wiki/Logos \"Logos\")). With the rise of the [Roman\nempire](/wiki/Roman_empire \"Roman empire\"), Greek philosophy was also\nincreasingly discussed in [Latin](/wiki/Latin_language \"Latin language\") by\n[Romans](/wiki/Romans \"Romans\") such as [Cicero](/wiki/Cicero \"Cicero\") and\n[Seneca](/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger \"Seneca the Younger\").\n\n[Medieval philosophy](/wiki/Medieval_philosophy \"Medieval philosophy\") (5th –\n16th century) is the period following the fall of the western Roman empire and\nwas dominated by the rise of [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\")\nand hence reflects [Judeo-Christian](/wiki/Judeo-Christian \"Judeo-Christian\")\ntheological concerns as well as retaining a continuity with Greco-Roman\nthought. Problems such as the existence and nature of [God](/wiki/God \"God\"),\nthe nature of [faith](/wiki/Faith \"Faith\") and reason, metaphysics, the\n[problem of evil](/wiki/Problem_of_evil \"Problem of evil\") were discussed in\nthis period. Some key Medieval thinkers include [St.\nAugustine](/wiki/St._Augustine \"St. Augustine\"), [Thomas\nAquinas](/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas \"Thomas Aquinas\"), [Boethius](/wiki/Boethius\n\"Boethius\"), [Anselm](/wiki/Anselm_of_Laon \"Anselm of Laon\") and [Roger\nBacon](/wiki/Roger_Bacon \"Roger Bacon\"). Philosophy for these thinkers was\nviewed as an aid to [Theology](/wiki/Theology \"Theology\") ( _ancilla\ntheologiae_ ) and hence they sought to align their philosophy with their\ninterpretation of sacred scripture. This period saw the development of\n[Scholasticism](/wiki/Scholasticism \"Scholasticism\"), a text critical method\ndeveloped in [medieval universities](/wiki/Medieval_universities \"Medieval\nuniversities\") based on close reading and disputation on key texts. The\n[Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\") (1355–1650) period saw\nincreasing focus on classic Greco-Roman thought and on a robust\n[Humanism](/wiki/Humanism \"Humanism\"). [Early modern\nphilosophy](/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy \"Early modern philosophy\") in the\nWestern world begins with thinkers such as [Thomas Hobbes](/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes\n\"Thomas Hobbes\") and [René Descartes](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes \"René\nDescartes\") (1596–1650).[36] Following the rise of natural science, [Modern\nphilosophy](/wiki/Modern_philosophy \"Modern philosophy\") was concerned with\ndeveloping a secular and rational foundation for knowledge and moved away from\ntraditional structures of authority such as religion, scholastic thought and\nthe Church. Major modern philosophers include [Spinoza](/wiki/Spinoza\n\"Spinoza\"), [Leibniz](/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz \"Gottfried Wilhelm\nLeibniz\"), [Locke](/wiki/John_Locke \"John Locke\"),\n[Berkeley](/wiki/George_Berkeley \"George Berkeley\"), [Hume](/wiki/David_Hume\n\"David Hume\"), and [Kant](/wiki/Immanuel_Kant \"Immanuel Kant\").[37][38][39]\n[19th-century philosophy](/wiki/19th-century_philosophy \"19th-century\nphilosophy\") is influenced by the wider movement termed [the\nEnlightenment](/wiki/The_Enlightenment \"The Enlightenment\"), and includes\nfigures such as [Hegel](/wiki/Hegel \"Hegel\") a key figure in [German\nidealism](/wiki/German_idealism \"German idealism\"),\n[Kierkegaard](/wiki/Kierkegaard \"Kierkegaard\") who developed the foundations\nfor [existentialism](/wiki/Existentialism \"Existentialism\"),\n[Nietzsche](/wiki/Nietzsche \"Nietzsche\") a famed anti-Christian, [J.S.\nMill](/wiki/J.S._Mill \"J.S. Mill\") who promoted\n[Utilitarianism](/wiki/Utilitarianism \"Utilitarianism\"), [Karl\nMarx](/wiki/Karl_Marx \"Karl Marx\") who developed the foundations for\n[Communism](/wiki/Communism \"Communism\") and the American [William\nJames](/wiki/William_James \"William James\"). The 20th century saw the split\nbetween [Analytic philosophy](/wiki/Analytic_philosophy \"Analytic philosophy\")\nand [Continental philosophy](/wiki/Continental_philosophy \"Continental\nphilosophy\"), as well as philosophical trends such as\n[Phenomenology](/wiki/Phenomenology_\\(philosophy\\) \"Phenomenology\n\\(philosophy\\)\"), [Existentialism](/wiki/Existentialism \"Existentialism\"),\n[Logical Positivism](/wiki/Logical_Positivism \"Logical Positivism\"),\n[Pragmatism](/wiki/Pragmatism \"Pragmatism\") and the [Linguistic\nturn](/wiki/Linguistic_turn \"Linguistic turn\").\n\n### Middle Eastern philosophy\n\n[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-\n_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-\n_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg/150px-Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-\n_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-\n_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg)](/wiki/File:Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-\n_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_\\(Avicenna\\)_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-\n_Western_Iran_\\(7423560860\\).jpg)\n\n[](/wiki/File:Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-\n_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_\\(Avicenna\\)_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-\n_Western_Iran_\\(7423560860\\).jpg \"Enlarge\")\n\nAvicenna Portrait on Silver Vase, Iran\n\nSee also: [Islamic philosophy](/wiki/Islamic_philosophy \"Islamic philosophy\")\nand [Middle Eastern philosophy](/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy \"Middle\nEastern philosophy\")\n\nThe regions of the [fertile Crescent](/wiki/Fertile_Crescent \"Fertile\nCrescent\"), [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\") and [Arabia](/wiki/Arabia \"Arabia\") are\nhome to the earliest known philosophical [Wisdom\nliterature](/wiki/Wisdom_literature \"Wisdom literature\") and is today mostly\ndominated by [Islamic culture](/wiki/Islamic_culture \"Islamic culture\"). Early\nwisdom literature from the fertile crescent was a genre which sought to\ninstruct people on ethical action, practical living and virtue through stories\nand proverbs. In [Ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\"), these\ntexts were known as [sebayt](/wiki/Sebayt \"Sebayt\") ('teachings') and they are\ncentral to our understandings of [Ancient Egyptian\nphilosophy](/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy \"Ancient Egyptian philosophy\").\n[Babylonian astronomy](/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy \"Babylonian astronomy\") also\nincluded much philosophical speculations about cosmology which may have\ninfluenced the Ancient Greeks. [Jewish philosophy](/wiki/Jewish_philosophy\n\"Jewish philosophy\") and [Christian philosophy](/wiki/Christian_philosophy\n\"Christian philosophy\") are religio-philosophical traditions that developed\nboth in the Middle East and in Europe, which both share certain early Judaic\ntexts (mainly the [Tanakh](/wiki/Tanakh \"Tanakh\")) and monotheistic beliefs.\nJewish thinkers such as the [Geonim](/wiki/Geonim \"Geonim\") of the [Talmudic\nAcademies in Babylonia](/wiki/Talmudic_Academies_in_Babylonia \"Talmudic\nAcademies in Babylonia\") and [Maimonides](/wiki/Maimonides \"Maimonides\")\nengaged with Greek and Islamic philosophy. Later Jewish philosophy came under\nstrong Western intellectual influences and includes the works of [Moses\nMendelssohn](/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn \"Moses Mendelssohn\") who ushered in the\n[Haskalah](/wiki/Haskalah \"Haskalah\") (the Jewish Enlightenment), [Jewish\nexistentialism](/wiki/Jewish_existentialism \"Jewish existentialism\") and\n[Reform Judaism](/wiki/Reform_Judaism \"Reform Judaism\").\n\nPre-Islamic [Iranian philosophy](/wiki/Iranian_philosophy \"Iranian\nphilosophy\") begins with the work of [Zoroaster](/wiki/Zoroaster \"Zoroaster\"),\none of the first promoters of [monotheism](/wiki/Monotheism \"Monotheism\") and\nof the [dualism](/wiki/Dualism \"Dualism\") between good and evil. This\ndualistic cosmogony influenced later Iranian developments such as\n[Manichaeism](/wiki/Manichaeism \"Manichaeism\"), [Mazdakism](/wiki/Mazdakism\n\"Mazdakism\"), and [Zurvanism](/wiki/Zurvanism \"Zurvanism\").\n\nAfter the [Muslim conquests](/wiki/Muslim_conquests \"Muslim conquests\"),\n[Early Islamic philosophy](/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy \"Early Islamic\nphilosophy\") developed the Greek philosophical traditions in new innovative\ndirections. This [Islamic Golden Age](/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age \"Islamic Golden\nAge\") influenced European intellectual developments. The two main currents of\nearly Islamic thought are [Kalam](/wiki/Kalam \"Kalam\") which focuses on\n[Islamic theology](/wiki/Islamic_theology \"Islamic theology\") and Falsafa\nwhich was based on [Aristotelianism](/wiki/Aristotelianism \"Aristotelianism\")\nand [Neoplatonism](/wiki/Neoplatonism \"Neoplatonism\"). The work of Aristotle\nwas very influential among the falsafa such as [al-Kindi](/wiki/Al-Kindi \"Al-\nKindi\") (9th century), [Avicenna](/wiki/Avicenna \"Avicenna\") (980 – June 1037)\nand [Averroes](/wiki/Averroes \"Averroes\") (12th century). Others such as [Al-\nGhazali](/wiki/Al-Ghazali \"Al-Ghazali\") were highly critical of the methods of\nthe Aristotelian falsafa. Islamic thinkers also developed a [scientific\nmethod](/wiki/Scientific_method \"Scientific method\"), experimental medicine, a\ntheory of optics and a legal philosophy. [Ibn Khaldun](/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun \"Ibn\nKhaldun\") was an influential thinker in [philosophy of\nhistory](/wiki/Philosophy_of_history \"Philosophy of history\").\n\nIn [Iran](/wiki/History_of_Iran \"History of Iran\") several schools of Islamic\nphilosophy continued to flourish after the Golden Age and include currents\nsuch as [Illuminationist philosophy](/wiki/Illuminationist_philosophy\n\"Illuminationist philosophy\"), [Sufi philosophy](/wiki/Sufi_philosophy \"Sufi\nphilosophy\"), and [Transcendent theosophy](/wiki/Transcendent_theosophy\n\"Transcendent theosophy\"). The 19th and 20th century [Arab\nworld](/wiki/Arab_world \"Arab world\") saw the [Nahda](/wiki/Al-Nahda \"Al-\nNahda\") (awakening or renaissance) movement which influenced [contemporary\nIslamic philosophy](/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy \"Contemporary\nIslamic philosophy\").\n\n### Indian philosophy\n\n[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Chanakya_artistic_depiction.jpg)](/wiki/File:Chanakya_artistic_depiction.jpg)\n\n[](/wiki/File:Chanakya_artistic_depiction.jpg \"Enlarge\")\n\n[Chanakya](/wiki/Chanakya \"Chanakya\")\n\n[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Photograph_of_Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan_presented_to_First_Lady_Jacqueline_Kennedy_in_1962.jpg/200px-\nPhotograph_of_Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan_presented_to_First_Lady_Jacqueline_Kennedy_in_1962.jpg)](/wiki/File:Photograph_of_Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan_presented_to_First_Lady_Jacqueline_Kennedy_in_1962.jpg)\n\n[](/wiki/File:Photograph_of_Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan_presented_to_First_Lady_Jacqueline_Kennedy_in_1962.jpg\n\"Enlarge\")\n\n[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan](/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan \"Sarvepalli\nRadhakrishnan\"), philosopher and second president of India, 1962 to 1967.\n\n[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Long_view_nalanda.JPG/200px-\nLong_view_nalanda.JPG)](/wiki/File:Long_view_nalanda.JPG)\n\n[](/wiki/File:Long_view_nalanda.JPG \"Enlarge\")\n\n[Nalanda](/wiki/Nalanda \"Nalanda\") university\n\nSee also: [Eastern philosophy](/wiki/Eastern_philosophy \"Eastern philosophy\")\n\nMain article: [Indian philosophy](/wiki/Indian_philosophy \"Indian philosophy\")\n\n[Indian philosophy](/wiki/Indian_philosophy \"Indian philosophy\")\n([Sanskrit](/wiki/Sanskrit_language \"Sanskrit language\"): _darśana_ ; 'world\nviews', 'teachings')[40] is composed of philosophical traditions originating\nin the [Indian subcontinent](/wiki/Indian_subcontinent \"Indian subcontinent\").\nTraditions of Indian philosophy are generally classified as either orthodox or\nheterodox – [āstika or nāstika](/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika \"Āstika and\nnāstika\") – depending on whether they accept the authority of the\n[Vedas](/wiki/Vedas \"Vedas\") and whether they accept the theories of\n[Brahman](/wiki/Brahman \"Brahman\") and [Atman](/wiki/Atman_\\(Hinduism\\) \"Atman\n\\(Hinduism\\)\").[41][42] The orthodox schools generally include\n[Nyaya](/wiki/Nyaya \"Nyaya\"), [Vaisheshika](/wiki/Vaisheshika \"Vaisheshika\"),\n[Samkhya](/wiki/Samkhya \"Samkhya\"), [Yoga](/wiki/Yoga_\\(philosophy\\) \"Yoga\n\\(philosophy\\)\"), [Mīmāṃsā](/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81 \"Mīmāṃsā\")\nand [Vedanta](/wiki/Vedanta \"Vedanta\"), and the common heterodox schools are\n[Jain](/wiki/Jainism \"Jainism\"), [Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhism \"Buddhism\"),\n[Ajñana](/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana \"Ajñana\"), [Ajivika](/wiki/Ajivika \"Ajivika\") and\n[Cārvāka](/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka \"Cārvāka\"). Some of the earliest surviving\nphilosophical texts are the [Upanishads](/wiki/Upanishads \"Upanishads\") of the\n[later Vedic period (1000–500\nBCE)](/wiki/Vedic_period#Later_Vedic_period_\\(1000–500_BCE\\) \"Vedic period\").\nImportant Indian philosophical concepts include [dharma](/wiki/Dharma\n\"Dharma\"), [karma](/wiki/Karma \"Karma\"), [samsara](/wiki/Samsara \"Samsara\"),\n[moksha](/wiki/Moksha \"Moksha\") and [ahimsa](/wiki/Ahimsa \"Ahimsa\"). Indian\nphilosophers developed a system of epistemological reasoning\n([pramana](/wiki/Pramana \"Pramana\")) and logic and investigated topics such as\nmetaphysics, ethics, [hermeneutics](/wiki/Hermeneutics \"Hermeneutics\") and\n[soteriology](/wiki/Soteriology \"Soteriology\"). Indian philosophy also covered\ntopics such as political philosophy as seen in the\n[Arthashastra](/wiki/Arthashastra \"Arthashastra\") c. 4th century BCE and the\nphilosophy of love as seen in the [Kama Sutra](/wiki/Kama_Sutra \"Kama Sutra\").\n\nThe commonly named six orthodox schools arose sometime between the start of\nthe [Common Era](/wiki/Common_Era \"Common Era\") and the [Gupta\nEmpire](/wiki/Gupta_Empire \"Gupta Empire\").[43] These Hindu schools developed\nwhat has been called the \"Hindu synthesis\" merging orthodox\n[Brahmanical](/wiki/Brahmanical \"Brahmanical\") and unorthodox elements from\nBuddhism and Jainism as a way to respond to the unorthodox challenges.[44]\nHindu thought also spread east to the Indonesian [Srivijaya\nempire](/wiki/Srivijaya_empire \"Srivijaya empire\") and the Cambodian [Khmer\nEmpire](/wiki/Khmer_Empire \"Khmer Empire\").\n\nLater developments include the development of [Tantra](/wiki/Tantra \"Tantra\")\nand Iranian-Islamic influences. Buddhism mostly disappeared from India after\nthe [Muslim conquest in the Indian\nsubcontinent](/wiki/Muslim_conquest_in_the_Indian_subcontinent \"Muslim\nconquest in the Indian subcontinent\"), surviving in the Himalayan regions and\nsouth India.[45] The early modern period saw the flourishing of [Navya-\nNyāya](/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya \"Navya-Nyāya\") (the 'new reason') under\nphilosophers such as [Raghunatha Siromani](/wiki/Raghunatha_Siromani\n\"Raghunatha Siromani\") (c. 1460–1540) who founded the tradition, [Jayarama\nPancanana](/w/index.php?title=Jayarama_Pancanana&action=edit&redlink=1\n\"Jayarama Pancanana \\(page does not exist\\)\"), [Mahadeva\nPunatamakara](/w/index.php?title=Mahadeva_Punatamakara&action=edit&redlink=1\n\"Mahadeva Punatamakara \\(page does not exist\\)\") and\n[Yashovijaya](/wiki/Yashovijaya \"Yashovijaya\") (who formulated a Jain\nresponse).[46]\n\nThe modern era saw the rise of [Hindu nationalism](/wiki/Hindu_nationalism\n\"Hindu nationalism\"), [Hindu reform movements](/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements\n\"Hindu reform movements\") and [Neo-Vedanta](/wiki/Neo-Vedanta \"Neo-Vedanta\")\n(or Hindu modernism) whose major proponents included\n[Vivekananda](/wiki/Vivekananda \"Vivekananda\"), [Mahatma\nGandhi](/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi \"Mahatma Gandhi\") and [Aurobindo](/wiki/Aurobindo\n\"Aurobindo\") and who for the first time promoted the idea of a unified\n\"[Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\")\". Due to the influence of British\ncolonialism, much modern Indian philosophical work was in English and includes\nthinkers such as [Radhakrishnan](/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan \"Sarvepalli\nRadhakrishnan\"), [Krishna Chandra\nBhattacharya](/wiki/Krishna_Chandra_Bhattacharya \"Krishna Chandra\nBhattacharya\"), [Bimal Krishna Matilal](/wiki/Bimal_Krishna_Matilal \"Bimal\nKrishna Matilal\") and [M. Hiriyanna](/wiki/M._Hiriyanna \"M. Hiriyanna\").[47]\n\n### Buddhist philosophy\n\nMain articles: [Buddhist philosophy](/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy \"Buddhist\nphilosophy\") and [Buddhist ethics](/wiki/Buddhist_ethics \"Buddhist ethics\")\n\n![File:Monks debating at Sera monastery,\n2013.webm](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm/220px\n--Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm.jpg)[Play\nmedia](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm\n\"Play media\")\n\n[](/wiki/File:Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery,_2013.webm \"Enlarge\")\n\nMonks debating at [Sera monastery](/wiki/Sera_monastery \"Sera monastery\"),\nTibet, 2013.\n\n[Buddhist philosophy](/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy \"Buddhist philosophy\") begins\nwith the thought of [Gautama Buddha](/wiki/Gautama_Buddha \"Gautama Buddha\")\n(fl. between sixth and fourth centuries BCE) and is preserved in the [early\nBuddhist texts](/wiki/Buddhist_texts#Texts_of_the_Early_schools \"Buddhist\ntexts\"). Buddhist thought is trans-regional and trans-cultural. It originated\nin India and later spread to [East Asia](/wiki/East_Asia \"East Asia\"),\n[Tibet](/wiki/Tibet \"Tibet\"), [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia \"Central\nAsia\"), and [Southeast Asia](/wiki/Southeast_Asia \"Southeast Asia\"),\ndeveloping new and syncretic traditions in these different regions. The\nvarious Buddhist schools of thought are the dominant philosophical tradition\nin [Tibet](/wiki/Tibet \"Tibet\") and Southeast Asian countries like [Sri\nLanka](/wiki/Sri_Lanka \"Sri Lanka\") and [Burma](/wiki/Burma \"Burma\"). Because\n[ignorance](/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_\\(Buddhism\\) \"Avidyā \\(Buddhism\\)\") to the true\nnature of things is considered one of the roots of suffering\n([dukkha](/wiki/Dukkha \"Dukkha\")), Buddhist philosophy is concerned with\nepistemology, metaphysics, ethics and psychology. The ending of\n[dukkha](/wiki/Dukkha \"Dukkha\") also encompasses [meditative\npractices](/wiki/Buddhist_meditation \"Buddhist meditation\"). Key innovative\nconcepts include the [Four Noble Truths](/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths \"Four Noble\nTruths\"), [Anatta](/wiki/Anatta \"Anatta\") (not-self) a critique of a fixed\n[personal identity](/wiki/Personal_identity \"Personal identity\"), the\ntransience of all things ([Anicca](/wiki/Anicca \"Anicca\")), and a certain\n[skepticism about metaphysical questions](/wiki/The_unanswered_questions \"The\nunanswered questions\").\n\nLater Buddhist philosophical traditions developed complex phenomenological\npsychologies termed '[Abhidharma](/wiki/Abhidharma \"Abhidharma\")'.\n[Mahayana](/wiki/Mahayana \"Mahayana\") philosophers such as\n[Nagarjuna](/wiki/Nagarjuna \"Nagarjuna\") and [Vasubandhu](/wiki/Vasubandhu\n\"Vasubandhu\") developed the theories of [Shunyata](/wiki/Shunyata \"Shunyata\")\n(emptiness of all phenomena) and Vijnapti-matra (appearance only), a form of\nphenomenology or [transcendental idealism](/wiki/Transcendental_idealism\n\"Transcendental idealism\"). The [Dignāga](/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga \"Dignāga\") school\nof [Pramāṇa](/wiki/Pram%C4%81%E1%B9%87a \"Pramāṇa\") promoted a complex form of\n[epistemology](/wiki/Epistemology \"Epistemology\") and [Buddhist\nlogic](/wiki/Buddhist_logic \"Buddhist logic\"). After the disappearance of\nBuddhism from India, these philosophical traditions continued to develop in\nthe [Tibetan Buddhist](/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist \"Tibetan Buddhist\"), [East Asian\nBuddhist](/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhist \"East Asian Buddhist\") and [Theravada\nBuddhist](/wiki/Theravada_Buddhist \"Theravada Buddhist\") traditions. The\nmodern period saw the rise of [Buddhist modernism](/wiki/Buddhist_modernism\n\"Buddhist modernism\") and [Humanistic Buddhism](/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism\n\"Humanistic Buddhism\") under Western influences and the development of a\n[Western Buddhism](/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West \"Buddhism in the West\") with\ninfluences from modern psychology and Western philosophy.\n\n### East Asian philosophy\n\nMain articles: [Chinese philosophy](/wiki/Chinese_philosophy \"Chinese\nphilosophy\"), [Korean philosophy](/wiki/Korean_philosophy \"Korean\nphilosophy\"), and [Japanese philosophy](/wiki/Japanese_philosophy \"Japanese\nphilosophy\")\n\n[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Rongo_Analects_02.jpg/220px-\nRongo_Analects_02.jpg)](/wiki/File:Rongo_Analects_02.jpg)\n\n[](/wiki/File:Rongo_Analects_02.jpg \"Enlarge\")\n\nThe _[Analects of Confucius](/wiki/Analects_of_Confucius \"Analects of\nConfucius\")_ (fl. 551–479 BCE)\n\n[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Kitaro_Nishidain_in_Feb._1943.jpg/170px-\nKitaro_Nishidain_in_Feb._1943.jpg)](/wiki/File:Kitaro_Nishidain_in_Feb._1943.jpg)\n\n[](/wiki/File:Kitaro_Nishidain_in_Feb._1943.jpg \"Enlarge\")\n\nKitarō Nishida, professor of philosophy at Kyoto University and founder of the\n[Kyoto School](/wiki/Kyoto_School \"Kyoto School\").\n\nEast Asian philosophical thought began in [Ancient\nChina](/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China \"History of China\"), and [Chinese\nphilosophy](/wiki/Chinese_philosophy \"Chinese philosophy\") begins during the\n[Western Zhou](/wiki/Western_Zhou \"Western Zhou\") Dynasty and the following\nperiods after its fall when the \"[Hundred Schools of\nThought](/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought \"Hundred Schools of Thought\")\"\nflourished (6th century to 221 BCE).[48][49] This period was characterized by\nsignificant intellectual and cultural developments and saw the rise of the\nmajor philosophical schools of China, [Confucianism](/wiki/Confucianism\n\"Confucianism\"), [Legalism](/wiki/Legalism_\\(Chinese_philosophy\\) \"Legalism\n\\(Chinese philosophy\\)\"), and [Daoism](/wiki/Daoism \"Daoism\") as well as\nnumerous other less influential schools. These philosophical traditions\ndeveloped metaphysical, political and ethical theories such [Tao](/wiki/Tao\n\"Tao\"), [Yin and yang](/wiki/Yin_and_yang \"Yin and yang\"),\n[Ren](/wiki/Ren_\\(Confucianism\\) \"Ren \\(Confucianism\\)\") and\n[Li](/wiki/Li_\\(Confucianism\\) \"Li \\(Confucianism\\)\") which, along with\n[Chinese Buddhism](/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism \"Chinese Buddhism\"), directly\ninfluenced [Korean philosophy](/wiki/Korean_philosophy \"Korean philosophy\"),\n[Vietnamese philosophy](/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy \"Vietnamese philosophy\")\nand [Japanese philosophy](/wiki/Japanese_philosophy \"Japanese philosophy\")\n(which also includes the native [Shinto](/wiki/Shinto \"Shinto\") tradition).\nBuddhism began arriving in China during the [Han Dynasty](/wiki/Han_Dynasty\n\"Han Dynasty\") (206 BCE–220 CE), through a [gradual Silk road\ntransmission](/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism \"Silk Road transmission\nof Buddhism\") and through native influences developed distinct Chinese forms\n(such as Chan/[Zen](/wiki/Zen \"Zen\")) which spread throughout the [East Asian\ncultural sphere](/wiki/East_Asian_cultural_sphere \"East Asian cultural\nsphere\"). During later Chinese dynasties like the [Ming\nDynasty](/wiki/Ming_Dynasty \"Ming Dynasty\") (1368–1644) as well as in the\nKorean [Joseon dynasty](/wiki/Joseon_dynasty \"Joseon dynasty\") (1392–1897) a\nresurgent [Neo-Confucianism](/wiki/Neo-Confucianism \"Neo-Confucianism\") led by\nthinkers such as [Wang Yangming](/wiki/Wang_Yangming \"Wang Yangming\")\n(1472–1529) became the dominant school of thought, and was promoted by the\nimperial state.\n\nIn the Modern era, Chinese thinkers incorporated ideas from Western\nphilosophy. [Chinese Marxist philosophy](/wiki/Chinese_Marxist_philosophy\n\"Chinese Marxist philosophy\") developed under the influence of [Mao\nZedong](/wiki/Mao_Zedong \"Mao Zedong\"), while a Chinese pragmatism under [Hu\nShih](/wiki/Hu_Shih \"Hu Shih\") and [New Confucianism](/wiki/New_Confucianism\n\"New Confucianism\")'s rise was influenced by [Xiong Shili](/wiki/Xiong_Shili\n\"Xiong Shili\"). Modern Japanese thought meanwhile developed under strong\nWestern influences such as the study of Western Sciences\n([Rangaku](/wiki/Rangaku \"Rangaku\")) and the modernist\n[Meirokusha](/wiki/Meirokusha \"Meirokusha\") intellectual society which drew\nfrom European enlightenment thought. The 20th century saw the rise of [State\nShinto](/wiki/State_Shinto \"State Shinto\") and also [Japanese\nnationalism](/wiki/Statism_in_Sh%C5%8Dwa_Japan \"Statism in Shōwa Japan\"). The\n[Kyoto School](/wiki/Kyoto_School \"Kyoto School\"), an influential and unique\nJapanese philosophical school developed from Western phenomenology and\nMedieval Japanese Buddhist philosophy such as that of [Dogen](/wiki/Dogen\n\"Dogen\").\n\n### African philosophy\n\nMain article: [African philosophy](/wiki/African_philosophy \"African\nphilosophy\")\n\nAfrican philosophy is philosophy produced by [African\npeople](/wiki/African_people \"African people\"), philosophy that presents\nAfrican worldviews, ideas and themes, or philosophy that uses distinct African\nphilosophical methods. Modern African thought has been occupied with\n[Ethnophilosophy](/wiki/Ethnophilosophy \"Ethnophilosophy\"), with defining the\nvery meaning of African philosophy and its unique characteristics and what it\nmeans to be [African](/wiki/African_people \"African people\").[50] During the\n17th century, [Ethiopian philosophy](/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy \"Ethiopian\nphilosophy\") developed a robust literary tradition as exemplified by [Zera\nYacob](/wiki/Zera_Yacob_\\(philosopher\\) \"Zera Yacob \\(philosopher\\)\"). Another\nearly African philosopher was [Anton Wilhelm Amo](/wiki/Anton_Wilhelm_Amo\n\"Anton Wilhelm Amo\") (c. 1703–1759) who became a respected philosopher in\nGermany. Distinct African philosophical ideas include [Ujamaa](/wiki/Ujamaa\n\"Ujamaa\"), the Bantu idea of ['Force'](/wiki/Bantu_Philosophy \"Bantu\nPhilosophy\"), [Négritude](/wiki/N%C3%A9gritude \"Négritude\"), [Pan-\nAfricanism](/wiki/Pan-Africanism \"Pan-Africanism\") and\n[Ubuntu](/wiki/Ubuntu_\\(philosophy\\) \"Ubuntu \\(philosophy\\)\"). Contemporary\nAfrican thought has also seen the development of Professional philosophy and\nof [Africana philosophy](/wiki/Africana_philosophy \"Africana philosophy\"), the\nphilosophical literature of the [African diaspora](/wiki/African_diaspora\n\"African diaspora\") which includes currents such as [black\nexistentialism](/wiki/Black_existentialism \"Black existentialism\") by\n[African-Americans](/wiki/African-Americans \"African-Americans\"). Modern\nAfrican thinkers have been influenced by [Marxism](/wiki/Marxism \"Marxism\"),\n[African-American literature](/wiki/African-American_literature \"African-\nAmerican literature\"), [Critical theory](/wiki/Critical_theory \"Critical\ntheory\"), [Critical race theory](/wiki/Critical_race_theory \"Critical race\ntheory\"), [Postcolonialism](/wiki/Postcolonialism \"Postcolonialism\") and\n[Feminism](/wiki/Feminism \"Feminism\").\n\n### Indigenous American philosophy\n\nMain article: [Indigenous American\nphilosophy](/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy \"Indigenous American\nphilosophy\")\n\n[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Sun_stone_detail.JPG/220px-\nSun_stone_detail.JPG)](/wiki/File:Sun_stone_detail.JPG)\n\n[](/wiki/File:Sun_stone_detail.JPG \"Enlarge\")\n\nThe Aztec [Sun Stone](/wiki/Aztec_calendar_stone \"Aztec calendar stone\"), also\nknown as the Aztec Calendar Stone, at [National Museum of\nAnthropology](/wiki/National_Museum_of_Anthropology \"National Museum of\nAnthropology\"), [Mexico City](/wiki/Mexico_City \"Mexico City\").\n\nIndigenous American philosophy is the philosophy of the [Indigenous people of\nthe Americas](/wiki/Indigenous_people_of_the_Americas \"Indigenous people of\nthe Americas\"). There is a wide variety of beliefs and traditions among these\ndifferent American cultures. Among some of the [Native Americans in the United\nStates](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the\nUnited States\") there is a belief in a metaphysical principle called the\n\"Great Mystery\" ([Siouan](/wiki/Siouan \"Siouan\"): [Wakan\nTanka](/wiki/Wakan_Tanka \"Wakan Tanka\"),\n[Algonquian](/wiki/Algonquian_languages \"Algonquian languages\"): [Gitche\nManitou](/wiki/Gitche_Manitou \"Gitche Manitou\")). Another widely shared\nconcept was that of [Orenda](/wiki/Orenda \"Orenda\") or \"spiritual power\".\nAccording to Peter M. Whiteley, for the Native Americans, \"Mind is critically\ninformed by transcendental experience (dreams, visions and so on) as well as\nby reason.\"[51] The practices to access these transcendental experiences are\ntermed [Shamanism](/wiki/Shamanism \"Shamanism\"). Another feature of the\nindigenous American worldviews was their extension of ethics to non-human\nanimals and plants.[51][52]\n\nIn [Mesoamerica](/wiki/Mesoamerica \"Mesoamerica\"), [Aztec\nphilosophy](/wiki/Aztec_philosophy \"Aztec philosophy\") was an intellectual\ntradition developed by individuals called [Tlamatini](/wiki/Tlamatini\n\"Tlamatini\") ('those who know something') [53] and its ideas are preserved in\nvarious [Aztec codices](/wiki/Aztec_codices \"Aztec codices\"). The Aztec\nworldview posited the concept of an ultimate universal energy or force called\n[Ometeotl](/wiki/Ometeotl \"Ometeotl\") which can be translated as \"Dual Cosmic\nEnergy\" and sought a way to live in balance with a constantly changing,\n\"slippery\" world. The theory of Teotl can be seen as a form of\n[Pantheism](/wiki/Pantheism \"Pantheism\").[54] Aztec philosophers developed\ntheories of metaphysics, epistemology, values, and aesthetics. Aztec ethics\nwas focused on seeking _tlamatiliztli_ (knowledge, wisdom) which was based on\nmoderation and balance in all actions as in the Nahua proverb \"the middle good\nis necessary\".[54]\n\nThe [Inca civilization](/wiki/Inca_civilization \"Inca civilization\") also had\nan elite class of philosopher-scholars termed the Amawtakuna who were\nimportant in the [Inca education](/wiki/Inca_education \"Inca education\")\nsystem as teachers of religion, tradition, history and ethics. Key concepts of\nAndean thought are [Yanantin](/wiki/Yanantin \"Yanantin\") and\n[Masintin](/wiki/Yanantin#Masintin \"Yanantin\") which involve a theory of\n“complementary opposites” that sees polarities (such as male/female,\ndark/light) as interdependent parts of a harmonious whole.[55]\n\n## Categories\n\nPhilosophical questions can be grouped into categories. These groupings allow\nphilosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other\nthinkers who are interested in the same questions. The groupings also make\nphilosophy easier for students to approach. Students can learn the basic\nprinciples involved in one aspect of the field without being overwhelmed with\nthe entire set of philosophical theories.\n\nVarious sources present different categorical schemes. The categories adopted\nin this article aim for breadth and simplicity.\n\nThese five major branches can be separated into sub-branches and each sub-\nbranch contains many specific fields of study.[56]\n\n * [Metaphysics](/wiki/Metaphysics \"Metaphysics\") and [epistemology](/wiki/Epistemology \"Epistemology\")\n * [Value theory](/wiki/Value_theory \"Value theory\")\n * Science, [logic](/wiki/Logic \"Logic\") and mathematics\n * History of Western philosophy[57]\n * Philosophical traditions\n\nThese divisions are neither exhaustive, nor mutually exclusive. (A philosopher\nmight specialize in [Kantian](/wiki/Kant \"Kant\") epistemology, or\n[Platonic](/wiki/Plato \"Plato\") aesthetics, or modern political philosophy.)\nFurthermore, these philosophical inquiries sometimes overlap with each other\nand with other inquiries such as science, religion or mathematics.[58]\n\n### Metaphysics\n\nMain article: [Metaphysics](/wiki/Metaphysics \"Metaphysics\")\n\nMetaphysics is the study of the most general features of\n[reality](/wiki/Reality \"Reality\"), such as [existence](/wiki/Existence\n\"Existence\"), [time](/wiki/Time \"Time\"), [objects](/wiki/Object_\\(philosophy\\)\n\"Object \\(philosophy\\)\") and their [properties](/wiki/Property_\\(philosophy\\)\n\"Property \\(philosophy\\)\"), wholes and their parts, events, processes and\n[causation](/wiki/Causality \"Causality\") and the relationship between\n[mind](/wiki/Mind \"Mind\") and [body](/wiki/Human_body \"Human body\").\nMetaphysics includes [cosmology](/wiki/Cosmology \"Cosmology\"), the study of\nthe [world](/wiki/World \"World\") in its entirety and [ontology](/wiki/Ontology\n\"Ontology\"), the study of [being](/wiki/Being \"Being\").\n\nA major point of debate is between [realism](/wiki/Philosophical_realism\n\"Philosophical realism\"), which holds that there are entities that exist\nindependently of their mental perception and [idealism](/wiki/Idealism\n\"Idealism\"), which holds that reality is mentally constructed or otherwise\nimmaterial. Metaphysics deals with the topic of\n[identity](/wiki/Personal_identity \"Personal identity\").\n[Essence](/wiki/Essence \"Essence\") is the set of attributes that make an\nobject what it fundamentally is and without which it loses its identity while\n[accident](/wiki/Accident_\\(philosophy\\) \"Accident \\(philosophy\\)\") is a\nproperty that the object has, without which the object can still retain its\nidentity. [Particulars](/wiki/Particular \"Particular\") are objects that are\nsaid to exist in space and time, as opposed to [abstract\nobjects](/wiki/Abstract_object \"Abstract object\"), such as numbers, and\n[universals](/wiki/Universals \"Universals\"), which are properties held by\nmultiple particulars, such as redness or a gender. The type of existence, if\nany, of universals and abstract objects is an issue of debate.\n\n### Epistemology\n\nMain article: [Epistemology](/wiki/Epistemology \"Epistemology\")\n\n[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Dignaga.jpg/200px-\nDignaga.jpg)](/wiki/File:Dignaga.jpg)\n\n[](/wiki/File:Dignaga.jpg \"Enlarge\")\n\n[Dignaga](/wiki/Dignaga \"Dignaga\") founded a school of [Buddhist epistemology\nand logic](/wiki/Buddhist_logic \"Buddhist logic\").\n\nEpistemology is the study of knowledge (Greek episteme).[59] Epistemologists\nstudy the putative sources of knowledge, including intuition, a priori reason,\nmemory, perceptual knowledge, self-knowledge and testimony. They also ask:\nWhat is [truth](/wiki/Truth \"Truth\")? Is knowledge justified true belief? Are\nany beliefs [justified](/wiki/Theory_of_justification \"Theory of\njustification\")? Putative knowledge includes propositional knowledge\n(knowledge that something is the case), know-how (knowledge of how to do\nsomething) and acquaintance (familiarity with someone or something).\nEpistemologists examine these and ask whether knowledge is really possible.\n\n[Skepticism](/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism \"Philosophical skepticism\") is the\nposition which doubts claims to knowledge. The [regress\nargument](/wiki/Regress_argument \"Regress argument\"), a fundamental problem in\nepistemology, occurs when, in order to completely prove any statement, its\njustification itself needs to be supported by another justification. This\nchain can go on forever, called [infinitism](/wiki/Infinitism \"Infinitism\"),\nit can eventually rely on [basic beliefs](/wiki/Basic_beliefs \"Basic beliefs\")\nthat are left unproven, called [foundationalism](/wiki/Foundationalism\n\"Foundationalism\"), or it can go in a circle so that a statement is included\nin its own chain of justification, called [coherentism](/wiki/Coherentism\n\"Coherentism\").\n\n[Rationalism](/wiki/Rationalism \"Rationalism\") is the emphasis on reasoning as\na source of knowledge. It is associated with [a priori\nknowledge](/wiki/A_priori_knowledge \"A priori knowledge\"), which is\nindependent of experience, such as math and logical deduction.\n[Empiricism](/wiki/Empiricism \"Empiricism\") is the emphasis on observational\nevidence via sensory experience as the source of knowledge.\n\nAmong the numerous topics within metaphysics and epistemology, broadly\nconstrued are:\n\n * [Philosophy of language](/wiki/Philosophy_of_language \"Philosophy of language\") explores the nature, the origins and the use of language.\n * [Philosophy of mind](/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind \"Philosophy of mind\") explores the nature of the mind and its relationship to the body. It is typified by disputes between [dualism](/wiki/Dualism_\\(philosophy_of_mind\\) \"Dualism \\(philosophy of mind\\)\") and [materialism](/wiki/Materialism \"Materialism\"). In recent years this branch has become related to [cognitive science](/wiki/Cognitive_science \"Cognitive science\").\n * [Philosophy of human nature](/wiki/Human_nature \"Human nature\") analyzes the unique characteristics of human beings, such as rationality, politics and culture.\n * [Metaphilosophy](/wiki/Metaphilosophy \"Metaphilosophy\") explores the aims of philosophy, its boundaries and its methods.\n\n### Value theory\n\nValue theory (or [axiology](/wiki/Axiology \"Axiology\")) is the major branch of\nphilosophy that addresses topics such as goodness, beauty and justice. Value\ntheory includes ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, feminist philosophy,\nphilosophy of law and more.\n\n#### Ethics\n\n \n\nMain article: [Ethics](/wiki/Ethics \"Ethics\")\n\n[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/BeijingConfuciusTemple9.jpg/200px-\nBeijingConfuciusTemple9.jpg)](/wiki/File:BeijingConfuciusTemple9.jpg)\n\n[](/wiki/File:BeijingConfuciusTemple9.jpg \"Enlarge\")\n\nThe [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\") [imperial\ncollege](/wiki/Guozijian_\\(Beijing\\) \"Guozijian \\(Beijing\\)\") was an\nintellectual center for Confucian ethics and classics during the\n[Yuan](/wiki/Yuan_Dynasty \"Yuan Dynasty\"), [Ming](/wiki/Ming_Dynasty \"Ming\nDynasty\") and [Qing](/wiki/Qing_Dynasty \"Qing Dynasty\") dynasties.\n\nEthics, or \"moral philosophy\", studies and considers what is good and bad\n[conduct](/wiki/Action_\\(philosophy\\) \"Action \\(philosophy\\)\"), right and\n[wrong](/wiki/Wrong \"Wrong\") [values](/wiki/Values_\\(philosophy\\) \"Values\n\\(philosophy\\)\"), and [good and evil](/wiki/Good_and_evil \"Good and evil\").\nIts primary investigations include how to live a good life and identifying\nstandards of [morality](/wiki/Morality \"Morality\"). It also includes [meta-\ninvestigations](/wiki/Meta-analysis \"Meta-analysis\") about whether a best way\nto live or related standards exists. The main branches of ethics are\n[normative ethics](/wiki/Normative_ethics \"Normative ethics\"), [meta-\nethics](/wiki/Meta-ethics \"Meta-ethics\") and [applied\nethics](/wiki/Applied_ethics \"Applied ethics\").\n\nA major area of debate involves [consequentialism](/wiki/Consequentialism\n\"Consequentialism\"), in which actions are judged by the potential results of\nthe act, such as to maximize happiness, called\n[utilitarianism](/wiki/Utilitarianism \"Utilitarianism\"), and\n[deontology](/wiki/Deontology \"Deontology\"), in which actions are judged by\nhow they adhere to principles, irrespective of negative ends.\n\n#### Aesthetics\n\nMain article: [Aesthetics](/wiki/Aesthetics \"Aesthetics\")\n\nAesthetics is the \"critical reflection on art, culture and\n[nature](/wiki/Nature \"Nature\").\"[60][61] It addresses the nature of\n[art](/wiki/Art \"Art\"), [beauty](/wiki/Beauty \"Beauty\") and\n[taste](/wiki/Taste_\\(sociology\\) \"Taste \\(sociology\\)\"), enjoyment, emotional\nvalues, perception and with the creation and appreciation of beauty.[62][63]\nIt is more precisely defined as the study of [sensory](/wiki/Senses \"Senses\")\nor sensori-emotional values, sometimes called [judgments](/wiki/Judgment\n\"Judgment\") of [sentiment](/wiki/Feeling \"Feeling\") and taste.[64] Its major\ndivisions are art theory, [literary theory](/wiki/Literary_theory \"Literary\ntheory\"), [film theory](/wiki/Film_theory \"Film theory\") and [music\ntheory](/wiki/Music_theory \"Music theory\"). An example from art theory is to\ndiscern the set of principles underlying the work of a particular artist or\nartistic movement such as the [Cubist](/wiki/Cubist \"Cubist\") aesthetic.[65]\nThe [philosophy of film](/wiki/Philosophy_of_film \"Philosophy of film\")\nanalyzes films and filmmakers for their philosophical content and explores\nfilm (images, cinema, etc.) as a medium for philosophical reflection and\nexpression.[ _[citation needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\n\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\")_ ]\n\n#### Political philosophy\n\nMain article: [Political philosophy](/wiki/Political_philosophy \"Political\nphilosophy\")\n\n[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Thomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%29.jpg/220px-\nThomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%29.jpg)](/wiki/File:Thomas_Hobbes_\\(portrait\\).jpg)\n\n[](/wiki/File:Thomas_Hobbes_\\(portrait\\).jpg \"Enlarge\")\n\n[Thomas Hobbes](/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes \"Thomas Hobbes\")\n\nPolitical philosophy is the study of [government](/wiki/Government\n\"Government\") and the relationship of individuals (or families and clans) to\ncommunities including the [state](/wiki/State_\\(polity\\) \"State \\(polity\\)\").\nIt includes questions about justice, law, property and the rights and\nobligations of the citizen. Politics and ethics are traditionally linked\nsubjects, as both discuss the question of how people should live together.\n\nOther branches of value theory:\n\n * [Philosophy of law](/wiki/Philosophy_of_law \"Philosophy of law\") (often called [jurisprudence](/wiki/Jurisprudence \"Jurisprudence\")) explores the varying theories explaining the nature and interpretation of laws.\n * [Philosophy of education](/wiki/Philosophy_of_education \"Philosophy of education\") analyzes the definition and content of education, as well as the goals and challenges of educators.\n * [Feminist philosophy](/wiki/Feminist_philosophy \"Feminist philosophy\") explores questions surrounding gender, sexuality and the body including the nature of [feminism](/wiki/Feminism \"Feminism\") itself as a social and philosophical movement.\n * [Philosophy of sport](/wiki/Philosophy_of_sport \"Philosophy of sport\") analyzes sports, games and other forms of play as sociological and uniquely human activities.\n\n### Logic, science and mathematics\n\nMany academic disciplines generated philosophical inquiry. The relationship\nbetween \"X\" and the \"philosophy of X\" is debated. [Richard\nFeynman](/wiki/Richard_Feynman \"Richard Feynman\") argued that the philosophy\nof a topic is irrelevant to its primary study, saying that \"[philosophy of\nscience](/wiki/Philosophy_of_science \"Philosophy of science\") is as useful to\nscientists as [ornithology](/wiki/Ornithology \"Ornithology\") is to birds.\"\n[Curtis White](/wiki/Curtis_White_\\(author\\) \"Curtis White \\(author\\)\"), by\ncontrast, argued that philosophical tools are essential to humanities,\nsciences and social sciences.[66]\n\nThe topics of philosophy of science are [numbers](/wiki/Number \"Number\"),\nsymbols and the formal methods of reasoning as employed in the [social\nsciences](/wiki/Social_science \"Social science\") and [natural\nsciences](/wiki/Natural_sciences \"Natural sciences\").\n\n#### Logic\n\nMain article: [Logic](/wiki/Logic \"Logic\")\n\nLogic is the study of reasoning and argument. An argument is \" _a_ _connected\nseries of statements intended to establish a proposition_.\" The connected\nseries of statements are \"[premises](/wiki/Premise \"Premise\")\" and the\nproposition is the conclusion. For example:\n\n 1. All humans are mortal. (premise)\n 2. Socrates is a human. (premise)\n 3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)\n\n[Deductive reasoning](/wiki/Deductive_reasoning \"Deductive reasoning\") is\nwhen, given certain premises, conclusions are [unavoidably\nimplied](/wiki/Logical_consequence \"Logical consequence\"). [Rules of\ninference](/wiki/Rules_of_inference \"Rules of inference\") are used to infer\nconclusions such as, [modus ponens](/wiki/Modus_ponens \"Modus ponens\"), where\ngiven “A” and “If A then B”, then “B” must be concluded.\n\nBecause sound reasoning is an essential element of all sciences,[67] social\nsciences and humanities disciplines, logic became a [formal\nscience](/wiki/Formal_science \"Formal science\"). Sub-fields include\n[mathematical logic](/wiki/Mathematical_logic \"Mathematical logic\"),\n[philosophical logic](/wiki/Philosophical_logic \"Philosophical logic\"), [Modal\nlogic](/wiki/Modal_logic \"Modal logic\"), [computational\nlogic](/wiki/Computational_logic \"Computational logic\") and [non-classical\nlogics](/wiki/Non-classical_logic \"Non-classical logic\"). A major question in\nthe [philosophy of mathematics](/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics \"Philosophy of\nmathematics\") is whether mathematical entities are objective and discovered,\ncalled mathematical realism, or invented, called mathematical antirealism.\n\n#### Philosophy of science\n\nMain article: [Philosophy of science](/wiki/Philosophy_of_science \"Philosophy\nof science\")\n\nThis branch explores the foundations, methods, history, implications and\npurpose of science. Many of its sub-divisions correspond to a specific branch\nof science. For example, [philosophy of biology](/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology\n\"Philosophy of biology\") deals specifically with the metaphysical,\nepistemological and ethical issues in the biomedical and life sciences. The\n[philosophy of mathematics](/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics \"Philosophy of\nmathematics\") studies the philosophical assumptions, foundations and\nimplications of mathematics.\n\n### History of philosophy\n\nSee also: [Metaphilosophy](/wiki/Metaphilosophy \"Metaphilosophy\") and [History\nof ethics](/wiki/History_of_ethics \"History of ethics\")\n\nFurther information: [Philosophical progress](/wiki/Philosophical_progress\n\"Philosophical progress\") and [List of years in\nphilosophy](/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy \"List of years in philosophy\")\n\nSome philosophers specialize in one or more historical periods. The history of\nphilosophy (study of a specific period, individual or school) is related to\nbut not the same as the [philosophy of history](/wiki/Philosophy_of_history\n\"Philosophy of history\") (the theoretical aspect of history, which deals with\nquestions such as the nature of historical evidence and the possibility of\nobjectivity).\n\nHegel's _[Lectures on the Philosophy of\nHistory](/wiki/Lectures_on_the_Philosophy_of_History \"Lectures on the\nPhilosophy of History\")_ influenced many philosophers to interpret truth in\nlight of history, a view called [historicism](/wiki/Historicism\n\"Historicism\").\n\n### Philosophy of religion\n\nMain article: [Philosophy of religion](/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion\n\"Philosophy of religion\")\n\nPhilosophy of religion deals with questions that involve\n[religion](/wiki/Religion \"Religion\") and religious ideas from a\nphilosophically neutral perspective (as opposed to [theology](/wiki/Theology\n\"Theology\") which begins from religious convinctions).[68] Traditionally,\nreligious questions were not seen as a separate field from philosophy proper,\nthe idea of a separate field only arose in the 19th century.[69]\n\nIssues include the [existence of God](/wiki/Existence_of_God \"Existence of\nGod\"), the relationship between reason and [faith](/wiki/Faith \"Faith\"),\nquestions of [religious epistemology](/wiki/Religious_epistemology \"Religious\nepistemology\"), the [relationship between religion and\nscience](/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science \"Relationship between\nreligion and science\"), how to interpret [religious\nexperiences](/wiki/Religious_experiences \"Religious experiences\"), questions\nabout the possibility of an [afterlife](/wiki/Afterlife \"Afterlife\"), the\n[problem of religious language](/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language \"Problem\nof religious language\") and the existence of [souls](/wiki/Souls \"Souls\") and\nresponses to [religious pluralism](/wiki/Religious_pluralism \"Religious\npluralism\") and diversity.\n\n### Philosophical schools\n\nSome philosophers specialize in one or more of the major philosophical\nschools, such as [Continental philosophy](/wiki/Continental_philosophy\n\"Continental philosophy\"), [Analytical philosophy](/wiki/Analytical_philosophy\n\"Analytical philosophy\"), [Thomism](/wiki/Thomism \"Thomism\"), [Asian\nphilosophy](/wiki/Asian_philosophy \"Asian philosophy\") or [African\nphilosophy](/wiki/African_philosophy \"African philosophy\").\n\n## Other approaches\n\nA variety of other academic and non-academic approaches have been explored.\n\n### Applied philosophy\n\n[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg/170px-\nMartin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg)](/wiki/File:Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg)\n\n[](/wiki/File:Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg \"Enlarge\")\n\n[Martin Luther King Jr](/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr \"Martin Luther King Jr\")\n\nThe ideas conceived by a society have profound repercussions on what actions\nthe society performs. [Weaver](/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver \"Richard M. Weaver\")\nargued that ideas have consequences. Philosophy yields applications such as\nthose in [ethics](/wiki/Ethics \"Ethics\") – [applied\nethics](/wiki/Applied_ethics \"Applied ethics\") in particular – and [political\nphilosophy](/wiki/Political_philosophy \"Political philosophy\"). The political\nand economic philosophies of [Confucius](/wiki/Confucius \"Confucius\"), [Sun\nTzu](/wiki/Sun_Tzu \"Sun Tzu\"), [Chanakya](/wiki/Chanakya \"Chanakya\"), [Ibn\nKhaldun](/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun \"Ibn Khaldun\"), [Ibn Rushd](/wiki/Ibn_Rushd \"Ibn\nRushd\"), [Ibn Taymiyyah](/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyyah \"Ibn Taymiyyah\"),\n[Machiavelli](/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli \"Niccolò Machiavelli\"),\n[Leibniz](/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz \"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz\"),\n[Hobbes](/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes \"Thomas Hobbes\"), [Locke](/wiki/John_Locke \"John\nLocke\"), [Rousseau](/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau \"Jean-Jacques Rousseau\"),\n[Adam Smith](/wiki/Adam_Smith \"Adam Smith\"), [John Stuart\nMill](/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill \"John Stuart Mill\"), [Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx \"Karl\nMarx\"), [Tolstoy](/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy \"Leo Tolstoy\"),\n[Gandhi](/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi \"Mahatma Gandhi\") and [Martin Luther King,\nJr.](/wiki/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr. \"Martin Luther King, Jr.\") have been used\nto shape and justify governments and their actions. Progressive education as\nchampioned by [Dewey](/wiki/John_Dewey \"John Dewey\") had a profound impact on\n20th century US educational practices. Descendants of this movement include\nefforts in [philosophy for children](/wiki/Philosophy_for_children \"Philosophy\nfor children\"), which are part of [philosophy\neducation](/wiki/Philosophy_education \"Philosophy education\").\n[Clausewitz](/wiki/Carl_von_Clausewitz \"Carl von Clausewitz\")'s political\n[philosophy of war](/wiki/Philosophy_of_war \"Philosophy of war\") has had a\nprofound effect on [statecraft](/wiki/Public_administration \"Public\nadministration\"), [international politics](/wiki/International_politics\n\"International politics\") and [military strategy](/wiki/Military_strategy\n\"Military strategy\") in the 20th century, especially around [World War\nII](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). Logic is important in\n[mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics \"Mathematics\"),\n[linguistics](/wiki/Linguistics \"Linguistics\"), [psychology](/wiki/Psychology\n\"Psychology\"), [computer science](/wiki/Computer_science \"Computer science\")\nand [computer engineering](/wiki/Computer_engineering \"Computer engineering\").\n\nOther important applications can be found in [epistemology](/wiki/Epistemology\n\"Epistemology\"), which aid in understanding the requisites for knowledge,\nsound evidence and justified belief (important in [law](/wiki/Law \"Law\"),\n[economics](/wiki/Economics \"Economics\"), [decision\ntheory](/wiki/Decision_theory \"Decision theory\") and a number of other\ndisciplines). The [philosophy of science](/wiki/Philosophy_of_science\n\"Philosophy of science\") discusses the underpinnings of the [scientific\nmethod](/wiki/Scientific_method \"Scientific method\") and has affected the\nnature of scientific investigation and argumentation. Philosophy thus has\nfundamental implications for science as a whole. For example, the strictly\nempirical approach of [B. F. Skinner](/wiki/B._F._Skinner \"B. F. Skinner\")'s\nbehaviorism affected for decades the approach of the American psychological\nestablishment. [Deep ecology](/wiki/Deep_ecology \"Deep ecology\") and [animal\nrights](/wiki/Animal_rights \"Animal rights\") examine the moral situation of\nhumans as occupants of a world that has non-human occupants to consider also.\n[Aesthetics](/wiki/Aesthetics \"Aesthetics\") can help to interpret discussions\nof [music](/wiki/Music \"Music\"), [literature](/wiki/Literature \"Literature\"),\nthe [plastic arts](/wiki/Plastic_arts \"Plastic arts\") and the whole artistic\ndimension of life. In general, the various philosophies strive to provide\npractical activities with a deeper understanding of the theoretical or\nconceptual underpinnings of their fields.\n\n## Society\n\nSome of those who study philosophy become professional philosophers, typically\nby working as [professors](/wiki/Professor \"Professor\") who teach, research\nand write in academic institutions.[70] However, most students of academic\nphilosophy later contribute to law, journalism, religion, sciences, politics,\nbusiness, or various arts.[26][71] For example, public figures who have\ndegrees in philosophy include comedians [Steve Martin](/wiki/Steve_Martin\n\"Steve Martin\") and [Ricky Gervais](/wiki/Ricky_Gervais \"Ricky Gervais\"),\nfilmmaker [Terrence Malick](/wiki/Terrence_Malick \"Terrence Malick\"), [Pope\nJohn Paul II](/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II \"Pope John Paul II\"), Wikipedia co-\nfounder [Larry Sanger](/wiki/Larry_Sanger \"Larry Sanger\"), technology\nentrepreneur [Peter Thiel](/wiki/Peter_Thiel \"Peter Thiel\"), Supreme Court\nJustice [Stephen Bryer](/wiki/Stephen_Breyer \"Stephen Breyer\") and vice\npresidential candidate [Carly Fiorina](/wiki/Carly_Fiorina \"Carly\nFiorina\").[72][73]\n\nRecent efforts to avail the general public to the work and relevance of\nphilosophers include the million-dollar [Berggruen\nPrize](/wiki/Berggruen_Prize_for_Philosophy \"Berggruen Prize for Philosophy\"),\nfirst awarded to [Charles Taylor](/wiki/Charles_Taylor_\\(philosopher\\)\n\"Charles Taylor \\(philosopher\\)\") in 2016.[74]\n\n## Professional\n\nGermany was the first country to professionalize philosophy. At the end of\n1817, Hegel was the first philosopher to be appointed Professor by the State,\nnamely by the Prussian Minister of Education, as an effect of Napoleonic\nreform in Prussia. In the United States, the professionalisation grew out of\nreforms to the American higher-education system largely based on the German\nmodel.\n\n[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Honourable_Bertrand_Russell.jpg/220px-\nHonourable_Bertrand_Russell.jpg)](/wiki/File:Honourable_Bertrand_Russell.jpg)\n\n[](/wiki/File:Honourable_Bertrand_Russell.jpg \"Enlarge\")\n\n[Bertrand Russell](/wiki/Bertrand_Russell \"Bertrand Russell\")\n\nWithin the last century, philosophy has increasingly become a professional\ndiscipline practiced within universities, like other academic disciplines.\nAccordingly, it has become less general and more specialized. In the view of\none prominent recent historian: \"Philosophy has become a highly organized\ndiscipline, done by specialists primarily for other specialists. The number of\nphilosophers has exploded, the volume of publication has swelled, and the\nsubfields of serious philosophical investigation have multiplied. Not only is\nthe broad field of philosophy today far too vast to be embraced by one mind,\nsomething similar is true even of many highly specialized subfields.\"[75] Some\nphilosophers argue that this professionalization has negatively affected the\ndiscipline.[76]\n\nThe end result of professionalization for philosophy has meant that work being\ndone in the field is now almost exclusively done by university professors\nholding a doctorate in the field publishing in highly technical, peer-reviewed\njournals. While it remains common among the population at large for a person\nto have a set of religious, political or philosophical views that they\nconsider their \"philosophy\", these views are rarely informed by or connected\nto the work being done in professional philosophy today. Furthermore, unlike\nmany of the sciences for which there has come to be a healthy industry of\nbooks, magazines, and television shows meant to popularize science and\ncommunicate the technical results of a scientific field to the general\npopulace, works by professional philosophers directed at an audience outside\nthe profession remain rare. Philosopher [Michael Sandel](/wiki/Michael_Sandel\n\"Michael Sandel\")'s book _Justice: What's the Right Thing to Do?_ and [Harry\nFrankfurt](/wiki/Harry_Frankfurt \"Harry Frankfurt\")'s _[On\nBullshit](/wiki/On_Bullshit \"On Bullshit\")_ are examples of works that hold\nthe uncommon distinction of having been written by professional philosophers\nbut directed at and ultimately popular among a broader audience of non-\nphilosophers. Both works became ' _New York Times_ best sellers.\n\n## Non-professional\n\nMany inquiries outside of academia are philosophical in the broad sense.\nNovelists, playwrights, filmmakers, and musicians, as well as scientists and\nothers engage in recognizably philosophical activity.\n\n[Ayn Rand](/wiki/Ayn_Rand \"Ayn Rand\") is the foremost example of an\nintellectual working contemporaneously with contemporary philosophy but whose\ncontributions were not made within the professional discipline of\n\"philosophy\": \"For all her [Ayn Rand's] popularity, however, only a few\nprofessional philosophers have taken her work seriously. As a result, most of\nthe serious philosophical work on Rand has appeared in non-academic, non-peer-\nreviewed journals, or in books, and the bibliography reflects this fact.\"[15]\n\nAlso working from outside the profession were philosophers such as [Gerd B.\nAchenbach](/wiki/Gerd_B._Achenbach \"Gerd B. Achenbach\") ( _Die reine und die\npraktische Philosophie. Drei Vorträge zur philosophischen_ Praxis, 1983) and\n[Michel Weber](/wiki/Michel_Weber \"Michel Weber\") (see his _Épreuve de la\nphilosophie_ , 2008) who have proposed since the 1980s various forms of\nphilosophical counseling claiming to bring Socratic dialogues back to life in\na quasi-psychotherapeutic framework.\n\n[Pierre Hadot](/wiki/Pierre_Hadot \"Pierre Hadot\") is famous for his analysis\non the conception of philosophy during Greco-Roman antiquity. Hadot identified\nand analyzed the \"spiritual exercises\" used in ancient philosophy (influencing\nMichel Foucault's interest in such practices in the second and third volumes\nof his History of Sexuality). By \"spiritual exercises\" Hadot means \"practices\n... intended to effect a modification and a transformation in the subjects who\npractice them.[6] The philosophy teacher's discourse could be presented in\nsuch a way that the disciple, as auditor, reader, or interlocutor, could make\nspiritual progress and transform himself within.\"[7] Hadot shows that the key\nto understanding the original philosophical impulse is to be found in\nSocrates. What characterizes Socratic therapy above all is the importance\ngiven to living contact between human beings. Hadot's recurring theme is that\nphilosophy in antiquity was characterized by a series of spiritual exercises\nintended to transform the perception, and therefore the being, of those who\npractice it; that philosophy is best pursued in real conversation and not\nthrough written texts and lectures; and that philosophy, as it is taught in\nuniversities today, is for the most part a distortion of its original,\ntherapeutic impulse. He brings these concerns together in _What Is Ancient\nPhilosophy?_ ,[7] which has been critically reviewed.[8]\n\n## Role of women\n\nMain article: [Women in philosophy](/wiki/Women_in_philosophy \"Women in\nphilosophy\")\n\n[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Langer.Susanne.foto_2.jpg/150px-\nLanger.Susanne.foto_2.jpg)](/wiki/File:Langer.Susanne.foto_2.jpg)\n\n[](/wiki/File:Langer.Susanne.foto_2.jpg \"Enlarge\")\n\nAmerican philosopher of mind and philosopher of art [Susanne\nLanger](/wiki/Susanne_Langer \"Susanne Langer\") (1895–1985).\n\nAlthough men have generally dominated philosophical discourse, women have\nengaged in philosophy throughout history. Women\n[philosophers](/wiki/Philosopher \"Philosopher\") have contributed since ancient\ntimes–notably [Hipparchia of Maroneia](/wiki/Hipparchia_of_Maroneia\n\"Hipparchia of Maroneia\") (active c. 325 BCE) and [Arete of\nCyrene](/wiki/Arete_of_Cyrene \"Arete of Cyrene\") (active 5th–4th century BCE).\nMore were accepted during the [ancient](/wiki/Ancient_philosophy \"Ancient\nphilosophy\"), [medieval](/wiki/Medieval_philosophy \"Medieval philosophy\") and\n[modern](/wiki/Modern_philosophy \"Modern philosophy\") eras, but no women\nphilosophers became part the [Western canon](/wiki/Western_canon \"Western\ncanon\") until the 20th and 21st century, when some sources indicate that\n[Susanne Langer](/wiki/Susanne_Langer \"Susanne Langer\"), [Hannah\nArendt](/wiki/Hannah_Arendt \"Hannah Arendt\") and [Simone de\nBeauvoir](/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir \"Simone de Beauvoir\") entered the\ncanon.[77][78]\n\nIn the early 1800s, some colleges and universities in the UK and US began\n[admitting women](/wiki/Mixed-sex_education#Higher-education_institutions\n\"Mixed-sex education\"), producing more female academics. Nevertheless, [U.S.\nDepartment of Education](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Education \"U.S. Department\nof Education\") reports from the 1990s indicate that few women ended up in\nphilosophy, and that philosophy is one of the least gender-proportionate\nfields in the [humanities](/wiki/Humanities \"Humanities\").[79] In 2014,\n_[Inside Higher Education](/wiki/Inside_Higher_Education \"Inside Higher\nEducation\")_ described the philosophy \"...discipline's own long history of\n[misogyny](/wiki/Misogyny \"Misogyny\") and [sexual\nharassment](/wiki/Sexual_harassment \"Sexual harassment\")\" of women students\nand professors.[80][University of Sheffield](/wiki/University_of_Sheffield\n\"University of Sheffield\") philosophy professor [Jennifer\nSaul](/wiki/Jennifer_Saul \"Jennifer Saul\") stated in 2015 that women are\n\"...leaving philosophy after being harassed, assaulted, or retaliated\nagainst.\" [81]\n\nIn the early 1990s, the [Canadian Philosophical\nAssociation](/wiki/Canadian_Philosophical_Association \"Canadian Philosophical\nAssociation\") noted a gender imbalance and [gender bias](/wiki/Gender_bias\n\"Gender bias\") in the academic field of philosophy.[82] In June 2013, a US\nsociology professor stated that \"out of all recent citations in four\nprestigious philosophy journals, female authors comprise just 3.6 percent of\nthe total.\"[83] Susan Price argues that the philosophical \"...canon remains\ndominated by white males – the discipline that...still hews to the myth that\ngenius is tied to gender.\"[84] Morgan Thompson suggests that discrimination,\ndifferences in abilities, grade differences and the lack of role models in\nphilosophy could be potential factors for the gender gap.[85] According to\nSaul, \"[p]hilosophy, the oldest of the [humanities](/wiki/Humanities\n\"Humanities\"), is also the malest (and the whitest). While other areas of the\nhumanities are at or near gender parity, philosophy is actually more\noverwhelmingly male than even mathematics.\"[86]\n\n## Popular culture\n\nIn 2000, the [Open Court Publishing\nCompany](/wiki/Open_Court_Publishing_Company \"Open Court Publishing Company\")\nbegan publishing a series of books on philosophy and [popular\nculture](/wiki/Popular_culture \"Popular culture\"). Each book consists of\nessays written by philosophers for general readers. The books \"explore the\nmeanings, concepts and puzzles within television shows, movies, music and\nother icons of popular culture\"[87] analyzing topics such as the TV shows\n_[Seinfeld](/wiki/Seinfeld \"Seinfeld\")_ and _[The Simpsons](/wiki/The_Simpsons\n\"The Simpsons\")_ , _[The Matrix](/wiki/The_Matrix_\\(franchise\\) \"The Matrix\n\\(franchise\\)\")_ and _[Star Wars](/wiki/Star_Wars \"Star Wars\")_ movies and\nrelated media and new technological developments such as the [iPod](/wiki/IPod\n\"IPod\") and [Facebook](/wiki/Facebook \"Facebook\"). Their most recent\npublication (as of\n2016[[update]](//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philosophy&action=edit) )\nis titled _Louis C.K. and Philosophy_ ; its subject is the comedian [Louis\nC.K.](/wiki/Louis_C.K. \"Louis C.K.\").\n\n_[The Matrix](/wiki/The_Matrix \"The Matrix\")_ makes numerous references to\nphilosophy including [Buddhism](/wiki/Buddhism \"Buddhism\"),\n[Vedanta](/wiki/Vedanta \"Vedanta\"), [Advaita](/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta \"Advaita\nVedanta\") [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\"),\n[Christianity](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\"),\n[Messianism](/wiki/Messianism \"Messianism\"), [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism\n\"Judaism\"), [Gnosticism](/wiki/Gnosticism \"Gnosticism\"),\n[existentialism](/wiki/Existentialism \"Existentialism\") and\n[nihilism](/wiki/Nihilism \"Nihilism\"). The film's premise resembles\n[Plato](/wiki/Plato \"Plato\")'s [Allegory of the\ncave](/wiki/Allegory_of_the_Cave \"Allegory of the Cave\"), Descartes's [evil\ndemon](/wiki/Evil_demon \"Evil demon\"), [Kant](/wiki/Immanuel_Kant \"Immanuel\nKant\")'s reflections on the [Phenomenon](/wiki/Phenomenon \"Phenomenon\") versus\nthe [Ding an sich](/wiki/Noumenon \"Noumenon\"),\n[Zhuangzi](/wiki/Zhuangzi_\\(book\\) \"Zhuangzi \\(book\\)\")'s \"[Zhuangzi dreamed\nhe was a butterfly](/wiki/Zhuangzi_dreamed_he_was_a_butterfly \"Zhuangzi\ndreamed he was a butterfly\")\", Marxist social theory and the [brain in a\nvat](/wiki/Brain_in_a_vat \"Brain in a vat\") thought experiment. Many\nreferences to [Baudrillard](/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard \"Jean Baudrillard\")'s\n_[Simulacra and Simulation](/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation \"Simulacra and\nSimulation\")_ appear in the film, although Baudrillard himself considered this\na misrepresentation.[88]\n\n## See also\n\nMain article: [Outline of philosophy](/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy \"Outline of\nphilosophy\")\n\n * ![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png)[Philosophy portal](/wiki/Portal:Philosophy \"Portal:Philosophy\")\n\n![Book icon](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-\nbook.svg/30px-Office-book.svg.png) |\n\n * [Book: Philosophy](/wiki/Book:Philosophy \"Book:Philosophy\")\n\n \n---|--- \n \n * [Wikipedia:Getting to Philosophy](/wiki/Wikipedia:Getting_to_Philosophy \"Wikipedia:Getting to Philosophy\")\n * [List of important publications in philosophy](/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy \"List of important publications in philosophy\")\n * [List of years in philosophy](/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy \"List of years in philosophy\")\n * [List of philosophy journals](/wiki/List_of_philosophy_journals \"List of philosophy journals\")\n * [List of unsolved problems in philosophy](/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy \"List of unsolved problems in philosophy\")\n * [Lists of philosophers](/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers \"Lists of philosophers\")\n * [Social theory](/wiki/Social_theory \"Social theory\")\n\n## References\n\n 1. **^** [\"Strong's Greek Dictionary 5385\"](http://biblehub.com/greek/5385.htm).\n 2. **^** [\"Home : Oxford English Dictionary\"](http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/142505?rskey=WbBDMG&result=1&isAdvanced=false#eid). _oed.com_.\n 3. **^** [\"Online Etymology Dictionary\"](http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=philosophy&searchmode=none). Etymonline.com. Retrieved 22 August 2010.\n 4. **^** The definition of philosophy is: \"1. orig., love of, or the search for, wisdom or knowledge 2. theory or logical analysis of the principles underlying conduct, thought, knowledge, and the nature of the universe\". _Webster's New World Dictionary_ (Second College ed.).\n 5. **^** Jenny Teichmann and Katherine C. Evans, _Philosophy: A Beginner's Guide_ (Blackwell Publishing, 1999), p. 1: \"Philosophy is a study of problems which are ultimate, abstract and very general. These problems are concerned with the nature of existence, knowledge, morality, reason and human purpose.\"\n 6. **^** [A.C. Grayling](/wiki/A.C._Grayling \"A.C. Grayling\"), _Philosophy 1: A Guide through the Subject_ (Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 1: \"The aim of philosophical inquiry is to gain insight into questions about knowledge, truth, reason, reality, meaning, mind, and value.\"\n 7. **^** Adler, Mortimer J. (28 March 2000). [_How to Think About the Great Ideas: From the Great Books of Western Civilization_](https://books.google.com/books?id=Pv3BHyktJWkC). Chicago, Ill.: Open Court. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-8126-9412-3](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8126-9412-3 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-8126-9412-3\").\n 8. **^** [Quinton, Anthony](/wiki/Anthony_Quinton \"Anthony Quinton\"), _The ethics of philosophical practice_ , p. [666](https://books.google.com/books?id=sI4YAAAAIAAJ), \"Philosophy is rationally critical thinking, of a more or less [systematic](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/systematic \"wikt:systematic\") kind about the general nature of the world (metaphysics or theory of existence), the justification of belief (epistemology or theory of knowledge), and the conduct of life (ethics or theory of value). Each of the three elements in this list has a non-philosophical counterpart, from which it is distinguished by its explicitly rational and critical way of proceeding and by its systematic nature. Everyone has some general conception of the nature of the world in which they live and of their place in it. Metaphysics replaces the unargued assumptions embodied in such a conception with a rational and organized body of beliefs about the world as a whole. Everyone has occasion to doubt and question beliefs, their own or those of others, with more or less success and without any theory of what they are doing. Epistemology seeks by argument to make explicit the rules of correct belief formation. Everyone governs their conduct by directing it to desired or valued ends. Ethics, or moral philosophy, in its most inclusive sense, seeks to articulate, in rationally systematic form, the rules or principles involved.\" in Honderich 1995.\n 9. **^** Greco, John, ed. (1 October 2011). [_The Oxford Handbook of Skepticism_](https://books.google.com/books?id=Ozv0lftrUeEC) (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-19-983680-2](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-983680-2 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-983680-2\").\n 10. **^** Glymour, Clark (10 April 2015). \"Chapters 1–6\". [_Thinking Things Through: An Introduction to Philosophical Issues and Achievements_](https://books.google.com/books?id=G4lLCAAAQBAJ) (2nd ed.). A Bradford Book. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-262-52720-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-52720-0 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-262-52720-0\").\n 11. **^** [\"Contemporary Skepticism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\"](http://www.iep.utm.edu/skepcont/). _www.iep.utm.edu_. Retrieved 25 April 2016.\n 12. **^** [\"The Internet Classics Archive | The Republic by Plato\"](http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/republic.html). _classics.mit.edu_. Retrieved 25 April 2016.\n 13. **^** [\"Free Will | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\"](http://www.iep.utm.edu/freewill/). _www.iep.utm.edu_. Retrieved 25 April 2016.\n 14. ^ _**a**_ _**b**_ [\"Philosophy\"](http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=philosophy). _www.etymonline.com_. Online Etymological Dictionary. Retrieved 19 March 2016. \"The English word \"philosophy\" is first attested to c. 1300, meaning \"knowledge, body of knowledge.\"\"\n 15. ^ _**a**_ _**b**_ Lindberg 2007, p. 3.\n 16. **^** Shapin, Steven (1 January 1998). [_The Scientific Revolution_](https://books.google.com/books?id=6BIr19MTXAMC) (1st ed.). University Of Chicago Press. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-226-75021-7](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-75021-7 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-226-75021-7\").\n 17. **^** Briggle, Robert Frodeman and Adam. [\"When Philosophy Lost Its Way\"](http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/01/11/when-philosophy-lost-its-way/?_r=0). _Opinionator_. Retrieved 25 April 2016.\n 18. **^** Sartwell, Crispin (1 January 2014). Zalta, Edward N., ed. [_Beauty_](http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/beauty/) (Spring 2014 ed.).\n 19. **^** [\"Plato, Hippias Major | Loeb Classical Library\"](https://www.loebclassics.com/view/plato_philosopher-greater_hippias/1926/pb_LCL167.335.xml). _Loeb Classical Library_. Retrieved 27 April 2016.\n 20. **^** Feyerabend, Paul; Hacking, Ian (11 May 2010). [_Against Method_](https://books.google.com/books?id=8y-FVtrKeSYC) (4th ed.). Verso. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-1-84467-442-8](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84467-442-8 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-84467-442-8\").\n 21. **^** [\"Nozick, Robert: Political Philosophy | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\"](http://www.iep.utm.edu/noz-poli/#SH3i). _www.iep.utm.edu_. Retrieved 25 April 2016.\n 22. **^** [\"Rawls, John | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\"](http://www.iep.utm.edu/rawls/#H2). _www.iep.utm.edu_. Retrieved 25 April 2016.\n 23. **^** More, Thomas (8 May 2015). [_Utopia_](https://books.google.com/books?id=EZajAQAAQBAJ). Courier Corporation. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-486-11070-7](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-11070-7 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-486-11070-7\").\n 24. **^** [\"Merriam-Webster Dictionary\"](http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/metaphysics). _www.merriam-webster.com_. Retrieved 14 May 2016.\n 25. **^** [\"Merriam-Webster Dictionary\"](http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/epistemology). _www.merriam-webster.com_. Retrieved 14 May 2016.\n 26. ^ _**a**_ _**b**_ [\"Why Study Philosophy? An Unofficial \"Daily Nous\" Affiliate\"](http://www.whystudyphilosophy.com/). _www.whystudyphilosophy.com_. Retrieved 2016-05-02.\n 27. **^** [\"Online Etymology Dictionary\"](http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=philosophy). _etymonline.com_.\n 28. **^** Kant, Immanuel (2012-05-21). [_Kant: Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals_](https://books.google.com/books?id=YASbAEhCLw0C) (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [9781107401068](/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107401068 \"Special:BookSources/9781107401068\"). \" Ancient Greek philosophy was divided into three branches of knowledge: natural science, ethics, and logic.\"\n 29. **^** McGinn, Colin (8 December 1993). [_Problems in Philosophy: The Limits of Inquiry_](https://books.google.com/books?id=o_xMMPWzIecC) (1st ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-1-55786-475-8](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55786-475-8 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-55786-475-8\").\n 30. **^** [\"Video & Audio: Why isn't there more progress in philosophy? – Metadata\"](http://www.sms.cam.ac.uk/media/1484158). _www.sms.cam.ac.uk_. Retrieved 25 April 2016.\n 31. **^** Brewer, Talbot (11 June 2011). [_The Retrieval of Ethics_](https://books.google.com/books?id=d15rGnw_6rUC) (1st ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-19-969222-4](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969222-4 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969222-4\").\n 32. **^** Garfield (Editor), Edelglass (Editor); The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy, Introduction.\n 33. **^** Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich; Brown, Robert F. (1 January 2006). [_Lectures on the History of Philosophy: Greek philosophy_](https://books.google.com/books?id=b_VvghYDArwC). Clarendon Press. p. 33\\. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-19-927906-7](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927906-7 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927906-7\").\n 34. **^** [\"Plato's \"Symposium \"\"](http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0174%3Atext%3DSym.%3Asection%3D201d). _www.perseus.tufts.edu_. p. 201d and following. Retrieved 22 April 2016.\n 35. **^** _Process and Reality_ p. 39\n 36. **^** Diane Collinson. _Fifty Major Philosophers, A Reference Guide_. p. 125.\n 37. **^** Rutherford, _The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy_ , p. 1: \"Most often this [period] has been associated with the achievements of a handful of great thinkers: the so-called 'rationalists' (Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz) and 'empiricists' (Locke, Berkeley, Hume), whose inquiries culminate in Kant's 'Critical philosophy.' These canonical figures have been celebrated for the depth and rigor of their treatments of perennial philosophical questions...\"\n 38. **^** Nadler, _A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy_ , p. 2: \"The study of early modern philosophy demands that we pay attention to a wide variety of questions and an expansive pantheon of thinkers: the traditional canonical figures (Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume), to be sure, but also a large 'supporting cast'...\"\n 39. **^** [Bruce Kuklick](/wiki/Bruce_Kuklick \"Bruce Kuklick\"), \"Seven Thinkers and How They Grew: Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz; Locke, Berkeley, Hume; Kant\" in Rorty, Schneewind, and Skinner (eds.), _Philosophy in History_ (Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 125: \"Literary, philosophical, and historical studies often rely on a notion of what is _canonical_. In American philosophy scholars go from Jonathan Edwards to John Dewey; in American literature from James Fenimore Cooper to F. Scott Fitzgerald; in political theory from Plato to Hobbes and Locke […] The texts or authors who fill in the blanks from A to Z in these, and other intellectual traditions, constitute the canon, and there is an accompanying narrative that links text to text or author to author, a 'history of' American literature, economic thought, and so on. The most conventional of such histories are embodied in university courses and the textbooks that accompany them. This essay examines one such course, the History of Modern Philosophy, and the texts that helped to create it. If a philosopher in the United States were asked why the seven people in my title comprise Modern Philosophy, the initial response would be: they were the best, and there are historical and philosophical connections among them.\"\n 40. **^** [Soken Sanskrit, _darzana_](http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=darzana&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0)\n 41. **^** John Bowker, _Oxford Dictionary of World Religions_ , p. 259\n 42. **^** Wendy Doniger (2014). [_On Hinduism_](https://books.google.com/books?id=c8vRAgAAQBAJ). Oxford University Press. p. 46\\. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-19-936008-6](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-936008-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-936008-6\").\n 43. **^** Students' Britannica India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopædia Britannica, [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0852297605](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0852297605 \"Special:BookSources/978-0852297605\"), p. 316\n 44. **^** Hiltebeitel, Alf (2007), Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, \"The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture\", Routledge\n 45. **^** Randall Collins (2009). [_he Sociology of Philosophies_](https://books.google.com/books?id=2HS1DOZ35EgC). Harvard University Press. pp. 184–85. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-674-02977-4](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02977-4 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02977-4\").\n 46. **^** Ganeri, Jonardon; The Lost Age of Reason Philosophy In Early ModernIndia 1450–1700, Oxford U. press.\n 47. **^** Garfield (Editor), Edelglass (Editor); The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy, Anglophone philosophy in Colonial India.\n 48. **^** Garfield (Editor), Edelglass (Editor); _The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy_ , Chinese philosophy.\n 49. **^** Ebrey, Patricia (2010). _The Cambridge Illustrated History of China_. Cambridge University Press. p. 42.\n 50. **^** Bruce B. Janz, Philosophy in an African Place (2009), pp. 74–79, Plymouth, UK: Lexington Books, <https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0739136682>\n 51. ^ _**a**_ _**b**_ Whiteley; Native American philosophy, <https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/native-american-philosophy/v-1>\n 52. **^** Pierotti, Raymond; Communities as both Ecological and Social entities in Native American thought, <http://www.se.edu/nas/files/2013/03/5thNAScommunities.pdf>\n 53. **^** [\"Use of \"Tlamatini\" in _Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study of the Ancient Nahuatl Mind – Miguel León Portilla_ \"](https://books.google.com/books?id=OI9J7R-R1awC&q=120#v=onepage&q=Tlamatini&f=false). [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\"). Retrieved December 12, 2014.\n 54. ^ _**a**_ _**b**_ IEP, Aztec Philosophy, <http://www.iep.utm.edu/aztec/>\n 55. **^** Webb, Hillary S.; Yanantin and Masintin in the Andean World: Complementary Dualism in Modern Peru Hardcover – March 15, 2012\n 56. **^** [\"A Taxonomy of Philosophy\"](http://consc.net/taxonomy.html).\n 57. **^** Kenny 2012.\n 58. **^** Plantinga, Alvin (2014-01-01). Zalta, Edward N., ed. [_Religion and Science_](http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/religion-science/) (Spring 2014 ed.).\n 59. **^** [G & C. Merriam Co.](/wiki/Merriam-Webster \"Merriam-Webster\") (1913). Noah Porter, eds. [_Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary_](https://web.archive.org/web/20131015165808/http://machaut.uchicago.edu/?resource=Webster%27s&word=epistemology&use1913=on) (1913 ed.). G & C. Merriam Co. p. 501\\. Archived from [the original](http://machaut.uchicago.edu/?resource=Webster%27s&word=epistemology&use1913=on) on 15 October 2013. Retrieved 13 May 2012. \"E*pis`te*mol\"o*gy (?), n. [Gr. knowledge + -logy.] The theory or science of the method or grounds of knowledge.\" CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter ([link](/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Uses_editors_parameter \"Category:CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter\"))\n 60. **^** Kelly (1998) p. ix\n 61. **^** [Review](http://www.arlisna.org/artdoc/vol18/iss2/01.pdf) by Tom Riedel ([Regis University](/wiki/Regis_University \"Regis University\"))\n 62. **^** [\"Merriam-Webster.com\"](http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aesthetic). Retrieved 21 August 2012.\n 63. **^** [Definition 1 of _aesthetics_](http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aesthetics) from the [Merriam-Webster Dictionary](/wiki/Merriam-Webster_Dictionary \"Merriam-Webster Dictionary\") Online.\n 64. **^** Zangwill, Nick. \"[Aesthetic Judgment](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aesthetic-judgment/)\", _[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy](/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy \"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy\")_ , 02-28-2003/10-22-2007. Retrieved 24 July 2008.\n 65. **^** [\"aesthetic – definition of aesthetic in English from the Oxford dictionary\"](http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/aesthetic). _oxforddictionaries.com_.\n 66. **^** White, Curtis (2014-08-05). [_The Science Delusion: Asking the Big Questions in a Culture of Easy Answers_](https://books.google.com/books?id=e2mPgcXPNNIC). Brooklyn, N.Y.: Melville House. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [9781612193908](/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781612193908 \"Special:BookSources/9781612193908\").\n 67. **^** Carnap, Rudolf (1953). \"\"Inductive Logic and Science\"\". _Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences_. **80** (3): 189–197. [doi](/wiki/Digital_object_identifier \"Digital object identifier\"):[10.2307/20023651](//doi.org/10.2307%2F20023651). [JSTOR](/wiki/JSTOR \"JSTOR\") [20023651](//www.jstor.org/stable/20023651).\n 68. **^** _Encyclopædia Britannica_ : [Theology; Relationship of theology to the history of religions and philosophy; Relationship to philosophy.](http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/590855/theology/14945/Relationship-to-philosophy)\n 69. **^** Wainwright, WJ., [_The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Religion_](https://books.google.com/books?id=GbcuCf9TlDgC&dq=oxford+handbook+Philosophy+religion&q=%22come+into+general%22#v=snippet&q=%22come%20into%20general%22&f=false), Oxford Handbooks Online, 2004, p. 3. \"The expression “philosophy of religion” did not come into general use until the nineteenth century, when it was employed to refer to the articulation and criticism of humanity's religious consciousness and its cultural expressions in thought, language, feeling, and practice.\"\n 70. **^** [\"Where Can Philosophy Take Me? | Philosophy\"](https://philosophy.as.uky.edu/where-can-philosophy-take-me). _philosophy.as.uky.edu_. Retrieved 2016-05-02.\n 71. **^** Cropper, Carol Marie (1997-12-26). [\"Philosophers Find the Degree Pays Off in Life And in Work\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/26/business/philosophers-find-the-degree-pays-off-in-life-and-in-work.html). _The New York Times_. [ISSN](/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number \"International Standard Serial Number\") [0362-4331](//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331). Retrieved 2016-05-02.\n 72. **^** Marketing, Mansfield University Department of. [\"Famous Philosophy Majors | Mansfield University\"](http://www.mansfield.edu/philosophy/famous-philosophy-majors.cfm). _www.mansfield.edu_. Retrieved 2016-05-02.\n 73. **^** W, Justin (2014-12-08). [\"Famous Philosophy Majors Poster (updated with new link)\"](http://dailynous.com/2014/12/08/famous-philosophy-majors-poster/). _Daily Nous_. Retrieved 2016-05-02.\n 74. **^** Schuessler, Jennifer (October 4, 2016). [\"Canadian Philosopher Wins $1 Million Prize\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/05/books/canadian-philosopher-wins-1-million-prize.html). _The New York Times_. [ISSN](/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number \"International Standard Serial Number\") [0362-4331](//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331). Retrieved October 4, 2016.\n 75. **^** [Scott Soames](/wiki/Scott_Soames \"Scott Soames\"), _Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century_ , vol. 2, p. 463.\n 76. **^** [\"Socrates Tenured – Rowman & Littlefield International\"](http://www.rowmaninternational.com/books/socrates-tenured). _www.rowmaninternational.com_. Retrieved 2016-04-25.\n 77. **^** Duran, Jane. Eight women philosophers: theory, politics, and feminism. University of Illinois Press, 2005.\n 78. **^** [\"Why I Left Academia: Philosophy's Homogeneity Needs Rethinking – Hippo Reads\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170609133754/http://read.hipporeads.com/why-i-left-academia-philosophys-homogeneity-needs-rethinking/). Archived from [the original](http://read.hipporeads.com/why-i-left-academia-philosophys-homogeneity-needs-rethinking/#) on 9 June 2017.\n 79. **^** \"Salary, Promotion, and Tenure Status of Minority and Women Faculty in U.S. Colleges and Universities.\"National Center for Education Statistics, Statistical Analysis Report, March 2000; U.S. Department of Education, Office of Education Research and Improvement, Report # NCES 2000–173; 1993 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:93). See also \"Characteristics and Attitudes of Instructional Faculty and Staff in the Humanities.\" National Center For Education Statistics, E.D. Tabs, July 1997. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Education Research and Improvement, Report # NCES 97-973;1993 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF-93).\n 80. **^** [\"Unofficial Internet campaign outs professor for alleged sexual harassment, attempted assault\"](https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2014/05/19/unofficial-internet-campaign-outs-professor-alleged-sexual-harassment-attempted).\n 81. **^** Ratcliffe, Rebecca; Shaw, Claire (5 January 2015). [\"Philosophy is for posh, white boys with trust funds' – why are there so few women?\"](https://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/2015/jan/05/philosophy-is-for-posh-white-boys-with-trust-funds-why-are-there-so-few-women).\n 82. **^** [\"Women in Philosophy: Problems with the Discrimination Hypothesis\"](https://www.nas.org/articles/women_in_philosophy_problems_with_the_discrimination_hypothesis). National Association of Scholars.\n 83. **^** Sesardic, Neven; De Clercq, Rafael (2014). [\"Women in Philosophy: Problems with the Discrimination Hypothesis\"](http://www.ln.edu.hk/philoso/staff/sesardic/WIP-AQ.pdf) (PDF). _Academic Questions_. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. **27** (4): 461. [doi](/wiki/Digital_object_identifier \"Digital object identifier\"):[10.1007/s12129-014-9464-x](//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12129-014-9464-x).\n 84. **^** Price, Susan. [\"Reviving the Female Canon\"](https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2015/05/reviving-the-female-canon/393110/).\n 85. **^** Thompson, Morgan (2017-03-01). [\"Explanations of the gender gap in philosophy\"](http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/phc3.12406/abstract). _Philosophy Compass_. **12** (3): n/a. [doi](/wiki/Digital_object_identifier \"Digital object identifier\"):[10.1111/phc3.12406](//doi.org/10.1111%2Fphc3.12406). [ISSN](/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number \"International Standard Serial Number\") [1747-9991](//www.worldcat.org/issn/1747-9991).\n 86. **^** Saul, Jennifer M. [\"Philosophy has a sexual harassment problem\"](http://www.salon.com/2013/08/15/philosophy_has_a_sexual_harassment_problem/). Retrieved 16 December 2016.\n 87. **^** [\"Popular Culture and Philosophy\"](http://www.opencourtbooks.com/categories/pcp.htm). _www.opencourtbooks.com_. Retrieved 2016-05-02.\n 88. **^** [\"IJBS\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20101021010544/http://www.ubishops.ca/BaudrillardStudies/vol2_2/rovira.htm). Web.archive.org. 2010-10-21. Archived from [the original](https://www.ubishops.ca/BaudrillardStudies/vol2_2/rovira.htm) on 21 October 2010. Retrieved 2012-07-11.\n\n## Further reading\n\nSources\n\n * [Edwards, Paul](/wiki/Paul_Edwards_\\(philosopher\\) \"Paul Edwards \\(philosopher\\)\"), ed. (1967). [_The Encyclopedia of Philosophy_](https://books.google.com/books?id=uqaajgEACAAJ). Macmillan & Free Press.\n * Kant, Immanuel (1881). [_Critique of Pure Reason_](https://books.google.com/books?id=cn9JAAAAYAAJ). Macmillan.\n * Bowker, John (1999). [_The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions_](https://books.google.com/books?id=5fSQQgAACAAJ). Oxford University Press, Incorporated. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-19-866242-6](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866242-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866242-6\").\n * Baldwin, Thomas, ed. (27 November 2003). [_The Cambridge History of Philosophy 1870–1945_](https://books.google.com/books?id=I09hCIlhPpkC). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-521-59104-1](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59104-1 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59104-1\").\n * Copenhaver, Brian P.; Schmitt, Charles B. (24 September 1992). [_Renaissance philosophy_](https://books.google.com/books?id=CgsFAQAAIAAJ). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-19-219203-5](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-219203-5 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-219203-5\").\n * [Nadler, Steven](/wiki/Steven_Nadler \"Steven Nadler\") (15 April 2008). [_A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy_](https://books.google.com/books?id=KENbzY8uDGkC). John Wiley & Sons. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-470-99883-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-99883-0 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-470-99883-0\").\n * Rutherford, Donald (12 October 2006). [_The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy_](https://books.google.com/books?id=lH8FAQAAIAAJ). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-521-82242-8](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82242-8 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82242-8\").\n * Schmitt, C. B.; Skinner, Quentin, eds. (1988). [_The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy_](https://books.google.com/books?id=jJnyxg3xxTEC). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-521-39748-3](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-39748-3 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-521-39748-3\").\n * [Kenny, Anthony](/wiki/Anthony_Kenny \"Anthony Kenny\") (16 August 2012). [_A New History of Western Philosophy_](https://books.google.com/books?id=rco-uQAACAAJ). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-19-958988-3](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958988-3 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958988-3\").\n * Honderich, T., ed. (1995). [_The Oxford Companion to Philosophy_](https://books.google.com/books?id=sI4YAAAAIAAJ). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-19-866132-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866132-0 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866132-0\").\n * Bunnin, Nicholas; Tsui-James, Eric, eds. (15 April 2008). [_The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy_](https://books.google.com/books?id=HNWIcgEswrsC&pg=PA620). John Wiley & Sons. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-470-99787-1](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-99787-1 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-470-99787-1\").\n * [Copleston, Frederick Charles](/wiki/Frederick_Copleston \"Frederick Copleston\") (1953). [_A history of philosophy: volume III: Ockham to Suárez_](https://books.google.com/books?id=QZ1WkHs5wHcC). Paulist Press. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-8091-0067-5](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-0067-5 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-0067-5\").\n * [Leaman, Oliver](/wiki/Oliver_Leaman \"Oliver Leaman\"); Morewedge, Parviz (2000). \"Islamic philosophy modern\". In Craig, Edward. [_Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy_](https://books.google.com/books?id=-MWK96fFN4UC). Psychology Press. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [0-415-22364-4](/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-22364-4 \"Special:BookSources/0-415-22364-4\").\n * Buccellati, Giorgio (1981-01-01). \"Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia\". _Journal of the American Oriental Society_. **101** (1): 35–47. [doi](/wiki/Digital_object_identifier \"Digital object identifier\"):[10.2307/602163](//doi.org/10.2307%2F602163). [JSTOR](/wiki/JSTOR \"JSTOR\") [602163](//www.jstor.org/stable/602163).\n\nGeneral introductions\n\n * Blumenau, Ralph. _Philosophy and Living_. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-907845-33-1](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-907845-33-1 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-907845-33-1\")\n * [Craig, Edward](/wiki/Edward_Craig_\\(philosopher\\) \"Edward Craig \\(philosopher\\)\"). _Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction_. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-19-285421-6](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285421-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285421-6\")\n * Harrison-Barbet, Anthony, _Mastering Philosophy_. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-333-69343-8](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-69343-8 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-333-69343-8\")\n * [Russell, Bertrand](/wiki/Bertrand_Russell \"Bertrand Russell\"). _[The Problems of Philosophy](https://web.archive.org/web/20040807090338/http://philosophy.hku.hk/think/phil/russell/)_. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-19-511552-9](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511552-9 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511552-9\")\n * Sinclair, Alistair J. _What is Philosophy? An Introduction_ , 2008, [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-1-903765-94-4](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-903765-94-4 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-903765-94-4\")\n * [Sober, Elliott](/wiki/Elliott_Sober \"Elliott Sober\"). (2001). _Core Questions in Philosophy: A Text with Readings_. Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-13-189869-1](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-189869-1 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-13-189869-1\")\n * [Solomon, Robert C.](/wiki/Robert_C._Solomon \"Robert C. Solomon\") _Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy_. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-534-16708-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-16708-0 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-534-16708-0\")\n * [Warburton, Nigel](/wiki/Nigel_Warburton \"Nigel Warburton\"). _Philosophy: The Basics_. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-415-14694-4](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-14694-4 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-415-14694-4\")\n * Nagel, Thomas. _What Does It All Mean? A Very Short Introduction to Philosophy_. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-19-505292-3](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505292-3 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505292-3\")\n * _Classics of Philosophy (Vols. 1, 2, & 3)_ by Louis P. Pojman\n * _The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill_ by Edwin Arthur\n * _European Philosophers from Descartes to Nietzsche_ by Monroe Beardsley\n * Cottingham, John. Western Philosophy: An Anthology. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2008. Print. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies.\n * [Tarnas, Richard](/wiki/Richard_Tarnas \"Richard Tarnas\"). _The Passion of the Western Mind: Understanding the Ideas That Have Shaped Our World View_. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-345-36809-6](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-345-36809-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-345-36809-6\")\n\nTopical introductions\n\n \n\nEastern\n\n * _A Source Book in Indian Philosophy_ by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Charles A. Moore\n * Hamilton, Sue. _Indian Philosophy: a Very Short Introduction_. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-19-285374-5](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285374-5 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285374-5\")\n * Kupperman, Joel J. _Classic Asian Philosophy: A Guide to the Essential Texts_. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-19-513335-6](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513335-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513335-6\")\n * Lee, Joe and Powell, Jim. _Eastern Philosophy For Beginners_. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-86316-282-4](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86316-282-4 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-86316-282-4\")\n * Smart, Ninian. _World Philosophies_. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-415-22852-7](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-22852-7 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-415-22852-7\")\n * Copleston, Frederick. _Philosophy in Russia: From Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev_. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-268-01569-5](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-268-01569-5 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-268-01569-5\")\n\n \n\nAfrican\n\n * Imbo, Samuel Oluoch. '3'An Introduction to African Philosophy _.[ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-8476-8841-8](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-8841-8 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-8841-8\")_\n\n \n\nIslamic\n\n * _Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings_ edited by Muhammad Ali Khalidi\n * Leaman, Oliver. _A Brief Introduction to Islamic Philosophy_. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-7456-1960-6](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-1960-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-1960-6\").\n * [Corbin, Henry](/wiki/Henry_Corbin \"Henry Corbin\") (23 June 2014) [1993]. [_History Of Islamic Philosophy_](https://books.google.com/books?id=UNfgAwAAQBAJ). Translated by Sherrard,, Liadain; [Sherrard, Philip](/wiki/Philip_Sherrard \"Philip Sherrard\"). Taylor & Francis. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-1-135-19888-6](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-19888-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-135-19888-6\").\n * Aminrazavi, Mehdi Amin Razavi; Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Nasr, PH.D., Seyyed Hossein (16 December 2013). [_The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia_](https://books.google.com/books?id=WNVcAgAAQBAJ). Routledge. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-1-136-78105-6](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-78105-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-136-78105-6\").\n\nHistorical introductions\n\n * [Oizerman, Teodor](/wiki/Teodor_Oizerman \"Teodor Oizerman\") (1988). [_The Main Trends in Philosophy. A Theoretical Analysis of the History of Philosophy_](https://web.archive.org/web/20120306000629/http://su-ltd.mylivepage.ru/file/2715/6529_OizermanT.I.-Main_trends_in_Philosophy.pdf) (PDF). translated by H. Campbell Creighton, M.A., Oxon (2nd ed.). [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\"): [Progress Publishers](/wiki/Progress_Publishers \"Progress Publishers\"). [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [5-01-000506-9](/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-01-000506-9 \"Special:BookSources/5-01-000506-9\"). Archived from [the original](http://su-ltd.mylivepage.ru/file/2715/6529_OizermanT.I.-Main_trends_in_Philosophy.pdf) (DjVu, etc.) on 2012-03-06. Retrieved 20 January 2011 First published in Russian as «Главные философские направления»\n * [Higgins, Kathleen M.](/wiki/Kathleen_Higgins \"Kathleen Higgins\") and [Solomon, Robert C.](/wiki/Robert_C._Solomon \"Robert C. Solomon\") _A Short History of Philosophy_. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-19-510196-6](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510196-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510196-6\")\n * [Durant, Will](/wiki/Will_Durant \"Will Durant\"), _Story of Philosophy: The Lives and Opinions of the World's Greatest Philosophers_ , Pocket, 1991, [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-671-73916-4](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-73916-4 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-671-73916-4\")\n * [Oizerman, Teodor](/wiki/Teodor_Oizerman \"Teodor Oizerman\") (1973). [_Problems of the History of Philosophy_](https://web.archive.org/web/20110706145426/http://leninist.biz/en/1973/PHP462/index.html). translated from Russian by Robert Daglish (1st ed.). [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\"): [Progress Publishers](/wiki/Progress_Publishers \"Progress Publishers\"). Archived from [the original](http://leninist.biz/en/1973/PHP462/index.html) on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2011 First published in Russian as «Проблемы историко-философской науки»\n\n \n\nAncient\n\n * Knight, Kelvin. _Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre_. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-7456-1977-4](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-1977-4 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-1977-4\")\n\n \n\nMedieval\n\n * _The Phenomenology Reader_ by Dermot Moran, Timothy Mooney\n * Kim, J. and Ernest Sosa, Ed. (1999). _Metaphysics: An Anthology_. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.\n * Husserl, Edmund; Welton, Donn (1999). [_The Essential Husserl: Basic Writings in Transcendental Phenomenology_](https://books.google.com/books?id=hC2Ac8VGLacC). Indiana University Press. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [0-253-21273-1](/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-21273-1 \"Special:BookSources/0-253-21273-1\").\n\n \n\nModern\n\n * _Existentialism: Basic Writings (Second Edition)_ by Charles Guignon, Derk Pereboom\n * Curley, Edwin, _A Spinoza Reader_ , Princeton, 1994, [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-691-00067-1](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00067-1 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00067-1\")\n * [Bullock, Alan](/wiki/Alan_Bullock \"Alan Bullock\"), R. B. Woodings, and John Cumming, _eds_. _The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thinkers_ , in series, _Fontana Original[s]_. Hammersmith, Eng.: Fontana Press, 1992, cop. 1983. xxv, 867 p. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-00-636965-3](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-636965-3 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-00-636965-3\")\n * Scruton, Roger. _A Short History of Modern Philosophy_. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-415-26763-2](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26763-2 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26763-2\")\n\n \n\nContemporary\n\n * _Contemporary Analytic Philosophy: Core Readings_ by James Baillie\n * [Appiah, Kwame Anthony](/wiki/Kwame_Anthony_Appiah \"Kwame Anthony Appiah\"). _Thinking it Through – An Introduction to Contemporary Philosophy_, 2003, [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-19-513458-2](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513458-2 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513458-2\")\n * Critchley, Simon. _Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction_. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-19-285359-2](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285359-2 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285359-2\")\n\nReference works\n\n * [Chan, Wing-tsit](/wiki/Wing-tsit_Chan \"Wing-tsit Chan\") (1963). [_A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy_](https://books.google.com/books?id=dzmMaVTvUzAC). Princeton University Press. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [0-691-01964-9](/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01964-9 \"Special:BookSources/0-691-01964-9\").\n * Huang, Siu-chi (1999). [_Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods_](https://books.google.com/books?id=sjzPPg8eK7sC). Greenwood Publishing Group. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [0-313-26449-X](/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-26449-X \"Special:BookSources/0-313-26449-X\").\n * Honderich, T., ed. (1995). [_The Oxford Companion to Philosophy_](https://books.google.com/books?id=sI4YAAAAIAAJ). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-19-866132-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866132-0 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866132-0\").\n * _The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy_ by Robert Audi\n * _The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy_ (10 vols.) edited by Edward Craig, [Luciano Floridi](/wiki/Luciano_Floridi \"Luciano Floridi\") (available online by subscription); or\n * _The Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy_ edited by Edward Craig (an abridgement)\n * [Edwards, Paul](/wiki/Paul_Edwards_\\(philosopher\\) \"Paul Edwards \\(philosopher\\)\"), ed. (1967). [_The Encyclopedia of Philosophy_](https://books.google.com/books?id=uqaajgEACAAJ). Macmillan & Free Press. ; in 1996, a ninth supplemental volume appeared that updated the classic 1967 encyclopedia.\n * _[International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers](/wiki/International_Directory_of_Philosophy_and_Philosophers \"International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers\")_. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.\n * _[Directory of American Philosophers](/wiki/Directory_of_American_Philosophers \"Directory of American Philosophers\")_. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.\n * _Routledge History of Philosophy_ (10 vols.) edited by John Marenbon\n * _History of Philosophy_ (9 vols.) by [Frederick Copleston](/wiki/Frederick_Copleston \"Frederick Copleston\")\n * _A History of Western Philosophy_ (5 vols.) by W. T. Jones\n * _History of Italian Philosophy_ (2 vols.) by [Eugenio Garin](/wiki/Eugenio_Garin \"Eugenio Garin\"). Translated from Italian and Edited by Giorgio Pinton. Introduction by Leon Pompa.\n * _Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophies_ (8 vols.), edited by Karl H. Potter et al. (first 6 volumes out of print)\n * _Indian Philosophy_ (2 vols.) by [Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan](/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan \"Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan\")\n * _A History of Indian Philosophy_ (5 vols.) by Surendranath Dasgupta\n * _History of Chinese Philosophy_ (2 vols.) by Fung Yu-lan, Derk Bodde\n * _Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-ming_ by Chan, Wing-tsit\n * _Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy_ edited by Antonio S. Cua\n * _Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion_ by Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, Kurt Friedrichs\n * _Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy_ by Brian Carr, Indira Mahalingam\n * _A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English_ by John A. Grimes\n * _History of Islamic Philosophy_ edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Oliver Leaman\n * _History of Jewish Philosophy_ edited by Daniel H. Frank, Oliver Leaman\n * _A History of Russian Philosophy: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Centuries_ by Valerii Aleksandrovich Kuvakin\n * Ayer, A.J. et al., Ed. (1994) _A Dictionary of Philosophical Quotations_. Blackwell Reference Oxford. Oxford, Basil Blackwell Ltd.\n * Blackburn, S., Ed. (1996) _The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy_. Oxford, Oxford University Press.\n * Mauter, T., Ed. _The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy_. London, Penguin Books.\n * Runes, D., Ed. (1942). [_The Dictionary of Philosophy_](http://www.ditext.com/runes/). New York, The Philosophical Library, Inc.\n * Angeles, P.A., Ed. (1992). _The Harper Collins Dictionary of Philosophy_. New York, Harper Perennial.\n * Bunnin, Nicholas; Tsui-James, Eric, eds. (15 April 2008). [_The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy_](https://books.google.com/books?id=HNWIcgEswrsC). John Wiley & Sons. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-470-99787-1](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-99787-1 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-470-99787-1\").\n * Hoffman, Eric, Ed. (1997) _Guidebook for Publishing Philosophy_. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.\n * Popkin, R.H. (1999). _The Columbia History of Western Philosophy_. New York, Columbia University Press.\n * Bullock, Alan, and Oliver Stallybrass, _jt. eds_. _The Harper Dictionary of Modern Thought_. New York: Harper & Row, 1977. xix, 684 p. _N.B_.: \"First published in England under the title, _The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought_.\" [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-06-010578-5](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-010578-5 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-06-010578-5\")\n * [Reese, W. L.](/wiki/William_L._Reese \"William L. Reese\") _Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought_. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1980. iv, 644 p. [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number \"International Standard Book Number\") [978-0-391-00688-1](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-391-00688-1 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-391-00688-1\")\n\n## External links\n\nFind more about **Philosophy** at Wikipedia's [sister\nprojects](/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects \"Wikipedia:Wikimedia\nsister projects\")\n\n * ![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png)[Definitions](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/philosophy \"wikt:philosophy\") from Wiktionary\n * ![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png)[Media](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Philosophy \"c:Category:Philosophy\") from Wikimedia Commons\n * ![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png)[News](https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy \"n:Special:Search/Philosophy\") from Wikinews\n * ![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png)[Quotations](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy \"q:Special:Search/Philosophy\") from Wikiquote\n * ![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png)[Texts](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy \"s:Special:Search/Philosophy\") from Wikisource\n * ![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png)[Textbooks](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Philosophy \"b:Subject:Philosophy\") from Wikibooks\n * ![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg/27px-Wikiversity-logo-en.svg.png)[Learning resources](https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/School:Philosophy \"v:School:Philosophy\") from Wikiversity\n\n[Library resources](/wiki/Wikipedia:LIBRARY \"Wikipedia:LIBRARY\") about \n**Philosophy**\n\n* * * \n \n--- \n \n * [Resources in your library](//tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Philosophy)\n * [Resources in other libraries](//tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Philosophy&library=0CHOOSE0)\n\n \n \n * [_Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_](http://plato.stanford.edu/)\n * [The _Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy_](http://www.iep.utm.edu/)\n * [Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project](https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/)\n * [PhilPapers](http://philpapers.org/) – a comprehensive directory of online philosophical articles and books by academic philosophers\n * [Philosophy Timeline](http://www.wadsworth.com/philosophy_d/special_features/timeline/timeline.html)\n * [Map of Western Philosophers](https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?ie=UTF8&hl=en&msa=0&msid=107892646478667659520.0004445545f2b2cffb9ed&ll=47.398349,14.326172&spn=28.597229,79.013672&z=4)\n * [Philosophy Magazines and Journals](http://philosophyreview.blogspot.com/)\n * [Philosophy](https://curlie.org/Society/Philosophy/) at Curlie (based on [DMOZ](/wiki/DMOZ \"DMOZ\"))\n * [Philosophy (review)](http://www.journals.cambridge.org/phi)\n * [Philosophy Documentation Center](http://www.pdcnet.org/)\n * [Popular Philosophy](http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/643889/The-Will-to-Believe-and-Other-Essays-in-Popular-Philosophy)\n\n|\n\n * Article\n * [Category](/wiki/Category:Philosophy \"Category:Philosophy\")\n * [Glossary](/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy \"Glossary of philosophy\")\n * [Index](/wiki/Index_of_philosophy \"Index of philosophy\")\n * [Outline](/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy \"Outline of philosophy\")\n * [Portal](/wiki/Portal:Philosophy \"Portal:Philosophy\")\n\n \n \n---|--- \n \n * [ v](/wiki/Template:Philosophy_topics \"Template:Philosophy topics\")\n * [t](/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_topics \"Template talk:Philosophy topics\")\n * [e](//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Philosophy_topics&action=edit)\n\nPhilosophy \n \n--- \n \n|\n\n[Branches](/wiki/Outline_of_academic_disciplines#Philosophy \"Outline of\nacademic disciplines\") \n \n--- \n \n| Traditional |\n\n * [Metaphysics](/wiki/Metaphysics \"Metaphysics\")\n * [Ontology](/wiki/Ontology \"Ontology\")\n * [Epistemology](/wiki/Epistemology \"Epistemology\")\n * [Logic](/wiki/Logic \"Logic\")\n * [Ethics](/wiki/Ethics \"Ethics\")\n * [Aesthetics](/wiki/Aesthetics \"Aesthetics\")\n\n \n \n---|--- \nPhilosophy of |\n\n * [Action](/wiki/Action_theory_\\(philosophy\\) \"Action theory \\(philosophy\\)\")\n * [Art](/wiki/Aesthetics \"Aesthetics\")\n * [Culture](/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture \"Philosophy of culture\")\n * [Design](/wiki/Philosophy_of_design \"Philosophy of design\")\n * [Music](/wiki/Philosophy_of_music \"Philosophy of music\")\n * [Film](/wiki/Philosophy_of_film \"Philosophy of film\")\n * [Business](/wiki/Philosophy_of_business \"Philosophy of business\")\n * [Color](/wiki/Philosophy_of_color \"Philosophy of color\")\n * [Cosmos](/wiki/Cosmology_\\(philosophy\\) \"Cosmology \\(philosophy\\)\")\n * [Dialogue](/wiki/Philosophy_of_dialogue \"Philosophy of dialogue\")\n * [Education](/wiki/Philosophy_of_education \"Philosophy of education\")\n * [Environment](/wiki/Environmental_philosophy \"Environmental philosophy\")\n * [Futility](/wiki/Philosophy_of_futility \"Philosophy of futility\")\n * [Happiness](/wiki/Philosophy_of_happiness \"Philosophy of happiness\")\n * [Healthcare](/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare \"Philosophy of healthcare\")\n * [History](/wiki/Philosophy_of_history \"Philosophy of history\")\n * [Human nature](/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology \"Philosophical anthropology\")\n * [Humor](/wiki/Theories_of_humor \"Theories of humor\")\n * [Feminism](/wiki/Feminist_philosophy \"Feminist philosophy\")\n * [Language](/wiki/Philosophy_of_language \"Philosophy of language\")\n * [Life](/wiki/Philosophy_of_life \"Philosophy of life\")\n * [Literature](/wiki/Philosophy_and_literature \"Philosophy and literature\")\n * [Mathematics](/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics \"Philosophy of mathematics\")\n * [Mind](/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind \"Philosophy of mind\")\n * [Pain](/wiki/Pain_\\(philosophy\\) \"Pain \\(philosophy\\)\")\n * [Psychology](/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology \"Philosophy of psychology\")\n * [Philosophy of psychiatry](/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychiatry \"Philosophy of psychiatry\")\n * [Philosophy of perception](/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception \"Philosophy of perception\")\n * [Philosophy](/wiki/Metaphilosophy \"Metaphilosophy\")\n * [Religion](/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion \"Philosophy of religion\")\n * [Science](/wiki/Philosophy_of_science \"Philosophy of science\")\n * [Physics](/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics \"Philosophy of physics\")\n * [Chemistry](/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry \"Philosophy of chemistry\")\n * [Biology](/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology \"Philosophy of biology\")\n * [Geography](/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography \"Philosophy of geography\")\n * [Sexuality](/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex \"Philosophy of sex\")\n * [Social science](/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science \"Philosophy of social science\")\n * [Culture](/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture \"Philosophy of culture\")\n * [Economics](/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics \"Philosophy and economics\")\n * [Justice](/wiki/Justice \"Justice\")\n * [Law](/wiki/Philosophy_of_law \"Philosophy of law\")\n * [Politics](/wiki/Political_philosophy \"Political philosophy\")\n * [Society](/wiki/Social_philosophy \"Social philosophy\")\n * [Space and time](/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time \"Philosophy of space and time\")\n * [Sport](/wiki/Philosophy_of_sport \"Philosophy of sport\")\n * [Technology](/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology \"Philosophy of technology\")\n * [Artificial intelligence](/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence \"Philosophy of artificial intelligence\")\n * [Computer science](/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science \"Philosophy of computer science\")\n * [Engineering](/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering \"Philosophy of engineering\")\n * [Information](/wiki/Philosophy_of_information \"Philosophy of information\")\n * [War](/wiki/Philosophy_of_war \"Philosophy of war\")\n\n \n \n|\n\n[Schools of thought](/wiki/List_of_philosophies \"List of philosophies\") \n \n--- \n \n| [By era](/wiki/Philosophy#Historical_overview \"Philosophy\") |\n\n * [Ancient](/wiki/Ancient_philosophy \"Ancient philosophy\")\n * [Western](/wiki/Western_philosophy \"Western philosophy\")\n * [Medieval](/wiki/Medieval_philosophy \"Medieval philosophy\")\n * [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy \"Renaissance philosophy\")\n * [Early modern](/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy \"Early modern philosophy\")\n * [Modern](/wiki/Modern_philosophy \"Modern philosophy\")\n * [Contemporary](/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy \"Contemporary philosophy\")\n\n \n \n---|--- \n[Ancient](/wiki/Ancient_philosophy \"Ancient philosophy\") |\n\n| [Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_philosophy \"Chinese philosophy\") |\n\n * [Agriculturalism](/wiki/Agriculturalism \"Agriculturalism\")\n * [Confucianism](/wiki/Confucianism \"Confucianism\")\n * [Legalism](/wiki/Legalism_\\(Chinese_philosophy\\) \"Legalism \\(Chinese philosophy\\)\")\n * [Logicians](/wiki/School_of_Names \"School of Names\")\n * [Mohism](/wiki/Mohism \"Mohism\")\n * [Chinese naturalism](/wiki/School_of_Naturalists \"School of Naturalists\")\n * [Neotaoism](/wiki/Xuanxue \"Xuanxue\")\n * [Taoism](/wiki/Taoism \"Taoism\")\n * [Yangism](/wiki/Yangism \"Yangism\")\n * [Zen](/wiki/Zen \"Zen\")\n\n \n \n---|--- \n[Greco-](/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy \"Ancient Greek\nphilosophy\")[Roman](/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy \"Hellenistic philosophy\") |\n\n * [Aristotelianism](/wiki/Aristotelianism \"Aristotelianism\")\n * [Atomism](/wiki/Atomism \"Atomism\")\n * [Cynicism](/wiki/Cynicism_\\(philosophy\\) \"Cynicism \\(philosophy\\)\")\n * [Cyrenaics](/wiki/Cyrenaics \"Cyrenaics\")\n * [Eleatics](/wiki/Eleatics \"Eleatics\")\n * [Eretrian school](/wiki/Eretrian_school \"Eretrian school\")\n * [Epicureanism](/wiki/Epicureanism \"Epicureanism\")\n * [Hermeneutics](/wiki/Hermeneutics \"Hermeneutics\")\n * [Ionian](/wiki/Ionian_School_\\(philosophy\\) \"Ionian School \\(philosophy\\)\")\n * [Ephesian](/wiki/Ephesian_school \"Ephesian school\")\n * [Milesian](/wiki/Milesian_school \"Milesian school\")\n * [Megarian school](/wiki/Megarian_school \"Megarian school\")\n * [Neoplatonism](/wiki/Neoplatonism \"Neoplatonism\")\n * [Peripatetic](/wiki/Peripatetic_school \"Peripatetic school\")\n * [Platonism](/wiki/Platonism \"Platonism\")\n * [Pluralism](/wiki/Pluralist_school \"Pluralist school\")\n * [Presocratic](/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy \"Pre-Socratic philosophy\")\n * [Pyrrhonism](/wiki/Pyrrhonism \"Pyrrhonism\")\n * [Pythagoreanism](/wiki/Pythagoreanism \"Pythagoreanism\")\n * [Neopythagoreanism](/wiki/Neopythagoreanism \"Neopythagoreanism\")\n * [Sophistic](/wiki/Sophist \"Sophist\")\n * [Stoicism](/wiki/Stoicism \"Stoicism\")\n\n \n \n[Indian](/wiki/Indian_philosophy \"Indian philosophy\") |\n\n * [Samkhya](/wiki/Samkhya \"Samkhya\")\n * [Nyaya](/wiki/Nyaya \"Nyaya\")\n * [Vaisheshika](/wiki/Vaisheshika \"Vaisheshika\")\n * [Yoga](/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali \"Yoga Sutras of Patanjali\")\n * [Mīmāṃsā](/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81 \"Mīmāṃsā\")\n * [Ājīvika](/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika \"Ājīvika\")\n * [Ajñana](/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana \"Ajñana\")\n * [Cārvāka](/wiki/Charvaka \"Charvaka\")\n * [Jain](/wiki/Jain_philosophy \"Jain philosophy\")\n * [Anekantavada](/wiki/Anekantavada \"Anekantavada\")\n * [Syādvāda](/wiki/Anekantavada#Syādvāda \"Anekantavada\")\n * [Buddhist](/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy \"Buddhist philosophy\")\n * [Śūnyatā](/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81 \"Śūnyatā\")\n * [Madhyamaka](/wiki/Madhyamaka \"Madhyamaka\")\n * [Yogacara](/wiki/Yogachara \"Yogachara\")\n * [Sautrāntika](/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika \"Sautrāntika\")\n * [Svatantrika](/wiki/Svatantrika-Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction \"Svatantrika-Prasaṅgika distinction\")\n\n \n \n[Persian](/wiki/Iranian_philosophy \"Iranian philosophy\") |\n\n * [Mazdakism](/wiki/Mazdak#Mazdakism \"Mazdak\")\n * [Zoroastrianism](/wiki/Zoroastrianism \"Zoroastrianism\")\n * [Zurvanism](/wiki/Zurvanism \"Zurvanism\")\n\n \n \n[Medieval](/wiki/Medieval_philosophy \"Medieval philosophy\") |\n\n| [European](/wiki/Western_philosophy \"Western philosophy\") |\n\n * [Christian philosophy](/wiki/Christian_philosophy \"Christian philosophy\")\n * [Scholasticism](/wiki/Scholasticism \"Scholasticism\")\n * [Thomism](/wiki/Thomism \"Thomism\")\n * [Renaissance humanism](/wiki/Renaissance_humanism \"Renaissance humanism\")\n\n \n \n---|--- \nEast Asian |\n\n * [Korean Confucianism](/wiki/Korean_Confucianism \"Korean Confucianism\")\n * [Edo Neo-Confucianism](/wiki/Edo_Neo-Confucianism \"Edo Neo-Confucianism\")\n * [Neo-Confucianism](/wiki/Neo-Confucianism \"Neo-Confucianism\")\n\n \n \nIndian |\n\n * [Vedanta](/wiki/Vedanta \"Vedanta\")\n * [Acintya bheda abheda](/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda \"Achintya Bheda Abheda\")\n * [Advaita](/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta \"Advaita Vedanta\")\n * [Bhedabheda](/wiki/Bhedabheda \"Bhedabheda\")\n * [Dvaita](/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta \"Dvaita Vedanta\")\n * [Dvaitadvaita](/wiki/Dvaitadvaita \"Dvaitadvaita\")\n * [Shuddhadvaita](/wiki/Shuddhadvaita \"Shuddhadvaita\")\n * [Vishishtadvaita](/wiki/Vishishtadvaita \"Vishishtadvaita\")\n * [Navya-Nyāya](/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya \"Navya-Nyāya\")\n\n \n \n[Islamic](/wiki/Islamic_philosophy \"Islamic philosophy\") |\n\n * [Averroism](/wiki/Averroism \"Averroism\")\n * [Avicennism](/wiki/Avicenna#Avicennian_philosophy \"Avicenna\")\n * [Illuminationism](/wiki/Illuminationism \"Illuminationism\")\n * _[ʿIlm al-Kalām](/wiki/Kalam \"Kalam\")_\n * [Sufi](/wiki/Sufi_philosophy \"Sufi philosophy\")\n\n \n \n[Jewish](/wiki/Jewish_philosophy \"Jewish philosophy\") |\n\n * [Judeo-Islamic](/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_\\(800%E2%80%931400\\) \"Judeo-Islamic philosophies \\(800–1400\\)\")\n\n \n \n[Modern](/wiki/Modern_philosophy \"Modern philosophy\") |\n\n| People |\n\n * [Cartesianism](/wiki/Cartesianism \"Cartesianism\")\n * [Kantianism](/wiki/Kantianism \"Kantianism\")\n * [Neo-Kantianism](/wiki/Neo-Kantianism \"Neo-Kantianism\")\n * [Hegelianism](/wiki/Hegelianism \"Hegelianism\")\n * [Marxism](/wiki/Marxist_philosophy \"Marxist philosophy\")\n * [Spinozism](/wiki/Spinozism \"Spinozism\")\n\n \n \n---|--- \n0 |\n\n * [Anarchism](/wiki/Anarchism \"Anarchism\")\n * [Classical Realism](/wiki/Classical_Realism \"Classical Realism\")\n * [Liberalism](/wiki/Classical_liberalism \"Classical liberalism\")\n * [Collectivism](/wiki/Collectivism \"Collectivism\")\n * [Conservatism](/wiki/Conservatism \"Conservatism\")\n * [Determinism](/wiki/Determinism \"Determinism\")\n * [Dualism](/wiki/Mind-body_dualism \"Mind-body dualism\")\n * [Empiricism](/wiki/Empiricism \"Empiricism\")\n * [Existentialism](/wiki/Existentialism \"Existentialism\")\n * [Foundationalism](/wiki/Foundationalism \"Foundationalism\")\n * [Historicism](/wiki/Historicism \"Historicism\")\n * [Holism](/wiki/Holism \"Holism\")\n * [Humanism](/wiki/Humanism \"Humanism\")\n * [Idealism](/wiki/Idealism \"Idealism\")\n * [Absolute](/wiki/Absolute_idealism \"Absolute idealism\")\n * [British](/wiki/British_idealism \"British idealism\")\n * [German](/wiki/German_idealism \"German idealism\")\n * [Objective](/wiki/Objective_idealism \"Objective idealism\")\n * [Subjective](/wiki/Subjective_idealism \"Subjective idealism\")\n * [Transcendental](/wiki/Transcendental_idealism \"Transcendental idealism\")\n * [Individualism](/wiki/Individualism \"Individualism\")\n * [Kokugaku](/wiki/Kokugaku \"Kokugaku\")\n * [Materialism](/wiki/Materialism \"Materialism\")\n * [Modernism](/wiki/Modernism \"Modernism\")\n * [Monism](/wiki/Monism \"Monism\")\n * [Naturalism](/wiki/Naturalism_\\(philosophy\\) \"Naturalism \\(philosophy\\)\")\n * [Natural law](/wiki/Natural_law \"Natural law\")\n * [Nihilism](/wiki/Nihilism \"Nihilism\")\n * [New Confucianism](/wiki/New_Confucianism \"New Confucianism\")\n * [Neo-Scholasticism](/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism \"Neo-Scholasticism\")\n * [Pragmatism](/wiki/Pragmatism \"Pragmatism\")\n * [Phenomenology](/wiki/Phenomenology_\\(philosophy\\) \"Phenomenology \\(philosophy\\)\")\n * [Positivism](/wiki/Positivism \"Positivism\")\n * [Reductionism](/wiki/Reductionism \"Reductionism\")\n * [Rationalism](/wiki/Rationalism \"Rationalism\")\n * [Social contract](/wiki/Social_contract \"Social contract\")\n * [Socialism](/wiki/Socialism \"Socialism\")\n * [Transcendentalism](/wiki/Transcendentalism \"Transcendentalism\")\n * [Utilitarianism](/wiki/Utilitarianism \"Utilitarianism\")\n\n \n \n[Contemporary](/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy \"Contemporary philosophy\") |\n\n| [Analytic](/wiki/Analytic_philosophy \"Analytic philosophy\") |\n\n * [Applied ethics](/wiki/Applied_ethics \"Applied ethics\")\n * [Analytic feminism](/wiki/Analytical_feminism \"Analytical feminism\")\n * [Analytical Marxism](/wiki/Analytical_Marxism \"Analytical Marxism\")\n * [Communitarianism](/wiki/Communitarianism \"Communitarianism\")\n * [Consequentialism](/wiki/Consequentialism \"Consequentialism\")\n * [Critical rationalism](/wiki/Critical_rationalism \"Critical rationalism\")\n * [Experimental philosophy](/wiki/Experimental_philosophy \"Experimental philosophy\")\n * [Falsificationism](/wiki/Falsifiability \"Falsifiability\")\n * [Foundationalism](/wiki/Foundationalism \"Foundationalism\") / [Coherentism](/wiki/Coherentism \"Coherentism\")\n * [Generative linguistics](/wiki/Generative_grammar \"Generative grammar\")\n * [Internalism and Externalism](/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism \"Internalism and externalism\")\n * [Logical positivism](/wiki/Logical_positivism \"Logical positivism\")\n * [Legal positivism](/wiki/Legal_positivism \"Legal positivism\")\n * [Normative ethics](/wiki/Normative_ethics \"Normative ethics\")\n * [Meta-ethics](/wiki/Meta-ethics \"Meta-ethics\")\n * [Moral realism](/wiki/Moral_realism \"Moral realism\")\n * [Neo-Aristotelian](/wiki/Virtue_ethics#Contemporary_'aretaic_turn' \"Virtue ethics\")\n * [Quinean naturalism](/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology \"Naturalized epistemology\")\n * [Ordinary language philosophy](/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy \"Ordinary language philosophy\")\n * [Postanalytic philosophy](/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy \"Postanalytic philosophy\")\n * [Quietism](/wiki/Quietism_\\(philosophy\\) \"Quietism \\(philosophy\\)\")\n * [Rawlsian](/wiki/John_Rawls \"John Rawls\")\n * [Reformed epistemology](/wiki/Reformed_epistemology \"Reformed epistemology\")\n * [Systemics](/wiki/Systemics \"Systemics\")\n * [Scientism](/wiki/Scientism \"Scientism\")\n * [Scientific realism](/wiki/Scientific_realism \"Scientific realism\")\n * [Scientific skepticism](/wiki/Skeptical_movement \"Skeptical movement\")\n * [Contemporary utilitarianism](/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments \"Utilitarianism\")\n * [Vienna Circle](/wiki/Vienna_Circle \"Vienna Circle\")\n * [Wittgensteinian](/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein \"Ludwig Wittgenstein\")\n\n \n \n---|--- \n[Continental](/wiki/Continental_philosophy \"Continental philosophy\") |\n\n * [Critical theory](/wiki/Critical_theory \"Critical theory\")\n * [Deconstruction](/wiki/Deconstruction \"Deconstruction\")\n * [Existentialism](/wiki/Existentialism \"Existentialism\")\n * [Feminist](/wiki/Feminist_philosophy \"Feminist philosophy\")\n * [Frankfurt School](/wiki/Frankfurt_School \"Frankfurt School\")\n * [New Historicism](/wiki/New_Historicism \"New Historicism\")\n * [Hermeneutics](/wiki/Hermeneutics \"Hermeneutics\")\n * [Neo-Marxism](/wiki/Neo-Marxism \"Neo-Marxism\")\n * [Phenomenology](/wiki/Phenomenology_\\(philosophy\\) \"Phenomenology \\(philosophy\\)\")\n * [Postmodernism](/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy \"Postmodern philosophy\")\n * [Post-structuralism](/wiki/Post-structuralism \"Post-structuralism\")\n * [Social constructionism](/wiki/Social_constructionism \"Social constructionism\")\n * [Structuralism](/wiki/Structuralism \"Structuralism\")\n * [Western Marxism](/wiki/Western_Marxism \"Western Marxism\")\n\n \n \nOther |\n\n * [Kyoto School](/wiki/Kyoto_School \"Kyoto School\")\n * [Objectivism](/wiki/Objectivism_\\(Ayn_Rand\\) \"Objectivism \\(Ayn Rand\\)\")\n * [Russian cosmism](/wiki/Russian_cosmism \"Russian cosmism\")\n * _[more...](/wiki/List_of_philosophies \"List of philosophies\")_\n\n \n \n|\n\nPositions \n \n--- \n \n| [Aesthetics](/wiki/Aesthetics \"Aesthetics\") |\n\n * [Formalism](/wiki/Formalism_\\(art\\) \"Formalism \\(art\\)\")\n * [Institutionalism](/wiki/Theory_of_art#Institutional \"Theory of art\")\n * [Aesthetic response](/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions \"Aesthetic emotions\")\n\n \n \n---|--- \n[Ethics](/wiki/Ethics \"Ethics\") |\n\n * [Consequentialism](/wiki/Consequentialism \"Consequentialism\")\n * [Deontology](/wiki/Deontological_ethics \"Deontological ethics\")\n * [Virtue](/wiki/Virtue_ethics \"Virtue ethics\")\n\n \n \n[Free will](/wiki/Free_will \"Free will\") |\n\n * [Compatibilism](/wiki/Compatibilism \"Compatibilism\")\n * [Determinism](/wiki/Determinism \"Determinism\")\n * [Libertarianism](/wiki/Libertarianism_\\(metaphysics\\) \"Libertarianism \\(metaphysics\\)\")\n\n \n \n[Metaphysics](/wiki/Metaphysics \"Metaphysics\") |\n\n * [Atomism](/wiki/Atomism \"Atomism\")\n * [Dualism](/wiki/Mind-body_dualism \"Mind-body dualism\")\n * [Monism](/wiki/Monism \"Monism\")\n * [Naturalism](/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism \"Metaphysical naturalism\")\n\n \n \n[Epistemology](/wiki/Epistemology \"Epistemology\") |\n\n * [Constructivism](/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology \"Constructivist epistemology\")\n * [Empiricism](/wiki/Empiricism \"Empiricism\")\n * [Idealism](/wiki/Epistemological_idealism \"Epistemological idealism\")\n * [Particularism](/wiki/Epistemological_particularism \"Epistemological particularism\")\n * [Fideism](/wiki/Fideism \"Fideism\")\n * [Rationalism](/wiki/Rationalism \"Rationalism\") / [Reasonism](/wiki/Reasonism \"Reasonism\")\n * [Skepticism](/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism#Epistemology_and_skepticism \"Philosophical skepticism\")\n * [Solipsism](/wiki/Solipsism \"Solipsism\")\n\n \n \n[Mind](/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind \"Philosophy of mind\") |\n\n * [Behaviorism](/wiki/Behaviorism \"Behaviorism\")\n * [Emergentism](/wiki/Emergentism \"Emergentism\")\n * [Eliminativism](/wiki/Eliminative_materialism \"Eliminative materialism\")\n * [Epiphenomenalism](/wiki/Epiphenomenalism \"Epiphenomenalism\")\n * [Functionalism](/wiki/Functionalism_\\(philosophy_of_mind\\) \"Functionalism \\(philosophy of mind\\)\")\n * [Objectivism](/wiki/Objectivity_\\(philosophy\\) \"Objectivity \\(philosophy\\)\")\n * [Subjectivism](/wiki/Subjectivism \"Subjectivism\")\n\n \n \n[Normativity](/wiki/Norm_\\(philosophy\\) \"Norm \\(philosophy\\)\") |\n\n * [Absolutism](/wiki/Moral_absolutism \"Moral absolutism\")\n * [Particularism](/wiki/Moral_particularism \"Moral particularism\")\n * [Relativism](/wiki/Relativism \"Relativism\")\n * [Nihilism](/wiki/Moral_nihilism \"Moral nihilism\")\n * [Skepticism](/wiki/Moral_skepticism \"Moral skepticism\")\n * [Universalism](/wiki/Moral_universalism \"Moral universalism\")\n\n \n \n[Ontology](/wiki/Ontology \"Ontology\") |\n\n * [Action](/wiki/Action_theory_\\(philosophy\\) \"Action theory \\(philosophy\\)\")\n * [Event](/wiki/Event_\\(philosophy\\) \"Event \\(philosophy\\)\")\n * [Process](/wiki/Process_philosophy \"Process philosophy\")\n\n \n \n[Reality](/wiki/Reality \"Reality\") |\n\n * [Anti-realism](/wiki/Anti-realism \"Anti-realism\")\n * [Conceptualism](/wiki/Conceptualism \"Conceptualism\")\n * [Idealism](/wiki/Idealism \"Idealism\")\n * [Materialism](/wiki/Materialism \"Materialism\")\n * [Naturalism](/wiki/Naturalism_\\(philosophy\\) \"Naturalism \\(philosophy\\)\")\n * [Nominalism](/wiki/Nominalism \"Nominalism\")\n * [Physicalism](/wiki/Physicalism \"Physicalism\")\n * [Realism](/wiki/Philosophical_realism \"Philosophical realism\")\n\n \n \n|\n\n * Philosophy by region\n * Philosophy-related lists\n * Miscellaneous\n\n \n \n--- \n \n| By region |\n\n * [African](/wiki/African_philosophy \"African philosophy\")\n * [Ethiopian](/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy \"Ethiopian philosophy\")\n * [Aztec](/wiki/Aztec_philosophy \"Aztec philosophy\")\n * [Native America](/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy \"Indigenous American philosophy\")\n * [Eastern](/wiki/Eastern_philosophy \"Eastern philosophy\")\n * [Chinese](/wiki/Chinese_philosophy \"Chinese philosophy\")\n * [Egyptian](/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy \"Ancient Egyptian philosophy\")\n * [Czech](/wiki/Czech_philosophy \"Czech philosophy\")\n * [Indian](/wiki/Indian_philosophy \"Indian philosophy\")\n * [Indonesian](/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy \"Indonesian philosophy\")\n * [Iranian](/wiki/Iranian_philosophy \"Iranian philosophy\")\n * [Japanese](/wiki/Japanese_philosophy \"Japanese philosophy\")\n * [Korean](/wiki/Korean_philosophy \"Korean philosophy\")\n * [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy \"Vietnamese philosophy\")\n * [Pakistani](/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy \"Pakistani philosophy\")\n * [Western](/wiki/Western_philosophy \"Western philosophy\")\n * [American](/wiki/American_philosophy \"American philosophy\")\n * [Australian](/wiki/Australian_philosophy \"Australian philosophy\")\n * [British](/wiki/British_philosophy \"British philosophy\")\n * [Danish](/wiki/Danish_philosophy \"Danish philosophy\")\n * [French](/wiki/French_philosophy \"French philosophy\")\n * [German](/wiki/German_philosophy \"German philosophy\")\n * [Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy \"Ancient Greek philosophy\")\n * [Italian](/wiki/Italian_philosophy \"Italian philosophy\")\n * [Polish](/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland \"History of philosophy in Poland\")\n * [Romanian](/wiki/Romanian_philosophy \"Romanian philosophy\")\n * [Russian](/wiki/List_of_Russian_philosophers \"List of Russian philosophers\")\n * [Slovene](/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers \"List of Slovene philosophers\")\n * [Spanish](/wiki/Spanish_philosophy \"Spanish philosophy\")\n * [Turkish](/wiki/Turkish_philosophy \"Turkish philosophy\")\n\n \n \n---|--- \nLists |\n\n * [Outline](/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy \"Outline of philosophy\")\n * [Index](/wiki/Index_of_philosophy \"Index of philosophy\")\n * [Years](/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy \"List of years in philosophy\")\n * [Problems](/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy \"List of unsolved problems in philosophy\")\n * [Schools](/wiki/List_of_philosophies \"List of philosophies\")\n * [Glossary](/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy \"Glossary of philosophy\")\n * [Philosophers](/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers \"Lists of philosophers\")\n * [Movements](/wiki/Philosophical_movement \"Philosophical movement\")\n * [Publications](/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy \"List of important publications in philosophy\")\n\n \n \nMiscellaneous |\n\n * [Women in philosophy](/wiki/Women_in_philosophy \"Women in philosophy\")\n * [Sage (philosophy)](/wiki/Sage_\\(philosophy\\) \"Sage \\(philosophy\\)\")\n\n \n \n * ![Portal](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png) [Portal](/wiki/Portal:Philosophy \"Portal:Philosophy\")\n * ![Category](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png) [Category](/wiki/Category:Philosophy \"Category:Philosophy\")\n * ![Wikipedia book](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/16px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png) [Book](/wiki/Book:Philosophy \"Book:Philosophy\")\n\n \n \n * [v](/wiki/Template:Humanities \"Template:Humanities\")\n * 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[Wikiversity](https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Philosophy)\n\n### Languages\n\n * [Acèh](https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam \"Kalam – Achinese\")\n * [Afrikaans](https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie \"Filosofie – Afrikaans\")\n * [Alemannisch](https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie \"Philosophie – Alemannisch\")\n * [አማርኛ](https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8D%8D%E1%88%8D%E1%88%B5%E1%8D%8D%E1%8A%93 \"ፍልስፍና – Amharic\")\n * [Ænglisc](https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%AA%C3%B0witegung \"Ūðwitegung – Old English\")\n * [العربية](https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9 \"فلسفة – Arabic\")\n * [Aragonés](https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa \"Filosofía – Aragonese\")\n * [Armãneashti](https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia \"Filosofia – Aromanian\")\n * [অসমীয়া](https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8 \"দৰ্শন – Assamese\")\n * [Asturianu](https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa \"Filosofía – Asturian\")\n * [Avañe'ẽ](https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arandupykuaaty \"Arandupykuaaty – Guarani\")\n * [Aymar aru](https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lup%27intawi \"Lup'intawi – Aymara\")\n * [Azərbaycanca](https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99 \"Fəlsəfə – Azerbaijani\")\n * [تۆرکجه](https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87 \"فلسفه – South Azerbaijani\")\n * [বাংলা](https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8 \"দর্শন – Bangla\")\n * [Bân-lâm-gú](https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiat-ha%CC%8Dk \"Tiat-ha̍k – Chinese \\(Min Nan\\)\")\n * [Башҡортса](https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99 \"Фәлсәфә – Bashkir\")\n * [Беларуская](https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F \"Філасофія – Belarusian\")\n * [Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎](https://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F \"Філязофія – Belarusian \\(Taraškievica orthography\\)\")\n * [भोजपुरी](https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8 \"दर्शन – Bhojpuri\")\n * [Bislama](https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi \"Filosofi – Bislama\")\n * [Български](https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F \"Философия – Bulgarian\")\n * [Boarisch](https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie \"Philosophie – Bavarian\")\n * [བོད་ཡིག](https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%9A%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%89%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D \"མཚན་ཉིད་རིག་པ། – Tibetan\")\n * [Bosanski](https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija \"Filozofija – Bosnian\")\n * [Brezhoneg](https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prederouriezh \"Prederouriezh – Breton\")\n * [Буряад](https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D2%AF%D0%BD_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD \"Гүн ухаан – Russia Buriat\")\n * [Català](https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia \"Filosofia – Catalan\")\n * [Чӑвашла](https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8 \"Философи – Chuvash\")\n * [Cebuano](https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopiya \"Pilosopiya – Cebuano\")\n * [Čeština](https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie \"Filosofie – Czech\")\n * [Corsu](https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia \"Filosofia – Corsican\")\n * [Cymraeg](https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athroniaeth \"Athroniaeth – Welsh\")\n * [Dansk](https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi \"Filosofi – Danish\")\n * [Deutsch](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie \"Philosophie – German\")\n * [Eesti](https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosoofia \"Filosoofia – Estonian\")\n * [Ελληνικά](https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1 \"Φιλοσοφία – Greek\")\n * [Эрзянь](https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%BC%D0%BE_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%8C_\\(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8C\\) \"Эрямо койтнень содамось \\(философиясь\\) – Erzya\")\n * [Español](https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa \"Filosofía – Spanish\")\n * [Esperanto](https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofio \"Filozofio – Esperanto\")\n * [Estremeñu](https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia \"Filosofia – Extremaduran\")\n * [Euskara](https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia \"Filosofia – Basque\")\n * [فارسی](https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87 \"فلسفه – Persian\")\n * [Fiji Hindi](https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy \"Philosophy – Fiji Hindi\")\n * [Føroyskt](https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimspeki \"Heimspeki – Faroese\")\n * [Français](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie \"Philosophie – French\")\n * [Frysk](https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofy \"Filosofy – Western Frisian\")\n * [Furlan](https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie \"Filosofie – Friulian\")\n * [Gaeilge](https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feals%C3%BAnacht \"Fealsúnacht – Irish\")\n * [Gaelg](https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallsoonys \"Fallsoonys – Manx\")\n * [Gàidhlig](https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feallsanachd \"Feallsanachd – Scottish Gaelic\")\n * [Galego](https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa \"Filosofía – Galician\")\n * [贛語](https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8 \"哲學 – Gan Chinese\")\n * [客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî](https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chet-ho%CC%8Dk \"Chet-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese\")\n * [한국어](https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99 \"철학 – Korean\")\n * [Հայերեն](https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6 \"Փիլիսոփայություն – Armenian\")\n * [हिन्दी](https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0 \"दर्शनशास्त्र – Hindi\")\n * [Hrvatski](https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija \"Filozofija – Croatian\")\n * [Ido](https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofio \"Filozofio – Ido\")\n * [Igbo](https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81k%E1%BB%8D_na_Uche \"Ákọ na Uche – Igbo\")\n * [Ilokano](https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopia \"Pilosopia – Iloko\")\n * [Bahasa Indonesia](https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat \"Filsafat – Indonesian\")\n * [Interlingua](https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia \"Philosophia – Interlingua\")\n * [Interlingue](https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie \"Filosofie – Interlingue\")\n * [ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut](https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%90%83%E1%93%B1%E1%92%AA%E1%93%95%E1%90%85%E1%95%90%E1%93%82%E1%96%85 \"ᐃᓱᒪᓕᐅᕐᓂᖅ – Inuktitut\")\n * [IsiXhosa](https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifilosofi \"Ifilosofi – Xhosa\")\n * [IsiZulu](https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFilosofi \"IFilosofi – Zulu\")\n * [Íslenska](https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimspeki \"Heimspeki – Icelandic\")\n * [Italiano](https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia \"Filosofia – Italian\")\n * [עברית](https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94 \"פילוסופיה – Hebrew\")\n * [Basa Jawa](https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat \"Filsafat – Javanese\")\n * [Kalaallisut](https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuunerup_isumalerineq \"Inuunerup isumalerineq – Kalaallisut\")\n * [ಕನ್ನಡ](https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0 \"ತತ್ತ್ವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada\")\n * [ქართული](https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90 \"ფილოსოფია – Georgian\")\n * [Kaszëbsczi](https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofij%C3%B4 \"Filozofijô – Kashubian\")\n * [Қазақша](https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F \"Философия – Kazakh\")\n * [Kinyarwanda](https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi \"Filozofi – Kinyarwanda\")\n * [Kiswahili](https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafa \"Falsafa – Swahili\")\n * [Kreyòl ayisyen](https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi \"Filozofi – Haitian Creole\")\n * [Kurdî](https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe \"Felsefe – Kurdish\")\n * [Кыргызча](https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F \"Философия – Kyrgyz\")\n * [Ladino](https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia \"Filosofia – Ladino\")\n * [Лезги](https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F \"Философия – Lezghian\")\n * [ລາວ](https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B2 \"ປັດຊະຍາ – Lao\")\n * [Latina](https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia \"Philosophia – Latin\")\n * [Latviešu](https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija \"Filozofija – Latvian\")\n * [Lëtzebuergesch](https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie \"Philosophie – Luxembourgish\")\n * [Lietuvių](https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofija \"Filosofija – Lithuanian\")\n * [Ligure](https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil%C3%B2sofia \"Filòsofia – Ligurian\")\n * [Limburgs](https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie \"Filosofie – Limburgish\")\n * [Livvinkarjala](https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosoufii \"Filosoufii – Livvi-Karelian\")\n * [La .lojban.](https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/pijyske \"pijyske – Lojban\")\n * [Lumbaart](https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filusufia \"Filusufia – Lombard\")\n * [Magyar](https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filoz%C3%B3fia \"Filozófia – Hungarian\")\n * [मैथिली](https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8 \"दर्शन – Maithili\")\n * [Македонски](https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0 \"Филозофија – Macedonian\")\n * [Malagasy](https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil%C3%B4z%C3%B4fia \"Filôzôfia – Malagasy\")\n * [മലയാളം](https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82 \"തത്ത്വശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam\")\n * [Malti](https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofija \"Filosofija – Maltese\")\n * [मराठी](https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8 \"तत्त्वज्ञान – Marathi\")\n * [მარგალური](https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90 \"ფილოსოფია – Mingrelian\")\n * [مصرى](https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87 \"فلسفه – Egyptian Arabic\")\n * [مازِرونی](https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87 \"فلسفه – Mazanderani\")\n * [Bahasa Melayu](https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafah \"Falsafah – Malay\")\n * [Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄](https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di%C3%A9k-h%C5%8Fk \"Diék-hŏk – Min Dong Chinese\")\n * [Mirandés](https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie \"Filosofie – Mirandese\")\n * [Монгол](https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D2%AF%D0%BD_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD \"Гүн ухаан – Mongolian\")\n * [မြန်မာဘာသာ](https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9D%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%91%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92 \"သဘာဝတ္ထဗေဒ – Burmese\")\n * [Nāhuatl](https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlazohmatiliztli \"Tlazohmatiliztli – Nāhuatl\")\n * [Nederlands](https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie \"Filosofie – Dutch\")\n * [Nedersaksies](https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filesefie \"Filesefie – Low Saxon\")\n * [नेपाली](https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8 \"दर्शन – Nepali\")\n * [नेपाल भाषा](https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8 \"दर्शन – Newari\")\n * [日本語](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6 \"哲学 – Japanese\")\n * [Нохчийн](https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8 \"Философи – Chechen\")\n * [Nordfriisk](https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofii \"Filosofii – Northern Frisian\")\n * [Norsk](https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi \"Filosofi – Norwegian\")\n * [Norsk nynorsk](https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi \"Filosofi – Norwegian Nynorsk\")\n * [Nouormand](https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie \"Philosophie – Norman\")\n * [Novial](https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia \"Filosofia – Novial\")\n * [Occitan](https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia \"Filosofia – Occitan\")\n * [Олык марий](https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B9 \"Философий – Eastern Mari\")\n * [Oromoo](https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falaasama \"Falaasama – Oromo\")\n * [Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча](https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafa \"Falsafa – Uzbek\")\n * [ਪੰਜਾਬੀ](https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A8 \"ਦਰਸ਼ਨ – Punjabi\")\n * [Pälzisch](https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie \"Philosophie – Palatine German\")\n * [پنجابی](https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%8C \"فلاسفی – Western Punjabi\")\n * [Papiamentu](https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia \"Filosofia – Papiamento\")\n * [پښتو](https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87 \"فلسفه – Pashto\")\n * [Patois](https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filasafi \"Filasafi – Jamaican Creole English\")\n * [ភាសាខ្មែរ](https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6 \"ទស្សនវិជ្ជា – Khmer\")\n * [Picard](https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie \"Filosofie – Picard\")\n * [Piemontèis](https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ACa \"Filosofìa – Piedmontese\")\n * [Tok Pisin](https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopi \"Pilosopi – Tok Pisin\")\n * [Plattdüütsch](https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie \"Philosophie – Low German\")\n * [Polski](https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia \"Filozofia – Polish\")\n * [Ποντιακά](https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1 \"Φιλοσοφία – Pontic\")\n * [Português](https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia \"Filosofia – Portuguese\")\n * [Qaraqalpaqsha](https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofiya \"Filosofiya – Kara-Kalpak\")\n * [Română](https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofie \"Filozofie – Romanian\")\n * [Rumantsch](https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia \"Filosofia – Romansh\")\n * [Runa Simi](https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yachay_wayllukuy \"Yachay wayllukuy – Quechua\")\n * [Русиньскый](https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F \"Філозофія – Rusyn\")\n * [Русский](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F \"Философия – Russian\")\n * [Саха тыла](https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F \"Философия – Sakha\")\n * [संस्कृतम्](https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D \"तत्त्वज्ञानम् – Sanskrit\")\n * [Sängö](https://sg.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AAnd%C3%A2ndar%C3%A4 \"Sêndândarä – Sango\")\n * [Sardu](https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia \"Filosofia – Sardinian\")\n * [Scots](https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie \"Filosofie – Scots\")\n * [Seeltersk](https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie \"Philosophie – Saterland Frisian\")\n * [Sesotho](https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi \"Filosofi – Southern Sotho\")\n * [Shqip](https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia \"Filozofia – Albanian\")\n * [Sicilianu](https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filusuf%C3%ACa \"Filusufìa – Sicilian\")\n * [සිංහල](https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA \"දර්ශනය – Sinhala\")\n * [Simple English](https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy \"Philosophy – Simple English\")\n * [Slovenčina](https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia \"Filozofia – Slovak\")\n * [Slovenščina](https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija \"Filozofija – Slovenian\")\n * [Soomaaliga](https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filasoofiyada \"Filasoofiyada – Somali\")\n * [کوردی](https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95 \"فەلسەفە – Central Kurdish\")\n * [Sranantongo](https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabi_fu_denki \"Sabi fu denki – Sranan Tongo\")\n * [Српски / srpski](https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0 \"Филозофија – Serbian\")\n * [Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски](https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija \"Filozofija – Serbo-Croatian\")\n * [Basa Sunda](https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat \"Filsafat – Sundanese\")\n * [Suomi](https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia \"Filosofia – Finnish\")\n * [Svenska](https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi \"Filosofi – Swedish\")\n * [Tagalog](https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopiya \"Pilosopiya – Tagalog\")\n * [தமிழ்](https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D \"மெய்யியல் – Tamil\")\n * [Taqbaylit](https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tafelsuft \"Tafelsuft – Kabyle\")\n * [Татарча/tatarça](https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99 \"Фәлсәфә – Tatar\")\n * [తెలుగు](https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81 \"తత్వము – Telugu\")\n * [ไทย](https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2 \"ปรัชญา – Thai\")\n * [Тоҷикӣ](https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0 \"Фалсафа – Tajik\")\n * [ᏣᎳᎩ](https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A4%E1%8F%AC%E1%8E%B3%E1%8F%A8%E1%8E%AF \"ᎤᏬᎳᏨᎯ – Cherokee\")\n * [Türkçe](https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe \"Felsefe – Turkish\")\n * [Türkmençe](https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi%C3%BDa \"Filosofiýa – Turkmen\")\n * [Тыва дыл](https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F \"Философия – Tuvinian\")\n * [Українська](https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F \"Філософія – Ukrainian\")\n * [اردو](https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%81 \"فلسفہ – Urdu\")\n * [ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche](https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%BE%DB%95 \"پەلسەپە – Uyghur\")\n * [Vahcuengh](https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cwzyoz \"Cwzyoz – Zhuang\")\n * [Vèneto](https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fi%C5%82oxof%C3%ACa \"Fiłoxofìa – Venetian\")\n * [Tiếng Việt](https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri%E1%BA%BFt_h%E1%BB%8Dc \"Triết học – Vietnamese\")\n * [Volapük](https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosop \"Filosop – Volapük\")\n * [Võro](https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosoofia \"Filosoofia – Võro\")\n * [Walon](https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofeye \"Filozofeye – Walloon\")\n * [文言](https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8 \"哲學 – Classical Chinese\")\n * [Winaray](https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofiya \"Filosofiya – Waray\")\n * [Wolof](https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeltu \"Xeltu – Wolof\")\n * [吴语](https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8 \"哲學 – Wu Chinese\")\n * [Xitsonga](https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi \"Filosofi – Tsonga\")\n * [ייִדיש](https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A2 \"פילאסאפיע – Yiddish\")\n * [Yorùbá](https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cm%C3%B2ye \"Ìmòye – Yoruba\")\n * [粵語](https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8 \"哲學 – Cantonese\")\n * [Zazaki](https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe \"Felsefe – Zazaki\")\n * [Zeêuws](https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie \"Filosofie – Zeelandic\")\n * [Žemaitėška](https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosuop%C4%97j%C4%97 \"Filosuopėjė – Samogitian\")\n * [中文](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6 \"哲学 – Chinese\")\n * [Kabɩyɛ](https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofii \"Filozofii – Kabiye\")\n\n[Edit links](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q5891#sitelinks-\nwikipedia \"Edit interlanguage links\")\n\n * This page was last edited on 18 February 2018, at 13:46.\n * Text is available under the [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License](//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_3.0_Unported_License)[](//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/); additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the [Terms of Use](//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Terms_of_Use) and [Privacy Policy](//wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Privacy_policy). Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the [Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.](//www.wikimediafoundation.org/), a non-profit organization.\n\n * [Privacy policy](https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Privacy_policy \"wmf:Privacy policy\")\n * [About Wikipedia](/wiki/Wikipedia:About \"Wikipedia:About\")\n * [Disclaimers](/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer \"Wikipedia:General disclaimer\")\n * [Contact Wikipedia](//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us)\n * [Developers](https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/How_to_contribute)\n * [Cookie statement](https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Cookie_statement)\n * [Mobile view](//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philosophy&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile)\n\n * [![Wikimedia Foundation](/static/images/wikimedia-button.png)](https://wikimediafoundation.org/)\n * [![Powered by MediaWiki](/static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png)](//www.mediawiki.org/)\n\n *[t]: Discuss this template\n *[e]: Edit this template\n *[ v]: View this template\n *[v]: View this template\n\n\n",
"name": "stdout"
}
]
},
{
"metadata": {},
"cell_type": "markdown",
"source": "### lassie\n#### for images"
},
{
"metadata": {
"ExecuteTime": {
"start_time": "2018-03-10T03:52:12.962228Z",
"end_time": "2018-03-10T03:52:19.748363Z"
},
"trusted": true,
"scrolled": true
},
"cell_type": "code",
"source": "!pip install lassie",
"execution_count": 12,
"outputs": [
{
"output_type": "stream",
"text": "Collecting lassie\n Downloading lassie-0.11.5.tar.gz\nRequirement already satisfied: requests==2.18.4 in /home/ubuntu/anaconda3/lib/python3.5/site-packages (from lassie)\nCollecting beautifulsoup4==4.5.3 (from lassie)\n Downloading beautifulsoup4-4.5.3-py3-none-any.whl (85kB)\n\u001b[K 100% |████████████████████████████████| 92kB 8.8MB/s eta 0:00:01\n\u001b[?25hCollecting html5lib==1.0b10 (from lassie)\n Using cached html5lib-1.0b10-py2.py3-none-any.whl\nCollecting python-oembed (from lassie)\n Downloading python-oembed-0.2.4.tar.gz\nRequirement already satisfied: idna<2.7,>=2.5 in /home/ubuntu/anaconda3/lib/python3.5/site-packages (from requests==2.18.4->lassie)\nRequirement already satisfied: certifi>=2017.4.17 in /home/ubuntu/anaconda3/lib/python3.5/site-packages (from requests==2.18.4->lassie)\nRequirement already satisfied: urllib3<1.23,>=1.21.1 in /home/ubuntu/anaconda3/lib/python3.5/site-packages (from requests==2.18.4->lassie)\nRequirement already satisfied: chardet<3.1.0,>=3.0.2 in /home/ubuntu/anaconda3/lib/python3.5/site-packages (from requests==2.18.4->lassie)\nCollecting webencodings (from html5lib==1.0b10->lassie)\n Using cached webencodings-0.5.1-py2.py3-none-any.whl\nRequirement already satisfied: six in /home/ubuntu/anaconda3/lib/python3.5/site-packages (from html5lib==1.0b10->lassie)\nRequirement already satisfied: setuptools>=18.5 in /home/ubuntu/anaconda3/lib/python3.5/site-packages (from html5lib==1.0b10->lassie)\nBuilding wheels for collected packages: lassie, python-oembed\n Running setup.py bdist_wheel for lassie ... \u001b[?25ldone\n\u001b[?25h Stored in directory: /home/ubuntu/.cache/pip/wheels/a3/b6/fb/a11389a64ff6b5d1e22c201e7e067615f112f8b187ff2d0f7d\n Running setup.py bdist_wheel for python-oembed ... \u001b[?25ldone\n\u001b[?25h Stored in directory: /home/ubuntu/.cache/pip/wheels/44/ee/1c/5899e8b08c3afcf7b9042781f4599ac1757be41ce18254ed8d\nSuccessfully built lassie python-oembed\nInstalling collected packages: beautifulsoup4, webencodings, html5lib, python-oembed, lassie\n Found existing installation: beautifulsoup4 4.6.0\n Uninstalling beautifulsoup4-4.6.0:\n Successfully uninstalled beautifulsoup4-4.6.0\n Found existing installation: html5lib 0.9999999\n\u001b[31m DEPRECATION: Uninstalling a distutils installed project (html5lib) has been deprecated and will be removed in a future version. This is due to the fact that uninstalling a distutils project will only partially uninstall the project.\u001b[0m\n Uninstalling html5lib-0.9999999:\n Successfully uninstalled html5lib-0.9999999\nSuccessfully installed beautifulsoup4-4.5.3 html5lib-1.0b10 lassie-0.11.5 python-oembed-0.2.4 webencodings-0.5.1\n",
"name": "stdout"
}
]
},
{
"metadata": {
"ExecuteTime": {
"start_time": "2018-03-10T05:05:59.699321Z",
"end_time": "2018-03-10T05:06:00.021652Z"
},
"trusted": true
},
"cell_type": "code",
"source": "import lassie\nimport pprint\nres=lassie.fetch(url1)\npprint.pprint (res)",
"execution_count": 100,
"outputs": [
{
"output_type": "stream",
"text": "{'description': 'Is it worth the dollar?',\n 'images': [{'height': 301,\n 'src': 'https://cdn-images-1.medium.com/max/1880/1*pfxjGkV81xGm_POGuN1wtA.jpeg',\n 'width': 940},\n {'src': 'https://cdn-images-1.medium.com/max/1200/1*pfxjGkV81xGm_POGuN1wtA.jpeg',\n 'type': 'og:image'},\n {'src': 'https://cdn-static-1.medium.com/_/fp/icons/favicon-rebrand-medium.3Y6xpZ-0FSdWDnPM3hSBIA.ico',\n 'type': 'favicon'}],\n 'site_name': 'Medium',\n 'status_code': 200,\n 'title': 'A Comparison between NVIDIA’s GeForce GTX 1080 and Tesla P100 for '\n 'Deep Learning',\n 'url': 'https://medium.com/@alexbaldo/a-comparison-between-nvidias-geforce-gtx-1080-and-tesla-p100-for-deep-learning-81a918d5b2c7',\n 'videos': []}\n",
"name": "stdout"
}
]
},
{
"metadata": {
"ExecuteTime": {
"start_time": "2018-03-10T05:47:07.262178Z",
"end_time": "2018-03-10T05:47:08.156438Z"
},
"trusted": true,
"scrolled": true
},
"cell_type": "code",
"source": "import lassie\nimport pprint\nres=lassie.fetch(url2,all_images=True)\npprint.pprint (res)",
"execution_count": 110,
"outputs": [
{
"output_type": "stream",
"text": "{'images': [{'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/1200px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg',\n 'type': 'og:image'},\n {'src': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico',\n 'type': 'favicon'},\n {'alt': 'Page semi-protected',\n 'height': 20,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg/20px-Padlock-silver.svg.png',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 20},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 256,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/330px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 330},\n {'alt': 'Left to right: Plato, Kant, Nietzsche, Buddha, Confucius, '\n 'Averroes',\n 'height': 151,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Philbar_3.png',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 220},\n {'alt': 'Socrates.png',\n 'height': 16,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 10},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 201,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg/150px-Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 150},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 200,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg/150px-Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 150},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 273,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Chanakya_artistic_depiction.jpg',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 185},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 260,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Photograph_of_Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan_presented_to_First_Lady_Jacqueline_Kennedy_in_1962.jpg/200px-Photograph_of_Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan_presented_to_First_Lady_Jacqueline_Kennedy_in_1962.jpg',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 200},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 150,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Long_view_nalanda.JPG/200px-Long_view_nalanda.JPG',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 200},\n {'alt': 'File:Monks debating at Sera monastery, 2013.webm',\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm/220px--Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm.jpg',\n 'type': 'body_image'},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 168,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Rongo_Analects_02.jpg/220px-Rongo_Analects_02.jpg',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 220},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 239,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Kitaro_Nishidain_in_Feb._1943.jpg/170px-Kitaro_Nishidain_in_Feb._1943.jpg',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 170},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 162,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Sun_stone_detail.JPG/220px-Sun_stone_detail.JPG',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 220},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 267,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Dignaga.jpg/200px-Dignaga.jpg',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 200},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 133,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/BeijingConfuciusTemple9.jpg/200px-BeijingConfuciusTemple9.jpg',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 200},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 232,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Thomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%29.jpg/220px-Thomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%29.jpg',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 220},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 206,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg/170px-Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 170},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 326,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Honourable_Bertrand_Russell.jpg/220px-Honourable_Bertrand_Russell.jpg',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 220},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 239,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Langer.Susanne.foto_2.jpg/150px-Langer.Susanne.foto_2.jpg',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 150},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 28,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 18},\n {'alt': 'Book icon',\n 'height': 30,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/30px-Office-book.svg.png',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 30},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 27,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 27},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 27,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 20},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 15,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 27},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 27,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 23},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 27,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 26},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 27,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 27},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 24,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg/27px-Wikiversity-logo-en.svg.png',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 27},\n {'alt': 'Portal',\n 'height': 14,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 16},\n {'alt': 'Category',\n 'height': 14,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 16},\n {'alt': 'Wikipedia book',\n 'height': 16,\n 'src': 'https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/16px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 16},\n {'alt': '',\n 'height': 1,\n 'src': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 1},\n {'alt': 'Wikimedia Foundation',\n 'height': 31,\n 'src': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/wikimedia-button.png',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 88},\n {'alt': 'Powered by MediaWiki',\n 'height': 31,\n 'src': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png',\n 'type': 'body_image',\n 'width': 88}],\n 'locale': 'en_US',\n 'status_code': 200,\n 'title': 'Philosophy - Wikipedia',\n 'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy',\n 'videos': []}\n",
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{
"metadata": {},
"cell_type": "markdown",
"source": "### newspaper"
},
{
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"end_time": "2018-03-10T03:55:10.273075Z"
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"cell_type": "code",
"source": "!sudo apt-get install libxml2-dev libxslt-dev\n\n!sudo apt-get install libjpeg-dev zlib1g-dev libpng12-dev\n!pip3 install newspaper3k",
"execution_count": 17,
"outputs": [
{
"output_type": "stream",
"text": "Reading package lists... Done\nBuilding dependency tree \nReading state information... Done\nNote, selecting 'libxslt1-dev' instead of 'libxslt-dev'\nlibxml2-dev is already the newest version.\nlibxslt1-dev is already the newest version.\nThe following packages were automatically installed and are no longer required:\n libcf0 libdap-dev libdapserver7 libgeos-3.4.2 libgeos-dev libgeotiff-dev\n libgif-dev libgl2ps-dev libgl2ps0 libjson-c-dev libjsoncpp-dev libjsoncpp0\n libnetcdf-dev libnetcdfc++4 libnetcdff5 libopenjp2-7-dev libqhull-dev\n libspatialite-dev libspatialite5 libssl-dev libssl-doc libvtk6-java\n libxerces-c-dev python-colorama python-distlib python-html5lib python-wheel\n tcl8.6-dev tk8.6-dev uuid-dev\nUse 'apt-get autoremove' to remove them.\n0 upgraded, 0 newly installed, 0 to remove and 110 not upgraded.\n",
"name": "stdout"
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"ExecuteTime": {
"start_time": "2018-03-10T05:06:26.830969Z",
"end_time": "2018-03-10T05:06:27.240824Z"
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"cell_type": "code",
"source": "from newspaper import Article \narticle = Article(url1)\n \n#1 . Download the article\narticle.download()\n \n#2. Parse the article\narticle.parse()\n \n#3. Fetch Author Name(s)\nprint(\"Author\")\nprint(article.authors)\n\n \n#4. Fetch Publication Date\nprint(\"Article Publication Date\")\nprint(article.publish_date)\n\n#5. The URL of the Major Image\nprint(\"top image\")\nDisp.display(Disp.IFrame(article.top_image,width=480,height=640))\n\nprint(\"All images\")\narticle.fetch_images()\n\nfor i in article.images:\n Disp.display(Disp.IFrame(i,width=480,height=640))\n\n#6. Natural Language Processing on Article to fetch Keywords\narticle.nlp()\nprint (\"“Keywords in the article”\")\nprint(article.keywords)\n\n\n\n\n# printing whole text\nprint(\"Article whole text\")\nprint(article.text)\n\n#7. Generate Summary of the article\nprint(\"Summary of Article\")\nprint(article.summary)",
"execution_count": 102,
"outputs": [
{
"output_type": "stream",
"text": "Author\n['Alejandro Baldominos']\nArticle Publication Date\n2017-10-05 00:12:26.284000+00:00\ntop image\n",
"name": "stdout"
},
{
"output_type": "display_data",
"data": {
"text/html": "\n <iframe\n width=\"480\"\n height=\"640\"\n src=\"https://cdn-images-1.medium.com/max/1200/1*pfxjGkV81xGm_POGuN1wtA.jpeg\"\n frameborder=\"0\"\n allowfullscreen\n ></iframe>\n ",
"text/plain": "<IPython.lib.display.IFrame at 0x7f03bafc6390>"
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"metadata": {}
},
{
"output_type": "stream",
"text": "All images\n",
"name": "stdout"
},
{
"output_type": "display_data",
"data": {
"text/html": "\n <iframe\n width=\"480\"\n height=\"640\"\n src=\"https://cdn-images-1.medium.com/max/1600/1*pfxjGkV81xGm_POGuN1wtA.jpeg\"\n frameborder=\"0\"\n allowfullscreen\n ></iframe>\n ",
"text/plain": "<IPython.lib.display.IFrame at 0x7f03bafc6c18>"
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"data": {
"text/html": "\n <iframe\n width=\"480\"\n height=\"640\"\n src=\"https://cdn-images-1.medium.com/fit/c/120/120/1*fWxrickyho9HGQ_b1n3DIw.jpeg\"\n frameborder=\"0\"\n allowfullscreen\n ></iframe>\n ",
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"text/html": "\n <iframe\n width=\"480\"\n height=\"640\"\n src=\"https://cdn-images-1.medium.com/fit/c/80/80/1*fWxrickyho9HGQ_b1n3DIw.jpeg\"\n frameborder=\"0\"\n allowfullscreen\n ></iframe>\n ",
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"text/html": "\n <iframe\n width=\"480\"\n height=\"640\"\n src=\"https://cdn-images-1.medium.com/max/1200/1*pfxjGkV81xGm_POGuN1wtA.jpeg\"\n frameborder=\"0\"\n allowfullscreen\n ></iframe>\n ",
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"text": "“Keywords in the article”\n['tesla', 'nvidia', '1080', 'training', 'comparison', 'geforce', 'memory', 'gtx', 'nvidias', 'deep', 'p100', 'learning']\nArticle whole text\nA Comparison between NVIDIA’s GeForce GTX 1080 and Tesla P100 for Deep Learning\n\nIs it worth the dollar?\n\nNVIDIA Tesla P100 (Source: NVIDIA)\n\nToday, we are going to confront two different pieces of hardware that are often used for Deep Learning tasks. The first is a GTX 1080 GPU, a gaming device which is worth the dollar due to its high performance. The second is a Tesla P100 GPU, a high-end device devised for datacenters which provide high-performance computing for Deep Learning.\n\nIntroduction\n\nFor over a year now, I have dedicated most of my academic life to research in Deep Learning, working as a pre-doctoral researcher in the EVANNAI Group of Computer Science Department of Universidad Carlos III de Madrid. I started working with convolutional neural networks soon after Google released TensorFlow in late 2015. Since then, I started exploring the use of convolutional neural networks (CNNs) in order to automatically extract features from raw data which can be used to succesfully carry out supervised learning, or, in other words, training predictive models.\n\nAlso, since early 2015 one of the research fields I have spent most time working in was human activity recognition, i.e., developing systems that could recognize the activity performed by a user (e.g. running, walking, or even smoking) based on data provided by sensors such as those already present in smartphones or smartwatches.\n\nEarly in 2016, I found a paper by Ordoñez and Roggen where they applied Deep Learning for achieving human activity recognition. In particular, they used CNNs along with LSTM (long short-term memory) cells, which are a specific implementation of a recurrent network that turns out to be useful to capture temporal patterns such as those present in human activities.\n\nLater that year, I found myself spending a lot of time working with this kind of things: TensorFlow, convolutional networks, LSTM cells… in fact, I started to search for the best architectures for a given problem. This involves significant amounts of trial-and-error, and therefore a lot of time for training and evaluating networks.\n\nBy that time, I needed to find a way to be able to iterate quickly over different architectures of these deep neural networks. It is commonly acknowledged that GPUs are way faster than CPUs in performing these kind of tasks, mostly because they comprise a larger number of cores and faster memory. However, our budget for acquiring hardware was quite limited, so my research group eventually acquired one computer featuring 2 NVIDIA GeForce GTX 1080 (followed few months later by another computer with the exact same specs).\n\nNVIDIA GeForce is not really Deep Learning-dedicated hardware. However, if you look out there you will see that many people actually use them for this purpose. Why? Because they are cheap for the performance they offer, specially when compared to other NVIDIA solutions such as the Tesla family.\n\nI have been working with these NVIDIA devices for over a year. Recently, the staff from Azken Muga S.L. (official NVIDIA provider in Spain) let me participate in a Test Drive program to evaluate the performance of Tesla P100 devices.\n\nIn this post I will try to summarize the main conclusions obtained from this test drive.\n\nHardware\n\nIn this post I will compare three different hardware setups when running different deep learning tasks:\n\nIntel Core i7–6700 3.4 GHz (4-core); 2 x NVIDIA GeForce GTX 1080; 32 GB DDR4 2133 MHz.\n\n2 x Intel Xeon E5–2667 v4 3.2 GHz (8-core); 4 x NVIDIA Tesla P100; 128 GB DDR4 2400 MHz.\n\nMacBook Pro mid-2014; Intel Core i7–4578U 3 GHz (2-core); 16 GB DDR3 1600 MHz.\n\nThe latter have been included only for the sake of comparing GPU vs. CPU when working on Deep Learning tasks.\n\nIt is remarkable that for the first two systems, our tests will be performed using only the GPU (yet other components may be used as well, for example, data may be moved from main memory to GPU memory). The GPUs most remarkable specs are:\n\nGeForce GTX 1080 : PASCAL; 2560 CUDA cores; 8 TFLOPS (single-prec); 8 GB GDDRX5 320 GB/s; max 180 W.\n\n: PASCAL; 2560 CUDA cores; 8 TFLOPS (single-prec); 8 GB GDDRX5 320 GB/s; max 180 W. Tesla P100: PASCAL; 3584 CUDA cores; 9.3 TFLOPS (single-prec); 16 GB HBM2 732 GB/s; max 250 W.\n\nIt can be seen how Tesla P100 has 1.4 times more CUDA cores, slighly higher single precision FLOPS and twice the amount of memory. Also, HBM2 memory is significantly faster than GDDR5X. However, all these advantages can be easily eclipsed when looking at the price (prices in Spain, including VAT):\n\nGeForce GTX 1080: 795€ .\n\n. Tesla P100: 5,917.28€.\n\nSoftware\n\nFor the software stack, we have used the following components:\n\nNVIDIA CUDA Toolkit 8.0\n\nNVIDIA cuDNN 6.0\n\nPython 2.7\n\nNumPy 1.12.1\n\nTheano 0.8.0\n\nLasagne 0.2.dev1\n\nTensorFlow 1.3.0\n\nBenchmarks\n\nIn order to compare the three different hardware configurations, we will use two benchmarks. I have tried these benchmarks to accurately mimic my daily research tasks. These benchmarks are the following:\n\nMNIST+ConvNet : in this case, we will use TensorFlow following their “Deep MNIST for Experts” tutorial. The objective is to solve a handwritten recognition problem by using a simple convolutional neural network with two convolutional layers and two dense layers. It is remarkable that, in this tutorial, each training epoch does not use the whole training set but only one mini-batch of 50 images. For this reason, epochs are very fast.\n\n: in this case, we will use TensorFlow following their “Deep MNIST for Experts” tutorial. The objective is to solve a handwritten recognition problem by using a simple convolutional neural network with two convolutional layers and two dense layers. It is remarkable that, in this tutorial, each training epoch does not use the whole training set but only one mini-batch of 50 images. For this reason, epochs are very fast. DeepConvLSTM: in this case, we will replicate the experiments described by Ordoñez and Roggen in their paper, and whose source code is also publicly available. In this case, we will use Theano + Lasagne (a library for abstracting the development of networks in Theano by stacking layers) to train a much more complex network, involving four convolutional layers and two recurrent layers with LSTM cells. Even if batch gradient descen is used, each epoch passes through the whole training set. This problem is a good proxy for the kind of problems I work with in my daily life.\n\nIn order to obtain robust results, each experiment has been run 10 times, and finally metrics are averaged for each epoch.\n\nResults\n\nNow, let’s take a look at the results:\n\n╔═════════════════╦═══════════════╦══════════════════╦════════════╗\n\n║ Benchmark ║ Intel Core i7 ║ GeForce GTX 1080 ║ Tesla P100 ║\n\n╠═════════════════╬═══════════════╬══════════════════╬════════════╣\n\n║ MNIST + ConvNet ║ 0.3777 s ║ 0.005 s ║ 0.005 s ║\n\n║ DeepConvLSTM ║ 1665.2 s ║ 26.45 s ║ 21.21 s ║\n\n╚═════════════════╩═══════════════╩══════════════════╩════════════╝\n\nIt is worth recalling that these numbers refer to the average time for each training epoch.\n\nIt can be seen how GPU computing is significantly faster than CPU computing: about 70x — 80x in both benchmarks. This is an improvement of almost two orders of magnitude. Or, to put it in different words, the time required by the GPU to complete a training epoch is only slightly over 1% compared with the CPU.\n\nRegarding the comparison between the two GPUs, Tesla outperforms GeForce in the latter benchmark; however, there is only a 1.25x speedup (or equivalently, the training time is reduced in a 20%). The difference is not noticeable in the MNIST benchmark, probably due to the fact of epochs being so fast.\n\nFinally, let’s take a look at the average operating temperatures and consumption of these devices during the second benchmark:\n\n╔══════════════════╦════════════╗\n\n║ GeForce GTX 1080 ║ Tesla P100 ║\n\n╠══════════════════╬════════════╣\n\n║ 77ºC ║ 43ºC ║\n\n║ 118/180W ║ 110/250W ║\n\n╚══════════════════╩════════════╝\n\nWe can see how energy consumption is quite similar, but temperature is significantly higher in the GeForce devices. At this point, I must say that both configurations are not comparable since the GeForce GPUs are installed in an ATX computer tower located in an office, and do not have any special cooling system besides the heatsinks and fans located in the devices and the tower.\n\nConclusions\n\nIn this post, we have compared two different GPUs by running a couple of Deep Learning benchmarks. These devices were GeForce GTX 1080 (GPUs devised for gaming) and Tesla P100 (GPUs specifically designed for high-performance computing in a datacenter).\n\nAfter looking at the results: is the P100 worth the dollar? Given that its cost is about 7–8 times the cost of the GeForce, it could be argued that the expense is not worthy.\n\nHowever, a disclaimer should be added at this point: Tesla P100 seems to have a better construction, and may last longer given an intensive usage. Personally, I don’t think our GTX 1080 will last long given they are running heavy processes almost 24x7.\n\nTesla P100 has an additional advantage: the amount of GPU memory is doubled compared to the GeForce GTX 1080. This would enable us to either work with larger networks or with larger batches. The former case could make a difference: maybe a certain problem cannot be solved given the memory constraint imposed by the GeForce device. As for the latter case, larger batches could lead to better convergence of the gradient descent process, enabling us to train a successful model in a smaller number of epochs (even if the cost per epoch is only slightly better than in the GeForce GPU).\n\nWhat’s next?\n\nIt could be interesting to try the Volta architecture, recently announced by NVIDIA. Used along with CUDA Toolkit 9.0 and cuDNN 7.0, NVIDIA promises up to a 5x speedup compared to the PASCAL architecture, given the inclusion of tensor cores specifically designed for Deep Learning computating). The Tesla V100 would become the successor of the Tesla P100 and it would be great to extend this benchmark to consider this new device.\n\nAcknowledgements\n\nI sincerely acknowledge Azken Muga S.L. for letting us test the performance of NVIDIA Tesla P100 GPUs as part of their Test Drive program.\n\nAcknowledgements are also aimed at EVANNAI Group of Computer Science Department of Universidad Carlos III de Madrid for acquiring the computers with NVIDIA GeForce GTX 1080, with which I have been working for almost a year.\nSummary of Article\nA Comparison between NVIDIA’s GeForce GTX 1080 and Tesla P100 for Deep LearningIs it worth the dollar?\nNVIDIA Tesla P100 (Source: NVIDIA)Today, we are going to confront two different pieces of hardware that are often used for Deep Learning tasks.\nThe second is a Tesla P100 GPU, a high-end device devised for datacenters which provide high-performance computing for Deep Learning.\nThese devices were GeForce GTX 1080 (GPUs devised for gaming) and Tesla P100 (GPUs specifically designed for high-performance computing in a datacenter).\nTesla P100 has an additional advantage: the amount of GPU memory is doubled compared to the GeForce GTX 1080.\n",
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"ExecuteTime": {
"start_time": "2018-03-10T05:06:35.458541Z",
"end_time": "2018-03-10T05:06:36.635700Z"
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"cell_type": "code",
"source": "from newspaper import Article \narticle = Article(url2)\n \n#1 . Download the article\narticle.download()\n \n#2. Parse the article\narticle.parse()\n \n#3. Fetch Author Name(s)\nprint(\"Author\")\nprint(article.authors)\n\n \n#4. Fetch Publication Date\nprint(\"Article Publication Date\")\nprint(article.publish_date)\n\n#5. The URL of the Major Image\nprint(\"top image\")\nDisp.display(Disp.IFrame(article.top_image,width=480,height=640))\n\nprint(\"All images\")\narticle.fetch_images()\n\nfor i in article.images:\n Disp.display(Disp.IFrame(i,width=480,height=640))\n\n#6. Natural Language Processing on Article to fetch Keywords\narticle.nlp()\nprint (\"“Keywords in the article”\")\nprint(article.keywords)\n\n\n\n\n# printing whole text\nprint(\"Article whole text\")\nprint(article.text)\n\n#7. Generate Summary of the article\nprint(\"Summary of Article\")\nprint(article.summary)",
"execution_count": 103,
"outputs": [
{
"output_type": "stream",
"text": "Author\n[]\nArticle Publication Date\nNone\ntop image\n",
"name": "stdout"
},
{
"output_type": "display_data",
"data": {
"text/html": "\n <iframe\n width=\"480\"\n height=\"640\"\n src=\"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/1200px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg\"\n frameborder=\"0\"\n allowfullscreen\n ></iframe>\n ",
"text/plain": "<IPython.lib.display.IFrame at 0x7f03bae6beb8>"
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{
"output_type": "stream",
"text": "All images\n",
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"output_type": "display_data",
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"text/html": "\n <iframe\n width=\"480\"\n height=\"640\"\n src=\"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png\"\n frameborder=\"0\"\n allowfullscreen\n ></iframe>\n ",
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"text/html": "\n <iframe\n width=\"480\"\n height=\"640\"\n src=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/wikimedia-button.png\"\n frameborder=\"0\"\n allowfullscreen\n ></iframe>\n ",
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"text": "“Keywords in the article”\n['western', 'century', 'philosophy', 'nature', 'developed', 'philosophical', 'include', 'knowledge', 'philosophers', 'science']\nArticle whole text\nPhilosophy (from Greek φιλοσοφία, philosophia, literally \"love of wisdom\"[1][2][3][4]) is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.[5][6] The term was probably coined by Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BCE). Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument, and systematic presentation.[7][8] Classic philosophical questions include: Is it possible to know anything and to prove it?[9][10][11] What is most real? Philosophers also pose more practical and concrete questions such as: Is there a best way to live? Is it better to be just or unjust (if one can get away with it)?[12] Do humans have free will?[13]\n\nHistorically, \"philosophy\" encompassed any body of knowledge.[14] From the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th century, \"natural philosophy\" encompassed astronomy, medicine, and physics. For example, Newton's 1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics. In the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize.[16][17] In the modern era, some investigations that were traditionally part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines, including psychology, sociology, linguistics, and economics.\n\nOther investigations closely related to art, science, politics, or other pursuits remained part of philosophy. For example, is beauty objective or subjective?[18][19] Are there many scientific methods or just one?[20] Is political utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless fantasy?[21][22][23] Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include metaphysics (\"concerned with the fundamental nature of reality and being\"),[24] epistemology (about the \"nature and grounds of knowledge [and]...its limits and validity\" [25]), ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, logic, philosophy of science, and the history of Western philosophy.\n\nSince the 20th century, professional philosophers contribute to society primarily as professors. However, many of those who study philosophy in undergraduate or graduate programs contribute in the fields of law, journalism, politics, religion, science, business and various art and entertainment activities.[26]\n\nIntroduction\n\nKnowledge\n\nTraditionally, the term \"philosophy\" referred to any body of knowledge.[14][27] In this sense, philosophy is closely related to religion, mathematics, natural science, education and politics. Newton's 1687 \"Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy\" is classified in the 2000s as a book of physics; he used the term \"natural philosophy\" because it used to encompass disciplines that later became associated with sciences such as astronomy, medicine and physics.\n\nIn Classical antiquity, Philosophy was traditionally divided into three major branches:\n\nNatural philosophy (\"physics\") was the study of the physical world ( physis, lit: nature);\n\nlit: nature); Moral philosophy (\"ethics\") was the study of goodness, right and wrong, beauty, justice and virtue ( ethos, lit: custom);\n\nlit: custom); Metaphysical philosophy (\"logic\") was the study of existence, causation, God, logic, forms and other abstract objects (\"meta-physika\" lit: \"what comes after physics\").[28]\n\nThis division is not obsolete but has changed. Natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and cosmology. Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, but still includes value theory (including aesthetics, ethics, political philosophy, etc.). Metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as logic, mathematics and philosophy of science, but still includes epistemology, cosmology and others.\n\nPhilosophical progress\n\nMany philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated today. Colin McGinn and others claim that no philosophical progress has occurred during that interval.[29] Chalmers and others, by contrast, see progress in philosophy similar to that in science,[30] while Talbot Brewer argued that \"progress\" is the wrong standard by which to judge philosophical activity.[31]\n\nHistorical overview\n\nIn one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual culture and a search for knowledge. In that sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions such as \"how are we to live\" and \"what is the nature of reality\". A broad and impartial conception of philosophy then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality and life in all world civilizations.[32]\n\nWestern philosophy\n\nWestern philosophy is the philosophical tradition of the Western world and dates to Pre-Socratic thinkers who were active in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE such as Thales (c. 624–546 BCE) and Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BCE) who practiced a \"love of wisdom\" (philosophia)[33] and were also termed physiologoi (students of physis, or nature). Socrates was a very influential philosopher, who insisted that he possessed no wisdom but was a pursuer of wisdom.[34] Western philosophy can be divided into three eras: Ancient (Greco-Roman), Medieval philosophy (Christian European), and Modern philosophy.\n\nThe Ancient era was dominated by Greek philosophical schools which arose out of the various pupils of Socrates, such as Plato who founded the Platonic Academy, and was one of the most influential Greek thinkers for the whole of Western thought.[35] Plato's student Aristotle was also extremely influential, founding the Peripatetic school. Other traditions include Cynicism, Stoicism, Greek Skepticism and Epicureanism. Important topics covered by the Greeks included metaphysics (with competing theories such as atomism and monism), cosmology, the nature of the well-lived life (eudaimonia), the possibility of knowledge and the nature of reason (logos). With the rise of the Roman empire, Greek philosophy was also increasingly discussed in Latin by Romans such as Cicero and Seneca.\n\nMedieval philosophy (5th – 16th century) is the period following the fall of the western Roman empire and was dominated by the rise of Christianity and hence reflects Judeo-Christian theological concerns as well as retaining a continuity with Greco-Roman thought. Problems such as the existence and nature of God, the nature of faith and reason, metaphysics, the problem of evil were discussed in this period. Some key Medieval thinkers include St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Boethius, Anselm and Roger Bacon. Philosophy for these thinkers was viewed as an aid to Theology (ancilla theologiae) and hence they sought to align their philosophy with their interpretation of sacred scripture. This period saw the development of Scholasticism, a text critical method developed in medieval universities based on close reading and disputation on key texts. The Renaissance (1355–1650) period saw increasing focus on classic Greco-Roman thought and on a robust Humanism. Early modern philosophy in the Western world begins with thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes and René Descartes (1596–1650).[36] Following the rise of natural science, Modern philosophy was concerned with developing a secular and rational foundation for knowledge and moved away from traditional structures of authority such as religion, scholastic thought and the Church. Major modern philosophers include Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Kant.[37][38][39] 19th-century philosophy is influenced by the wider movement termed the Enlightenment, and includes figures such as Hegel a key figure in German idealism, Kierkegaard who developed the foundations for existentialism, Nietzsche a famed anti-Christian, J.S. Mill who promoted Utilitarianism, Karl Marx who developed the foundations for Communism and the American William James. The 20th century saw the split between Analytic philosophy and Continental philosophy, as well as philosophical trends such as Phenomenology, Existentialism, Logical Positivism, Pragmatism and the Linguistic turn.\n\nMiddle Eastern philosophy\n\nAvicenna Portrait on Silver Vase, Iran\n\nThe regions of the fertile Crescent, Iran and Arabia are home to the earliest known philosophical Wisdom literature and is today mostly dominated by Islamic culture. Early wisdom literature from the fertile crescent was a genre which sought to instruct people on ethical action, practical living and virtue through stories and proverbs. In Ancient Egypt, these texts were known as sebayt ('teachings') and they are central to our understandings of Ancient Egyptian philosophy. Babylonian astronomy also included much philosophical speculations about cosmology which may have influenced the Ancient Greeks. Jewish philosophy and Christian philosophy are religio-philosophical traditions that developed both in the Middle East and in Europe, which both share certain early Judaic texts (mainly the Tanakh) and monotheistic beliefs. Jewish thinkers such as the Geonim of the Talmudic Academies in Babylonia and Maimonides engaged with Greek and Islamic philosophy. Later Jewish philosophy came under strong Western intellectual influences and includes the works of Moses Mendelssohn who ushered in the Haskalah (the Jewish Enlightenment), Jewish existentialism and Reform Judaism.\n\nPre-Islamic Iranian philosophy begins with the work of Zoroaster, one of the first promoters of monotheism and of the dualism between good and evil. This dualistic cosmogony influenced later Iranian developments such as Manichaeism, Mazdakism, and Zurvanism.\n\nAfter the Muslim conquests, Early Islamic philosophy developed the Greek philosophical traditions in new innovative directions. This Islamic Golden Age influenced European intellectual developments. The two main currents of early Islamic thought are Kalam which focuses on Islamic theology and Falsafa which was based on Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. The work of Aristotle was very influential among the falsafa such as al-Kindi (9th century), Avicenna (980 – June 1037) and Averroes (12th century). Others such as Al-Ghazali were highly critical of the methods of the Aristotelian falsafa. Islamic thinkers also developed a scientific method, experimental medicine, a theory of optics and a legal philosophy. Ibn Khaldun was an influential thinker in philosophy of history.\n\nIn Iran several schools of Islamic philosophy continued to flourish after the Golden Age and include currents such as Illuminationist philosophy, Sufi philosophy, and Transcendent theosophy. The 19th and 20th century Arab world saw the Nahda (awakening or renaissance) movement which influenced contemporary Islamic philosophy.\n\nIndian philosophy\n\nIndian philosophy (Sanskrit: darśana; 'world views', 'teachings')[40] is composed of philosophical traditions originating in the Indian subcontinent. Traditions of Indian philosophy are generally classified as either orthodox or heterodox – āstika or nāstika – depending on whether they accept the authority of the Vedas and whether they accept the theories of Brahman and Atman.[41][42] The orthodox schools generally include Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta, and the common heterodox schools are Jain, Buddhist, Ajñana, Ajivika and Cārvāka. Some of the earliest surviving philosophical texts are the Upanishads of the later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE). Important Indian philosophical concepts include dharma, karma, samsara, moksha and ahimsa. Indian philosophers developed a system of epistemological reasoning (pramana) and logic and investigated topics such as metaphysics, ethics, hermeneutics and soteriology. Indian philosophy also covered topics such as political philosophy as seen in the Arthashastra c. 4th century BCE and the philosophy of love as seen in the Kama Sutra.\n\nThe commonly named six orthodox schools arose sometime between the start of the Common Era and the Gupta Empire.[43] These Hindu schools developed what has been called the \"Hindu synthesis\" merging orthodox Brahmanical and unorthodox elements from Buddhism and Jainism as a way to respond to the unorthodox challenges.[44] Hindu thought also spread east to the Indonesian Srivijaya empire and the Cambodian Khmer Empire.\n\nLater developments include the development of Tantra and Iranian-Islamic influences. Buddhism mostly disappeared from India after the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent, surviving in the Himalayan regions and south India.[45] The early modern period saw the flourishing of Navya-Nyāya (the 'new reason') under philosophers such as Raghunatha Siromani (c. 1460–1540) who founded the tradition, Jayarama Pancanana, Mahadeva Punatamakara and Yashovijaya (who formulated a Jain response).[46]\n\nThe modern era saw the rise of Hindu nationalism, Hindu reform movements and Neo-Vedanta (or Hindu modernism) whose major proponents included Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhi and Aurobindo and who for the first time promoted the idea of a unified \"Hinduism\". Due to the influence of British colonialism, much modern Indian philosophical work was in English and includes thinkers such as Radhakrishnan, Krishna Chandra Bhattacharya, Bimal Krishna Matilal and M. Hiriyanna.[47]\n\nBuddhist philosophy\n\nBuddhist philosophy begins with the thought of Gautama Buddha (fl. between sixth and fourth centuries BCE) and is preserved in the early Buddhist texts. Buddhist thought is trans-regional and trans-cultural. It originated in India and later spread to East Asia, Tibet, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia, developing new and syncretic traditions in these different regions. The various Buddhist schools of thought are the dominant philosophical tradition in Tibet and Southeast Asian countries like Sri Lanka and Burma. Because ignorance to the true nature of things is considered one of the roots of suffering (dukkha), Buddhist philosophy is concerned with epistemology, metaphysics, ethics and psychology. The ending of dukkha also encompasses meditative practices. Key innovative concepts include the Four Noble Truths, Anatta (not-self) a critique of a fixed personal identity, the transience of all things (Anicca), and a certain skepticism about metaphysical questions.\n\nLater Buddhist philosophical traditions developed complex phenomenological psychologies termed 'Abhidharma'. Mahayana philosophers such as Nagarjuna and Vasubandhu developed the theories of Shunyata (emptiness of all phenomena) and Vijnapti-matra (appearance only), a form of phenomenology or transcendental idealism. The Dignāga school of Pramāṇa promoted a complex form of epistemology and Buddhist logic. After the disappearance of Buddhism from India, these philosophical traditions continued to develop in the Tibetan Buddhist, East Asian Buddhist and Theravada Buddhist traditions. The modern period saw the rise of Buddhist modernism and Humanistic Buddhism under Western influences and the development of a Western Buddhism with influences from modern psychology and Western philosophy.\n\nEast Asian philosophy\n\nKitarō Nishida, professor of philosophy at Kyoto University and founder of the Kyoto School\n\nEast Asian philosophical thought began in Ancient China, and Chinese philosophy begins during the Western Zhou Dynasty and the following periods after its fall when the \"Hundred Schools of Thought\" flourished (6th century to 221 BCE).[48][49] This period was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments and saw the rise of the major philosophical schools of China, Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism as well as numerous other less influential schools. These philosophical traditions developed metaphysical, political and ethical theories such Tao, Yin and yang, Ren and Li which, along with Chinese Buddhism, directly influenced Korean philosophy, Vietnamese philosophy and Japanese philosophy (which also includes the native Shinto tradition). Buddhism began arriving in China during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), through a gradual Silk road transmission and through native influences developed distinct Chinese forms (such as Chan/Zen) which spread throughout the East Asian cultural sphere. During later Chinese dynasties like the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) as well as in the Korean Joseon dynasty (1392–1897) a resurgent Neo-Confucianism led by thinkers such as Wang Yangming (1472–1529) became the dominant school of thought, and was promoted by the imperial state.\n\nIn the Modern era, Chinese thinkers incorporated ideas from Western philosophy. Chinese Marxist philosophy developed under the influence of Mao Zedong, while a Chinese pragmatism under Hu Shih and New Confucianism's rise was influenced by Xiong Shili. Modern Japanese thought meanwhile developed under strong Western influences such as the study of Western Sciences (Rangaku) and the modernist Meirokusha intellectual society which drew from European enlightenment thought. The 20th century saw the rise of State Shinto and also Japanese nationalism. The Kyoto School, an influential and unique Japanese philosophical school developed from Western phenomenology and Medieval Japanese Buddhist philosophy such as that of Dogen.\n\nAfrican philosophy\n\nAfrican philosophy is philosophy produced by African people, philosophy that presents African worldviews, ideas and themes, or philosophy that uses distinct African philosophical methods. Modern African thought has been occupied with Ethnophilosophy, with defining the very meaning of African philosophy and its unique characteristics and what it means to be African.[50] During the 17th century, Ethiopian philosophy developed a robust literary tradition as exemplified by Zera Yacob. Another early African philosopher was Anton Wilhelm Amo (c. 1703–1759) who became a respected philosopher in Germany. Distinct African philosophical ideas include Ujamaa, the Bantu idea of 'Force', Négritude, Pan-Africanism and Ubuntu. Contemporary African thought has also seen the development of Professional philosophy and of Africana philosophy, the philosophical literature of the African diaspora which includes currents such as black existentialism by African-Americans. Modern African thinkers have been influenced by Marxism, African-American literature, Critical theory, Critical race theory, Postcolonialism and Feminism.\n\nIndigenous American philosophy\n\nIndigenous American philosophy is the philosophy of the Indigenous people of the Americas. There is a wide variety of beliefs and traditions among these different American cultures. Among some of the Native Americans in the United States there is a belief in a metaphysical principle called the \"Great Mystery\" (Siouan: Wakan Tanka, Algonquian: Gitche Manitou). Another widely shared concept was that of Orenda or \"spiritual power\". According to Peter M. Whiteley, for the Native Americans, \"Mind is critically informed by transcendental experience (dreams, visions and so on) as well as by reason.\"[51] The practices to access these transcendental experiences are termed Shamanism. Another feature of the indigenous American worldviews was their extension of ethics to non-human animals and plants.[51][52]\n\nIn Mesoamerica, Aztec philosophy was an intellectual tradition developed by individuals called Tlamatini ('those who know something') [53] and its ideas are preserved in various Aztec codices. The Aztec worldview posited the concept of an ultimate universal energy or force called Ometeotl which can be translated as \"Dual Cosmic Energy\" and sought a way to live in balance with a constantly changing, \"slippery\" world. The theory of Teotl can be seen as a form of Pantheism.[54] Aztec philosophers developed theories of metaphysics, epistemology, values, and aesthetics. Aztec ethics was focused on seeking tlamatiliztli (knowledge, wisdom) which was based on moderation and balance in all actions as in the Nahua proverb \"the middle good is necessary\".[54]\n\nThe Inca civilization also had an elite class of philosopher-scholars termed the Amawtakuna who were important in the Inca education system as teachers of religion, tradition, history and ethics. Key concepts of Andean thought are Yanantin and Masintin which involve a theory of “complementary opposites” that sees polarities (such as male/female, dark/light) as interdependent parts of a harmonious whole.[55]\n\nCategories\n\nPhilosophical questions can be grouped into categories. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions. The groupings also make philosophy easier for students to approach. Students can learn the basic principles involved in one aspect of the field without being overwhelmed with the entire set of philosophical theories.\n\nVarious sources present different categorical schemes. The categories adopted in this article aim for breadth and simplicity.\n\nThese five major branches can be separated into sub-branches and each sub-branch contains many specific fields of study.[56]\n\nMetaphysics and epistemology\n\nValue theory\n\nScience, logic and mathematics\n\nHistory of Western philosophy\n\nPhilosophical traditions\n\nThese divisions are neither exhaustive, nor mutually exclusive. (A philosopher might specialize in Kantian epistemology, or Platonic aesthetics, or modern political philosophy.) Furthermore, these philosophical inquiries sometimes overlap with each other and with other inquiries such as science, religion or mathematics.[58]\n\nMetaphysics\n\nMetaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality, such as existence, time, objects and their properties, wholes and their parts, events, processes and causation and the relationship between mind and body. Metaphysics includes cosmology, the study of the world in its entirety and ontology, the study of being.\n\nA major point of debate is between realism, which holds that there are entities that exist independently of their mental perception and idealism, which holds that reality is mentally constructed or otherwise immaterial. Metaphysics deals with the topic of identity. Essence is the set of attributes that make an object what it fundamentally is and without which it loses its identity while accident is a property that the object has, without which the object can still retain its identity. Particulars are objects that are said to exist in space and time, as opposed to abstract objects, such as numbers, and universals, which are properties held by multiple particulars, such as redness or a gender. The type of existence, if any, of universals and abstract objects is an issue of debate.\n\nEpistemology\n\nEpistemology is the study of knowledge (Greek episteme).[59] Epistemologists study the putative sources of knowledge, including intuition, a priori reason, memory, perceptual knowledge, self-knowledge and testimony. They also ask: What is truth? Is knowledge justified true belief? Are any beliefs justified? Putative knowledge includes propositional knowledge (knowledge that something is the case), know-how (knowledge of how to do something) and acquaintance (familiarity with someone or something). Epistemologists examine these and ask whether knowledge is really possible.\n\nSkepticism is the position which doubts claims to knowledge. The regress argument, a fundamental problem in epistemology, occurs when, in order to completely prove any statement, its justification itself needs to be supported by another justification. This chain can go on forever, called infinitism, it can eventually rely on basic beliefs that are left unproven, called foundationalism, or it can go in a circle so that a statement is included in its own chain of justification, called coherentism.\n\nRationalism is the emphasis on reasoning as a source of knowledge. It is associated with a priori knowledge, which is independent of experience, such as math and logical deduction. Empiricism is the emphasis on observational evidence via sensory experience as the source of knowledge.\n\nAmong the numerous topics within metaphysics and epistemology, broadly construed are:\n\nPhilosophy of language explores the nature, the origins and the use of language.\n\nPhilosophy of mind explores the nature of the mind and its relationship to the body. It is typified by disputes between dualism and materialism. In recent years this branch has become related to cognitive science.\n\nPhilosophy of human nature analyzes the unique characteristics of human beings, such as rationality, politics and culture.\n\nMetaphilosophy explores the aims of philosophy, its boundaries and its methods.\n\nValue theory\n\nValue theory (or axiology) is the major branch of philosophy that addresses topics such as goodness, beauty and justice. Value theory includes ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, feminist philosophy, philosophy of law and more.\n\nEthics\n\nEthics, or \"moral philosophy\", studies and considers what is good and bad conduct, right and wrong values, and good and evil. Its primary investigations include how to live a good life and identifying standards of morality. It also includes meta-investigations about whether a best way to live or related standards exists. The main branches of ethics are normative ethics, meta-ethics and applied ethics.\n\nA major area of debate involves consequentialism, in which actions are judged by the potential results of the act, such as to maximize happiness, called utilitarianism, and deontology, in which actions are judged by how they adhere to principles, irrespective of negative ends.\n\nAesthetics\n\nAesthetics is the \"critical reflection on art, culture and nature.\"[60][61] It addresses the nature of art, beauty and taste, enjoyment, emotional values, perception and with the creation and appreciation of beauty.[62][63] It is more precisely defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste.[64] Its major divisions are art theory, literary theory, film theory and music theory. An example from art theory is to discern the set of principles underlying the work of a particular artist or artistic movement such as the Cubist aesthetic.[65] The philosophy of film analyzes films and filmmakers for their philosophical content and explores film (images, cinema, etc.) as a medium for philosophical reflection and expression.[citation needed]\n\nPolitical philosophy\n\nPolitical philosophy is the study of government and the relationship of individuals (or families and clans) to communities including the state. It includes questions about justice, law, property and the rights and obligations of the citizen. Politics and ethics are traditionally linked subjects, as both discuss the question of how people should live together.\n\nOther branches of value theory:\n\nPhilosophy of law (often called jurisprudence) explores the varying theories explaining the nature and interpretation of laws.\n\nPhilosophy of education analyzes the definition and content of education, as well as the goals and challenges of educators.\n\nFeminist philosophy explores questions surrounding gender, sexuality and the body including the nature of feminism itself as a social and philosophical movement.\n\nPhilosophy of sport analyzes sports, games and other forms of play as sociological and uniquely human activities.\n\nLogic, science and mathematics\n\nMany academic disciplines generated philosophical inquiry. The relationship between \"X\" and the \"philosophy of X\" is debated. Richard Feynman argued that the philosophy of a topic is irrelevant to its primary study, saying that \"philosophy of science is as useful to scientists as ornithology is to birds.\" Curtis White, by contrast, argued that philosophical tools are essential to humanities, sciences and social sciences.[66]\n\nThe topics of philosophy of science are numbers, symbols and the formal methods of reasoning as employed in the social sciences and natural sciences.\n\nLogic\n\nLogic is the study of reasoning and argument. An argument is \"a connected series of statements intended to establish a proposition.\" The connected series of statements are \"premises\" and the proposition is the conclusion. For example:\n\nAll humans are mortal. (premise) Socrates is a human. (premise) Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)\n\nDeductive reasoning is when, given certain premises, conclusions are unavoidably implied. Rules of inference are used to infer conclusions such as, modus ponens, where given “A” and “If A then B”, then “B” must be concluded.\n\nBecause sound reasoning is an essential element of all sciences,[67] social sciences and humanities disciplines, logic became a formal science. Sub-fields include mathematical logic, philosophical logic, Modal logic, computational logic and non-classical logics. A major question in the philosophy of mathematics is whether mathematical entities are objective and discovered, called mathematical realism, or invented, called mathematical antirealism.\n\nPhilosophy of science\n\nThis branch explores the foundations, methods, history, implications and purpose of science. Many of its sub-divisions correspond to a specific branch of science. For example, philosophy of biology deals specifically with the metaphysical, epistemological and ethical issues in the biomedical and life sciences. The philosophy of mathematics studies the philosophical assumptions, foundations and implications of mathematics.\n\nHistory of philosophy\n\nSome philosophers specialize in one or more historical periods. The history of philosophy (study of a specific period, individual or school) is related to but not the same as the philosophy of history (the theoretical aspect of history, which deals with questions such as the nature of historical evidence and the possibility of objectivity).\n\nHegel's Lectures on the Philosophy of History influenced many philosophers to interpret truth in light of history, a view called historicism.\n\nPhilosophy of religion\n\nPhilosophy of religion deals with questions that involve religion and religious ideas from a philosophically neutral perspective (as opposed to theology which begins from religious convinctions).[68] Traditionally, religious questions were not seen as a separate field from philosophy proper, the idea of a separate field only arose in the 19th century.[69]\n\nIssues include the existence of God, the relationship between reason and faith, questions of religious epistemology, the relationship between religion and science, how to interpret religious experiences, questions about the possibility of an afterlife, the problem of religious language and the existence of souls and responses to religious pluralism and diversity.\n\nPhilosophical schools\n\nSome philosophers specialize in one or more of the major philosophical schools, such as Continental philosophy, Analytical philosophy, Thomism, Asian philosophy or African philosophy.\n\nOther approaches\n\nA variety of other academic and non-academic approaches have been explored.\n\nApplied philosophy\n\nThe ideas conceived by a society have profound repercussions on what actions the society performs. Weaver argued that ideas have consequences. Philosophy yields applications such as those in ethics – applied ethics in particular – and political philosophy. The political and economic philosophies of Confucius, Sun Tzu, Chanakya, Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Rushd, Ibn Taymiyyah, Machiavelli, Leibniz, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, Marx, Tolstoy, Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr. have been used to shape and justify governments and their actions. Progressive education as championed by Dewey had a profound impact on 20th century US educational practices. Descendants of this movement include efforts in philosophy for children, which are part of philosophy education. Clausewitz's political philosophy of war has had a profound effect on statecraft, international politics and military strategy in the 20th century, especially around World War II. Logic is important in mathematics, linguistics, psychology, computer science and computer engineering.\n\nOther important applications can be found in epistemology, which aid in understanding the requisites for knowledge, sound evidence and justified belief (important in law, economics, decision theory and a number of other disciplines). The philosophy of science discusses the underpinnings of the scientific method and has affected the nature of scientific investigation and argumentation. Philosophy thus has fundamental implications for science as a whole. For example, the strictly empirical approach of B. F. Skinner's behaviorism affected for decades the approach of the American psychological establishment. Deep ecology and animal rights examine the moral situation of humans as occupants of a world that has non-human occupants to consider also. Aesthetics can help to interpret discussions of music, literature, the plastic arts and the whole artistic dimension of life. In general, the various philosophies strive to provide practical activities with a deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual underpinnings of their fields.\n\nSociety\n\nSome of those who study philosophy become professional philosophers, typically by working as professors who teach, research and write in academic institutions.[70] However, most students of academic philosophy later contribute to law, journalism, religion, sciences, politics, business, or various arts.[26][71] For example, public figures who have degrees in philosophy include comedians Steve Martin and Ricky Gervais, filmmaker Terrence Malick, Pope John Paul II, Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger, technology entrepreneur Peter Thiel, Supreme Court Justice Stephen Bryer and vice presidential candidate Carly Fiorina.[72][73]\n\nRecent efforts to avail the general public to the work and relevance of philosophers include the million-dollar Berggruen Prize, first awarded to Charles Taylor in 2016.[74]\n\nProfessional\n\nGermany was the first country to professionalize philosophy. At the end of 1817, Hegel was the first philosopher to be appointed Professor by the State, namely by the Prussian Minister of Education, as an effect of Napoleonic reform in Prussia. In the United States, the professionalisation grew out of reforms to the American higher-education system largely based on the German model.\n\nWithin the last century, philosophy has increasingly become a professional discipline practiced within universities, like other academic disciplines. Accordingly, it has become less general and more specialized. In the view of one prominent recent historian: \"Philosophy has become a highly organized discipline, done by specialists primarily for other specialists. The number of philosophers has exploded, the volume of publication has swelled, and the subfields of serious philosophical investigation have multiplied. Not only is the broad field of philosophy today far too vast to be embraced by one mind, something similar is true even of many highly specialized subfields.\"[75] Some philosophers argue that this professionalization has negatively affected the discipline.[76]\n\nThe end result of professionalization for philosophy has meant that work being done in the field is now almost exclusively done by university professors holding a doctorate in the field publishing in highly technical, peer-reviewed journals. While it remains common among the population at large for a person to have a set of religious, political or philosophical views that they consider their \"philosophy\", these views are rarely informed by or connected to the work being done in professional philosophy today. Furthermore, unlike many of the sciences for which there has come to be a healthy industry of books, magazines, and television shows meant to popularize science and communicate the technical results of a scientific field to the general populace, works by professional philosophers directed at an audience outside the profession remain rare. Philosopher Michael Sandel's book Justice: What's the Right Thing to Do? and Harry Frankfurt's On Bullshit are examples of works that hold the uncommon distinction of having been written by professional philosophers but directed at and ultimately popular among a broader audience of non-philosophers. Both works became 'New York Times best sellers.\n\nNon-professional\n\nMany inquiries outside of academia are philosophical in the broad sense. Novelists, playwrights, filmmakers, and musicians, as well as scientists and others engage in recognizably philosophical activity.\n\nAyn Rand is the foremost example of an intellectual working contemporaneously with contemporary philosophy but whose contributions were not made within the professional discipline of \"philosophy\": \"For all her [Ayn Rand's] popularity, however, only a few professional philosophers have taken her work seriously. As a result, most of the serious philosophical work on Rand has appeared in non-academic, non-peer-reviewed journals, or in books, and the bibliography reflects this fact.\"[15]\n\nAlso working from outside the profession were philosophers such as Gerd B. Achenbach (Die reine und die praktische Philosophie. Drei Vorträge zur philosophischen Praxis, 1983) and Michel Weber (see his Épreuve de la philosophie, 2008) who have proposed since the 1980s various forms of philosophical counseling claiming to bring Socratic dialogues back to life in a quasi-psychotherapeutic framework.\n\nPierre Hadot is famous for his analysis on the conception of philosophy during Greco-Roman antiquity. Hadot identified and analyzed the \"spiritual exercises\" used in ancient philosophy (influencing Michel Foucault's interest in such practices in the second and third volumes of his History of Sexuality). By \"spiritual exercises\" Hadot means \"practices ... intended to effect a modification and a transformation in the subjects who practice them.[6] The philosophy teacher's discourse could be presented in such a way that the disciple, as auditor, reader, or interlocutor, could make spiritual progress and transform himself within.\"[7] Hadot shows that the key to understanding the original philosophical impulse is to be found in Socrates. What characterizes Socratic therapy above all is the importance given to living contact between human beings. Hadot's recurring theme is that philosophy in antiquity was characterized by a series of spiritual exercises intended to transform the perception, and therefore the being, of those who practice it; that philosophy is best pursued in real conversation and not through written texts and lectures; and that philosophy, as it is taught in universities today, is for the most part a distortion of its original, therapeutic impulse. He brings these concerns together in What Is Ancient Philosophy?,[7] which has been critically reviewed.[8]\n\nRole of women\n\nAmerican philosopher of mind and philosopher of art Susanne Langer (1895–1985).\n\nAlthough men have generally dominated philosophical discourse, women have engaged in philosophy throughout history. Women philosophers have contributed since ancient times–notably Hipparchia of Maroneia (active c. 325 BCE) and Arete of Cyrene (active 5th–4th century BCE). More were accepted during the ancient, medieval and modern eras, but no women philosophers became part the Western canon until the 20th and 21st century, when some sources indicate that Susanne Langer, Hannah Arendt and Simone de Beauvoir entered the canon.[77][78]\n\nIn the early 1800s, some colleges and universities in the UK and US began admitting women, producing more female academics. Nevertheless, U.S. Department of Education reports from the 1990s indicate that few women ended up in philosophy, and that philosophy is one of the least gender-proportionate fields in the humanities.[79] In 2014, Inside Higher Education described the philosophy \"...discipline's own long history of misogyny and sexual harassment\" of women students and professors.[80]University of Sheffield philosophy professor Jennifer Saul stated in 2015 that women are \"...leaving philosophy after being harassed, assaulted, or retaliated against.\" [81]\n\nIn the early 1990s, the Canadian Philosophical Association noted a gender imbalance and gender bias in the academic field of philosophy.[82] In June 2013, a US sociology professor stated that \"out of all recent citations in four prestigious philosophy journals, female authors comprise just 3.6 percent of the total.\"[83] Susan Price argues that the philosophical \"...canon remains dominated by white males – the discipline that...still hews to the myth that genius is tied to gender.\"[84] Morgan Thompson suggests that discrimination, differences in abilities, grade differences and the lack of role models in philosophy could be potential factors for the gender gap.[85] According to Saul, \"[p]hilosophy, the oldest of the humanities, is also the malest (and the whitest). While other areas of the humanities are at or near gender parity, philosophy is actually more overwhelmingly male than even mathematics.\"[86]\n\nPopular culture\n\nIn 2000, the Open Court Publishing Company began publishing a series of books on philosophy and popular culture. Each book consists of essays written by philosophers for general readers. The books \"explore the meanings, concepts and puzzles within television shows, movies, music and other icons of popular culture\"[87] analyzing topics such as the TV shows Seinfeld and The Simpsons, The Matrix and Star Wars movies and related media and new technological developments such as the iPod and Facebook. Their most recent publication (as of 2016 ) is titled Louis C.K. and Philosophy; its subject is the comedian Louis C.K..\n\nThe Matrix makes numerous references to philosophy including Buddhism, Vedanta, Advaita Hinduism, Christianity, Messianism, Judaism, Gnosticism, existentialism and nihilism. The film's premise resembles Plato's Allegory of the cave, Descartes's evil demon, Kant's reflections on the Phenomenon versus the Ding an sich, Zhuangzi's \"Zhuangzi dreamed he was a butterfly\", Marxist social theory and the brain in a vat thought experiment. Many references to Baudrillard's Simulacra and Simulation appear in the film, although Baudrillard himself considered this a misrepresentation.[88]\n\nSee also\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nSources\n\nGeneral introductions\n\nTopical introductions\n\nHistorical introductions\nSummary of Article\n[21][22][23] Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include metaphysics (\"concerned with the fundamental nature of reality and being\"),[24] epistemology (about the \"nature and grounds of knowledge [and]...its limits and validity\" [25]), ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, logic, philosophy of science, and the history of Western philosophy.\n[34] Western philosophy can be divided into three eras: Ancient (Greco-Roman), Medieval philosophy (Christian European), and Modern philosophy.\nAfrican philosophyAfrican philosophy is philosophy produced by African people, philosophy that presents African worldviews, ideas and themes, or philosophy that uses distinct African philosophical methods.\nValue theory includes ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, feminist philosophy, philosophy of law and more.\nPhilosophical schoolsSome philosophers specialize in one or more of the major philosophical schools, such as Continental philosophy, Analytical philosophy, Thomism, Asian philosophy or African philosophy.\n",
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