Finesses de python

python_finesses.ipynb

{
 "cells": [
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Les Finesses de Python\n",
    "\n",
    "## Microclub 1er juin 2018\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "## Philippe Guglielmetti\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "---"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Encore Python ???\n",
    "\n",
    "> Il ne vaut pas la peine de connaître un langage qui ne modifie pas votre façon de penser la programmation.\n",
    "> ([Alan Perlis](https://www.drgoulu.com/2008/01/21/perlisismes-les-dictons-informatiques-dalan-perlis/))\n",
    "\n",
    "* #4 au [TIOBE](https://www.tiobe.com/tiobe-index/) (nombre de développeurs)\n",
    "* #2 au [Madnight] (https://madnight.github.io/githut/#/issues/2018/1) (activité sur GitHub)\n",
    "* #1 au [PYPL](http://pypl.github.io/PYPL.html) PopularitY of Programming Language (nombre de tutoriels suivis)\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    ">Python est un langage de programmation objet, multi-paradigme ([wikipedia](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(langage)))\n",
    "\n",
    "= on peut programmer :\n",
    "1. [comme une patate](http://entrian.com/goto/)\n",
    "2. comme on en a l’habitude (classes, objets, ...)\n",
    "3. comme on en a pas l’habitude\n",
    "4. comme ~~un dieu~~ [Guido van Rossum](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guido_van_Rossum)\n",
    "\n",
    "Notamment, Python intègre ou facilite certains [patron de conception](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patron_de_conception)\n",
    "\n",
    "\"Gang of four\" (GOF) Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, John Vlissides \n",
    "“Design Patterns - Catalogue de modèles de conceptions réutilisables” \n",
    "Vuibert, 1999, 490 p \n",
    "\n",
    "----"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "## Au menu ce soir :\n",
    "* [Objets et Types (Classes)¶](#objs)\n",
    "* [Iterateurs](#iter)\n",
    "* [Introspection](#intro)\n",
    "* [Les Décorateurs](#deco)\n",
    "  * [La Memoïsation](#memo)\n",
    "  * [Timeout](#stop)\n",
    "* [Intermède OEIS](#OEIS)\n",
    "    "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "----\n",
    "mais commençons par importer quelques [librairies standard](https://docs.python.org/3/library/) et [\"maison\"](https://github.com/goulu/Goulib) utilisées dans la suite"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 1,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import logging\n",
    "logger = logging.getLogger()\n",
    "logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)\n",
    "import itertools\n",
    "import functools\n",
    "import operator\n",
    "\n",
    "from Goulib import itertools2, decorators"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"objs\"></a>\n",
    "## Types et Objets (Classes) \n",
    "\n",
    "Python utilise un typage:\n",
    "* FORT : chaque variable désigne un objet dont le type est connu\n",
    "* DYNAMIQUE : mais une variable peut changer pour désigner un autre objet d'un autre type\n",
    "* PAS vérifié à la compilation (à moins que...)\n"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 2,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "256 <class 'int'>\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a=256\n",
    "print(a,type(a)) # a désigne un OBJET de type (classe...) int"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 3,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "True True\n",
      "True False\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(255+1 == a, 255+1 is a) # == compare les valeurs, is compare les objets\n",
    "print(a+1 == 257, a+1 is 257) # une idée de ce qui se passe ???"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 4,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'les entiers de -5 à 256 sont des objets prédéfinis en Python !'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 4,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "langue_au_chat='! nohtyP ne sinifédérp stejbo sed tnos 652 à 5- ed sreitne sel'\n",
    "''.join(reversed(langue_au_chat))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 5,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "a = 256 <class 'str'>\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "s=\"a = \"+str(a) # le str est obligatoire : pas de conversion implicite\n",
    "print(s,type(s))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 6,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "256 <class 'str'>\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "a=str(a) # a ne change pas de type, il désigne un nouvel objet (nuance...)\n",
    "print(a,type(a))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 7,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "<function fib at 0x0000015E3812AEA0> <class 'function'>\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "def fib(n):\n",
    "    \"\"\"une très mauvaise implémentation de la suite de Fibonacci\"\"\"\n",
    "    if n < 1: return 0\n",
    "    if n < 2: return 1\n",
    "    return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)\n",
    "\n",
    "print(fib,type(fib)) # les fonctions sont des objets aussi"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 8,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/latex": [
       "$\\frac{{{2}{x}}+{1}}{2}$"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "'\\\\frac{{{2}{x}}+{1}}{2}'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 8,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "class LateX (str): # on peut dériver une classe de n'importe quel type\n",
    "    \n",
    "    def __init__(self, s=''): # constructeur\n",
    "        self = str(s)     # utilise la méthode d'assignation de la classe str\n",
    "        \n",
    "    def _repr_latex_(self): # affichage dans Jupyter Notebook\n",
    "        return r'$%s$'%self\n",
    "    \n",
    "    # une méthode est juste un champ de type fonction \n",
    "    # les \"magic methods\" permettent de redéfinir les opérateurs\n",
    "    __add__=lambda self,right:LateX('{%s}+{%s}'%(self, right))  \n",
    "    __sub__=lambda self,right:LateX('{%s}-{%s}'%(self, right)) \n",
    "    __mul__=lambda self,right:LateX('{%s}{%s}'%(self, right))\n",
    "    __div__=lambda self,right:LateX('\\\\frac{%s}{%s}'%(self, right)) \n",
    "    __truediv__= __div__ # nécessaire pour / au lieu de //\n",
    "    \n",
    "(LateX(2)*'x'+1)/2"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 9,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/latex": [
       "${\\pi}{{r}^{2}}$"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "'{\\\\pi}{{r}^{2}}'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 9,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "# on peut ajouter/modifier dynamiquement des méthodes à une classe\n",
    "# puisque les méthodes sont aussi des objets !\n",
    "\n",
    "def puissance_en_latex(self,right): # self n'est pas un mot réservé\n",
    "    return LateX('{%s}^{%s}'%(self, right))\n",
    "    \n",
    "LateX.__pow__=puissance_en_latex\n",
    "LateX.version=1.1\n",
    "\n",
    "LateX('\\\\pi')*LateX('r')**2"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 10,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "1.1"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 10,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "LateX().version"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Oui c'est TRES dangereux. Mais un principe de Python est \n",
    ">\"We are all consenting adults here.\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "----\n",
    "<a id=\"iter\"></a>\n",
    "## Iterateurs, générateurs, et programmation fonctionnelle\n",
    "L'itérateur est un patron de conception qui permet de parcourir tous les éléments contenus dans un autre objet, le plus souvent un conteneur (liste, arbre, etc). Un synonyme d'itérateur est curseur, notamment dans le contexte des bases de données."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 11,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 "
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for i in range(10):\n",
    "    print(fib(i), end=\" \")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 12,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "range(0, 10) <class 'range'>\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "r=range(10)\n",
    "print(r,type(r))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 13,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 13,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "[fib(i) for i in r] # construction de liste par \"compréhension\""
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 14,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "<map object at 0x0000015E3813E6A0> <class 'map'>\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "res=map(fib,r)        # map applique une fonction à un itérable\n",
    "print(res,type(res))  # le résultat est un itérable"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 15,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "88"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 15,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "functools.reduce(operator.add,res) # reduce applique répétitivement une fonction à 2 paramètres (opérateur) à un itérable\n",
    "# sum(res) # aurait fait la même chose ..."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 16,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "1548 False\n",
      "[1548] True\n",
      "<map object at 0x0000015E3813E6A0> True\n",
      "<function fib at 0x0000015E3812AEA0> False\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for obj in [1548, [1548], res, fib]:\n",
    "    print(obj, itertools2.isiterable(obj))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 17,
   "metadata": {
    "scrolled": true
   },
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "<generator object fibogen at 0x0000015E38114F10> True\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "def fibogen():\n",
    "    logging.info('fibogen démarre...')\n",
    "    n2,n1=0,1\n",
    "    yield n2\n",
    "    yield n1\n",
    "    while True: # oui, une boucle infinie dans une fonction ...\n",
    "        n1,n2=n1+n2,n1 # quand même pratique...\n",
    "        yield n1\n",
    "        \n",
    "print(fibogen(), itertools2.isiterable(fibogen()))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 18,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "<enumerate object at 0x0000015E3813A4C8> <class 'enumerate'> True\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "e=enumerate(fibogen())\n",
    "print(e, type(e), itertools2.isiterable(e))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 19,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "INFO:root:fibogen démarre...\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 "
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "for i,n in e:\n",
    "    print(n, end=\" \")\n",
    "    if i>=9: break\n",
    "    "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 20,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "<itertools.islice object at 0x0000015E3813CB38> <class 'itertools.islice'>\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "res=itertools.islice(fibogen(),10)\n",
    "print(res,type(res))  # le résultat est encore un itérable"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 21,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "INFO:root:fibogen démarre...\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 21,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(res)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 22,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 22,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(res) # mais attention ! un iterateur ne peut être \"consommé\" qu'une fois"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 23,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "INFO:root:fibogen démarre...\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597, 2584, 4181]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 23,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(itertools.islice(fibogen(),10,20))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 24,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "<__main__.Fib object at 0x0000015E3815E4A8> True\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "class Fib:\n",
    "    '''Fibonacci avec classe !'''\n",
    "    def __iter__(self):\n",
    "        logging.info('Fib.__iter__')\n",
    "        self.n2, self.n1 = 0,1\n",
    "        return self\n",
    "    def __next__(self):\n",
    "        logging.info('Fib.__next__')\n",
    "        fib = self.n2\n",
    "        self.n2, self.n1 = self.n1, self.n1 + self.n2\n",
    "        return fib\n",
    "f=Fib()    \n",
    "print(f, itertools2.isiterable(f)) # une classe contenant __iter__ (et __next__) est itérable !"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 25,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "INFO:root:Fib.__iter__\n",
      "INFO:root:Fib.__next__\n",
      "INFO:root:Fib.__next__\n",
      "INFO:root:Fib.__next__\n",
      "INFO:root:Fib.__next__\n",
      "INFO:root:Fib.__next__\n",
      "INFO:root:Fib.__next__\n",
      "INFO:root:Fib.__next__\n",
      "INFO:root:Fib.__next__\n",
      "INFO:root:Fib.__next__\n",
      "INFO:root:Fib.__next__\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 25,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "list(itertools.islice(f,10))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "----\n",
    "<a id=\"intro\"></a>\n",
    "## Introspection\n",
    "Les champs+méthodes des objets peuvent être examinés.\n",
    "Et comme tout est objet ..."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 26,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "['__add__', '__class__', '__contains__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__div__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__getitem__', '__getnewargs__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__', '__init_subclass__', '__iter__', '__le__', '__len__', '__lt__', '__mod__', '__module__', '__mul__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__pow__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__rmod__', '__rmul__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__sub__', '__subclasshook__', '__truediv__', '__weakref__', '_repr_latex_', 'capitalize', 'casefold', 'center', 'count', 'encode', 'endswith', 'expandtabs', 'find', 'format', 'format_map', 'index', 'isalnum', 'isalpha', 'isdecimal', 'isdigit', 'isidentifier', 'islower', 'isnumeric', 'isprintable', 'isspace', 'istitle', 'isupper', 'join', 'ljust', 'lower', 'lstrip', 'maketrans', 'partition', 'replace', 'rfind', 'rindex', 'rjust', 'rpartition', 'rsplit', 'rstrip', 'split', 'splitlines', 'startswith', 'strip', 'swapcase', 'title', 'translate', 'upper', 'version', 'zfill']\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(dir(LateX)) # tous les membres de la classe (beaucoup sont hérités de str)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 27,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "['__bool__', '__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__', '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__']\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(dir(None)) # membres de l'objet None ?"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 28,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "['__annotations__', '__call__', '__class__', '__closure__', '__code__', '__defaults__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__', '__get__', '__getattribute__', '__globals__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__', '__init_subclass__', '__kwdefaults__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__name__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__qualname__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__']\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(dir(fib)) # membres de l'objet fonction"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 29,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "'une très mauvaise implémentation de la suite de Fibonacci'"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 29,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "fib.__doc__ # pratique pour écrire des générateurs de doc ..."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 30,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "(['def fib(n):\\n',\n",
       "  '    \"\"\"une très mauvaise implémentation de la suite de Fibonacci\"\"\"\\n',\n",
       "  '    if n < 1: return 0\\n',\n",
       "  '    if n < 2: return 1\\n',\n",
       "  '    return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)\\n'],\n",
       " 1)"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 30,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import inspect # https://docs.python.org/3/library/inspect.html\n",
    "inspect.getsourcelines(fib)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 31,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "<code object fib at 0x0000015E38123ED0, file \"<ipython-input-7-7db8c3a11112>\", line 1>"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 31,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "fib.__code__ # intéressant ... on y reviendra !"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 32,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "__loader__()= <_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter object at 0x0000015E3815E4A8>\n",
      "acos(1)= 0.0\n",
      "acosh(1)= 0.0\n",
      "asin(1)= 1.5707963267948966\n",
      "asinh(1)= 0.8813735870195429\n",
      "atan(1)= 0.7853981633974483\n",
      "atan2(1,2)= 0.4636476090008061\n",
      "atanh(???)\n",
      "ceil(1)= 1\n",
      "copysign(1,2)= 1.0\n",
      "cos(1)= 0.5403023058681398\n",
      "cosh(1)= 1.5430806348152437\n",
      "degrees(1)= 57.29577951308232\n",
      "erf(1)= 0.842700792949715\n",
      "erfc(1)= 0.157299207050285\n",
      "exp(1)= 2.718281828459045\n",
      "expm1(1)= 1.718281828459045\n",
      "fabs(1)= 1.0\n",
      "factorial(1)= 1\n",
      "floor(1)= 1\n",
      "fmod(1,2)= 1.0\n",
      "frexp(1)= (0.5, 1)\n",
      "fsum(???)\n",
      "gamma(1)= 1.0\n",
      "gcd(1,2)= 1\n",
      "hypot(1,2)= 2.23606797749979\n",
      "isclose(1,2)= False\n",
      "isfinite(1)= True\n",
      "isinf(1)= False\n",
      "isnan(1)= False\n",
      "ldexp(1,2)= 4.0\n",
      "lgamma(1)= 0.0\n",
      "log(1)= 0.0\n",
      "log1p(1)= 0.6931471805599453\n",
      "log10(1)= 0.0\n",
      "log2(1)= 0.0\n",
      "modf(1)= (0.0, 1.0)\n",
      "pow(1,2)= 1.0\n",
      "radians(1)= 0.017453292519943295\n",
      "sin(1)= 0.8414709848078965\n",
      "sinh(1)= 1.1752011936438014\n",
      "sqrt(1)= 1.0\n",
      "tan(1)= 1.5574077246549023\n",
      "tanh(1)= 0.7615941559557649\n",
      "trunc(1)= 1\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import math # un module est aussi un objet !\n",
    "\n",
    "for name in math.__dict__: # traverse le dictionnaire de tout ce qui est défini dans le module\n",
    "    f=math.__dict__[name]\n",
    "    if callable(f):       # si l'objet a une méthode __call__, on peut l'appeler\n",
    "        try:\n",
    "            try:\n",
    "                print(name+'()=',f())\n",
    "                continue\n",
    "            except TypeError:\n",
    "                pass\n",
    "            try:\n",
    "                print(name+'(1)=',f(1))\n",
    "                continue\n",
    "            except TypeError:\n",
    "                pass\n",
    "            print(name+'(1,2)=',f(1,2))\n",
    "        except:\n",
    "            print(name+'(???)')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"deco\"></a>\n",
    "## Les Décorateurs\n",
    "\n",
    "\n",
    "Un décorateur est une fonction qui modifie une fonction en l'enveloppant.\n",
    "C'est un [patron de conception](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patron_de_conception)\n",
    "\n",
    "\"Gang of four\" (GOF) Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, John Vlissides \n",
    "“Design Patterns - Catalogue de modèles de conceptions réutilisables” \n",
    "Vuibert, 1999, 490 p "
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"debug\"></a>\n",
    "### Gestion du niveau de log pour debug"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 33,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "ERROR:root:un message d'erreur s'affiche\n",
      "WARNING:root:un message d'avertissement s'affiche\n",
      "INFO:root:un message d'info s'affiche\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import logging # librairie standard pour loguer\n",
    "\n",
    "logger = logging.getLogger()\n",
    "logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)\n",
    "\n",
    "logging.error(\"un message d'erreur s'affiche\")\n",
    "logging.warning(\"un message d'avertissement s'affiche\")\n",
    "logging.info(\"un message d'info s'affiche\")\n",
    "logging.debug(\"mais un message de debug est inférieur au level INFO\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 34,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "INFO:root:fonction\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "def fonction():\n",
    "    \"\"\"cette fonction logue:\n",
    "    * son propre nom en INFO\n",
    "    * et sa doc en DEBUG\n",
    "    \"\"\"\n",
    "    logging.info(fonction.__name__)\n",
    "    def logdoc(doc):\n",
    "        for s in doc.split('\\n'):\n",
    "            logging.debug(s)\n",
    "    logdoc(fonction.__doc__)\n",
    "       \n",
    "fonction() # ne logue que le nom puisqu'on est au level INFO"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 35,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "INFO:root:Entering fonction\n",
      "DEBUG:root:fonction\n",
      "DEBUG:root:cette fonction logue:\n",
      "DEBUG:root:    * son propre nom\n",
      "DEBUG:root:    * et sa doc\n",
      "DEBUG:root:    \n",
      "INFO:root:Exiting fonction\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "@decorators.debug # passe en level DEBUG et ajoute des INFO à l'entrée et à la sortie\n",
    "def fonction():\n",
    "    \"\"\"cette fonction logue:\n",
    "    * son propre nom\n",
    "    * et sa doc\n",
    "    \"\"\"\n",
    "    logging.debug(fonction.__name__)\n",
    "    def logdoc(doc):\n",
    "        for s in doc.split('\\n'):\n",
    "            logging.debug(s)\n",
    "    logdoc(fonction.__doc__)\n",
    "    \n",
    "fonction()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 36,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "INFO:root:Entering fonction\n",
      "DEBUG:root:fonction\n",
      "INFO:root:Exiting fonction\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "@decorators.debug # passe en level DEBUG et ajoute des INFO à l'entrée et à la sortie\n",
    "def fonction():\n",
    "    \"\"\"cette fonction logue:\n",
    "    * son propre nom\n",
    "    * et sa doc\n",
    "    \"\"\"\n",
    "    logging.debug(fonction.__name__)\n",
    "    @decorators.nodebug # revenir en INFO pour réduire la taille du log\n",
    "    def logdoc(doc):\n",
    "        for s in doc.split('\\n'):\n",
    "            logging.debug(s)\n",
    "    logdoc(fonction.__doc__)\n",
    "    \n",
    "fonction()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"timeit\"></a>\n",
    "### Timeit\n",
    "\n",
    "écrivons un décorateur pour chronométrer une fonction"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 37,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import functools # librairie standard\n",
    "\n",
    "def timeit(func):\n",
    "    @functools.wraps(func) # un décorateur qui simplifie l'écriture de décorateurs...\n",
    "    def wrapper(*args, **kwds):\n",
    "        import time\n",
    "        t=time.time()\n",
    "        f_result = func(*args, **kwds)\n",
    "        t=time.time()-t\n",
    "        params=', '.join(map(repr,args))\n",
    "        logger.info('%s(%s) took %f seconds'%(func.__name__,params,t)) \n",
    "        return f_result\n",
    "    return wrapper"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 38,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "INFO:root:tfib(0) took 0.000000 seconds\n",
      "INFO:root:tfib(5) took 0.000000 seconds\n",
      "INFO:root:tfib(10) took 0.000000 seconds\n",
      "INFO:root:tfib(15) took 0.001003 seconds\n",
      "INFO:root:tfib(20) took 0.003009 seconds\n",
      "INFO:root:tfib(25) took 0.036084 seconds\n",
      "INFO:root:tfib(30) took 0.303837 seconds\n",
      "INFO:root:tfib(35) took 3.365991 seconds\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[1, 8, 89, 987, 10946, 121393, 1346269, 14930352]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 38,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "def fib(n):\n",
    "    \"\"\"une très mauvaise implémentation de la suite de Fibonacci\"\"\"\n",
    "    if n < 2:\n",
    "      return 1\n",
    "    return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)\n",
    "\n",
    "@timeit\n",
    "def tfib(n): return fib(n)\n",
    "\n",
    "[tfib(i) for i in range(0,40,5)]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"memo\"></a>\n",
    "### La [Memoïsation](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9mo%C3%AFsation)\n",
    "\n",
    "Patron de conception qui accélère les appels répétés à une fonction en mémorisant les résultats en fonction des paramètres"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 39,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def memoize(obj): # disponible dans Goulib.decorators\n",
    "    cache = obj.cache = {} # simple dict. il existe des implémentations à mémoire limitée\n",
    "    @functools.wraps(obj)\n",
    "    def memoizer(*args, **kwargs):\n",
    "        key = str(args) + str(kwargs)\n",
    "        if key not in cache:\n",
    "            cache[key] = obj(*args, **kwargs)\n",
    "        return cache[key]\n",
    "    return memoizer"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 40,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "INFO:root:tfib(0) took 0.000000 seconds\n",
      "INFO:root:tfib(5) took 0.000000 seconds\n",
      "INFO:root:tfib(10) took 0.000000 seconds\n",
      "INFO:root:tfib(15) took 0.000000 seconds\n",
      "INFO:root:tfib(20) took 0.000000 seconds\n",
      "INFO:root:tfib(25) took 0.000000 seconds\n",
      "INFO:root:tfib(30) took 0.000000 seconds\n",
      "INFO:root:tfib(35) took 0.000000 seconds\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "[1, 8, 89, 987, 10946, 121393, 1346269, 14930352]"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 40,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "@memoize\n",
    "def mfib(n):\n",
    "    \"\"\"la même très mauvaise implémentation de la suite de Fibonacci\"\"\"\n",
    "    if n < 2:\n",
    "      return 1\n",
    "    return mfib(n-1) + mfib(n-2)\n",
    "\n",
    "@timeit\n",
    "def tfib(n): return mfib(n)\n",
    "\n",
    "[tfib(i) for i in range(0,40,5)]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 41,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "INFO:root:tfib(500) took 0.003042 seconds\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "225591516161936330872512695036072072046011324913758190588638866418474627738686883405015987052796968498626"
      ]
     },
     "execution_count": 41,
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "execute_result"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "tfib(500)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"stop\"></a>\n",
    "### Le Timeout"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 42,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "en 3 secondes, on peut calculer 33 termes\n",
      "le dernier est 3524578\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "t=3\n",
    "i,n = 0,0\n",
    "@decorators.timeout(t) # implémentation interrompant la thread\n",
    "def fibloop():\n",
    "    global i,n\n",
    "    while True: # boucle infinie sans le décorateur ...\n",
    "        i=i+1\n",
    "        n=fib(i)\n",
    "        \n",
    "try:\n",
    "    fibloop()\n",
    "except decorators.TimeoutError:\n",
    "    print('en %d secondes, on peut calculer %d termes'%(t,i))\n",
    "    print('le dernier est',n)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 43,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "en 3 secondes, on peut calculer 266774 termes\n",
      "le dernier est 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563209406719473770590210999950300771195604214561489009297994857358614229879695713401394152710274054683001113715957454311087562975402229317090908460094792184473317675037036366520999885667665334432897260976806985270392762765409842137267919929143522360061257649617508871196263155746846698493858718722112841312151696467164932107464418431526342839198321055733306995942238296375689219988441960825708272089931288526813797505009544779764605724814125441502100533504374308917078778328920080190088864969410895004951509472500449319368987554376787970387215182844531575746483984818555323033889008114729691735047629941579013391399522639148573310180804430222787587638916434251463477055585153797748572837293435406307929568135850557509135552751277039569344908232487298850\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "import itertools\n",
    "#implémentation au niveau de l'itérateur de boucle\n",
    "# dommage, pas de @itimeout for ... \n",
    "try:\n",
    "    for i in decorators.itimeout(itertools.count(),t):\n",
    "        n=mfib(i)\n",
    "except decorators.TimeoutError:\n",
    "    print('en %d secondes, on peut calculer %d termes'%(t,i))\n",
    "    print('le dernier est',n)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "<a id=\"deco2\"></a>\n",
    "### Hey mais alors ..."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 44,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Valeur str A , double = AA statique\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "class Valeur:\n",
    "    def __init__(self,v):\n",
    "        self.v=v\n",
    "        self.__name__=type(v).__name__\n",
    "    @property\n",
    "    def double(self):\n",
    "        return self.v*2\n",
    "    \n",
    "    def type(self):\n",
    "        return self.__name__\n",
    "    \n",
    "    @classmethod\n",
    "    def classe(self): # self désigne ici la classe !\n",
    "        return self.__name__\n",
    "    \n",
    "    @staticmethod\n",
    "    def statique():\n",
    "        return 'statique'\n",
    "        \n",
    "v=Valeur('A')\n",
    "print(v.classe(), v.type(), v.v, \", double =\",v.double, v.statique())"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "... Oui ! certains décorateurs sont prédéfinis et étendent le langage !\n",
    "\n",
    "il n'y a pas (encore ?) de librairie standard de décorateurs, mais il y en a [pas mal ici](https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonDecoratorLibrary)\n",
    "\n",
    "Guido van Rossum a par exemple proposé les \"[multimethodes](https://www.artima.com/weblogs/viewpost.jsp?thread=101605)\" :"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 45,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "2/3\n",
      "7793533013102485/9007199254740992\n",
      "a / b\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "ename": "TypeError",
     "evalue": "unsupported argument types (<class 'str'>, <class 'int'>)",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[1;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[1;31mTypeError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[1;32m<ipython-input-45-8e7ed8cd920d>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[1;34m()\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m     14\u001b[0m \u001b[0mprint\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mf\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mmath\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m.\u001b[0m\u001b[0me\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m,\u001b[0m\u001b[0mmath\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m.\u001b[0m\u001b[0mpi\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m     15\u001b[0m \u001b[0mprint\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mf\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[1;34m'a'\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m,\u001b[0m\u001b[1;34m'b'\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m---> 16\u001b[1;33m \u001b[0mprint\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mf\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[1;34m'a'\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m,\u001b[0m\u001b[1;36m2\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[1;32m<ipython-input-45-8e7ed8cd920d>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36mf\u001b[1;34m(a, b)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m      9\u001b[0m         \u001b[1;32mreturn\u001b[0m \u001b[1;34m\"%s / %s\"\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m%\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0ma\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m,\u001b[0m\u001b[0mb\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m     10\u001b[0m     \u001b[1;32melse\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m:\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m---> 11\u001b[1;33m         \u001b[1;32mraise\u001b[0m \u001b[0mTypeError\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[1;34m\"unsupported argument types (%s, %s)\"\u001b[0m \u001b[1;33m%\u001b[0m \u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mtype\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0ma\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m,\u001b[0m \u001b[0mtype\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mb\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m\u001b[0;32m     12\u001b[0m \u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m     13\u001b[0m \u001b[0mprint\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mf\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[1;36m2\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m,\u001b[0m\u001b[1;36m3\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n",
      "\u001b[1;31mTypeError\u001b[0m: unsupported argument types (<class 'str'>, <class 'int'>)"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "from fractions import Fraction\n",
    "\n",
    "def f(a, b):\n",
    "    if isinstance(a, int) and isinstance(b, int):\n",
    "        return Fraction(a,b) \n",
    "    elif isinstance(a, float) and isinstance(b, float):\n",
    "        return Fraction(a/b)\n",
    "    elif isinstance(a, str) and isinstance(b, str):\n",
    "        return \"%s / %s\"%(a,b)\n",
    "    else:\n",
    "        raise TypeError(\"unsupported argument types (%s, %s)\" % (type(a), type(b)))\n",
    "        \n",
    "print(f(2,3))\n",
    "print(f(math.e,math.pi))\n",
    "print(f('a','b'))\n",
    "print(f('a',2))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 46,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "2/3\n",
      "7793533013102485/9007199254740992\n",
      "a / b\n"
     ]
    },
    {
     "ename": "TypeError",
     "evalue": "unsupported argument types (<class 'str'>, <class 'int'>)",
     "output_type": "error",
     "traceback": [
      "\u001b[1;31m---------------------------------------------------------------------------\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[1;31mTypeError\u001b[0m                                 Traceback (most recent call last)",
      "\u001b[1;32m<ipython-input-46-95b92003cab4>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36m<module>\u001b[1;34m()\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m     16\u001b[0m \u001b[0mprint\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mf\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mmath\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m.\u001b[0m\u001b[0me\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m,\u001b[0m\u001b[0mmath\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m.\u001b[0m\u001b[0mpi\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m     17\u001b[0m \u001b[0mprint\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mf\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[1;34m'a'\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m,\u001b[0m\u001b[1;34m'b'\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m---> 18\u001b[1;33m \u001b[0mprint\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mf\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[1;34m'a'\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m,\u001b[0m\u001b[1;36m2\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m",
      "\u001b[1;32m<ipython-input-45-8e7ed8cd920d>\u001b[0m in \u001b[0;36mf\u001b[1;34m(a, b)\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m      9\u001b[0m         \u001b[1;32mreturn\u001b[0m \u001b[1;34m\"%s / %s\"\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m%\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0ma\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m,\u001b[0m\u001b[0mb\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m     10\u001b[0m     \u001b[1;32melse\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m:\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[1;32m---> 11\u001b[1;33m         \u001b[1;32mraise\u001b[0m \u001b[0mTypeError\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[1;34m\"unsupported argument types (%s, %s)\"\u001b[0m \u001b[1;33m%\u001b[0m \u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mtype\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0ma\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m,\u001b[0m \u001b[0mtype\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mb\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m\u001b[0;32m     12\u001b[0m \u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0;32m     13\u001b[0m \u001b[0mprint\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[0mf\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m(\u001b[0m\u001b[1;36m2\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m,\u001b[0m\u001b[1;36m3\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m)\u001b[0m\u001b[1;33m\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\n",
      "\u001b[1;31mTypeError\u001b[0m: unsupported argument types (<class 'str'>, <class 'int'>)"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "from Goulib.decorators import multimethod\n",
    "\n",
    "@multimethod(int, int)\n",
    "def foo(a, b):\n",
    "    return Fraction(a,b) \n",
    "\n",
    "@multimethod(float, float)\n",
    "def foo(a, b):\n",
    "    return Fraction(a/b)\n",
    "\n",
    "@multimethod(str, str)\n",
    "def foo(a, b):\n",
    "    return \"%s / %s\"%(a,b)\n",
    "\n",
    "print(f(2,3))\n",
    "print(f(math.e,math.pi))\n",
    "print(f('a','b'))\n",
    "print(f('a',2))"
   ]
  }
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• https://github.com/goulu/python_finesses
• https://microclub.ch/2018/06/02/les-finesses-de-python/
• https://www.drgoulu.com/2018/06/23/les-finesses-de-python/