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def as_scalar(value):
    """Like np.asscalar, but also works on scalar values (not just ndarrays)
    """
    return np.array(value).item()

def to_str(value):
    """Convert a (possibly bytes) string to unicode, which is comparable to
    strings on all Python versions

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class partial_by_order(object):
    """

    >>> f = partial_by_order(add, [(1, 10)])
    >>> f(5)
    15
    """
    def __init__(self, op, other):
        if (not isinstance(other, list) or
            not all(isinstance(o, tuple) and len(o) == 2 for o in other)):

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