Latent Semantic Analysis using Python -- except it works https://www.datacamp.com/community/tutorials/discovering-hidden-topics-python

clean-axios.json

[{"title":"The world celebrates the turn of the millennium","year":"2000","text":"The year 2000 was the first year of the 2000s decade. Popular culture holds the year 2000 as the first year of the 21st century and  third millennium, due to a tendency to group the years according to decimal values, as if year zero were counted. According to the Gregorian calendar, however, this distinction falls to the year 2001, because the first century was retroactively said to start with year AD 1. Since the calendar has no year \"zero\", its first millennium spans from years 1 to 1000, inclusively, its second millennium from years 1001 to 2000 and its third from 2001 to 3000.   "},{"title":"The Pyrenean Ibex goes extinct","year":"2000","text":"One of  two subspecies of Spanish Ibex, the Pyrenean Ibex once ranged across the Pyrenees in France and Spain and the surrounding area, including the Basque Country, Navarre, north Aragon and north Catalonia. A few hundred years ago they were numerous, but by 1900 their numbers had fallen to less than 100. After 1910 their numbers never rose above 40.The last natural Pyrenean Ibex, a female named Celia, was found dead on 6th January 2000 next to a fallen tree. Although her cause of death is known, the reason for the extinction of the subspecies as a whole is a mystery. Hypotheses include the inability to compete with other species for food, infections and diseases, and poaching.In January 2009, the Pyrenean Ibex became the first taxon ever to become \"un-extinct\" – for  seven minutes – when a cloned female  was born alive, before dying from lung defects.*   "},{"title":"The         dot-com bubble bursts","year":"2000","text":"The dot-com       bubble was a speculative bubble covering roughly 1998–2000,       during which stock markets in industrialised nations saw their equity       value rise sharply from growth in the more recent Internet sector and       related technology fields.A combination       of rapidly increasing stock prices, market confidence that the companies       would turn future profits, individual speculation in stocks, and widely       available venture capital created an environment in which many investors       were willing to overlook traditional metrics in favour of confidence       in technological advancements.The bubble reached its peak on 10th March 2000, with the NASDAQ at 5132. This was followed       by a crash with huge numbers of startups going bust. Between       2000 and 2002, more than $5 trillion was wiped off the value       of technology companies.   "},{"title":"Vladimir         Putin is elected president of Russia","year":"2000","text":"Vladimir       Putin rose to the presidency after the unexpected resignation of Boris       Yeltsin. He continued through with many of his same policies. Putin       began his presidency with an aggressive legal reform of the Russian       government. Among his first actions was to group the 89 federal subjects       (states of the Russian Federation) into seven federal districts, each       directly reporting to his office in order to facilitate his administration.Overall,       Putin worked to reorganise the government in a stricter and more vertically       structured manner. From this, he began to focus on domestic change,       beginning with a refinement of criminal, tax, and land law. He addressed       some of the more serious demographic trends in Russia – including its       high death rate, cyclical poverty and housing issues. During his two       terms, Russia made huge gains in purchasing power, saw GDP increase       six-fold and experienced rapid increases in industry and investment,       by 76% and 125% respectively. Poverty fell by 16% and a flat tax       rate was introduced.From       2000 to 2008, oil and natural gas more than doubled their share of       GDP. Despite these economic gains, inflation remained a problem, while       the gap between rich and poor continued to widen.In 2006,       Russia hosted the G8 Summit for the first time since joining the forum       in 1997. Throughout his presidency, Putin maintained a cool relationship       with the West, though often criticised foreign countries and their affairs,       notably the U.S. invasion of Iraq.Putin himself       was criticised for suppression of the media and his borderline fascist       policies. After his reelection, accusations were made that he suppressed       other political factions and reduced pluralism in Russian society. Many       in the West saw him as anti-democratic.       Credit: www.kremlin.ru  "},{"title":"Euro         2000 is hosted by Belgium and the Netherlands","year":"2000","text":"Consisting       of 31 matches played between 16 teams, this was the first UEFA European       football championship to be hosted by two countries. France defeated       Italy 2-1 in the final, becoming the tournament's eleventh victor.       Credit: Presidenza della Repubblica  "},{"title":"Concorde crashes in France, killing 113 people","year":"2000","text":"Air France       Flight 4590 was a Concorde flight from Charles de Gaulle International       Airport near Paris, France, travelling to JFK International Airport       in New York. On 25th July       2000 it crashed in Gonesse, France – killing all 100 passengers       and nine crew on board the flight, as well as four people on the ground. As a result         of this crash – together with the economic effects of 9/11 – the iconic aircraft was retired in 2003.   "},{"title":"Personal         home computers break the 1 gigahertz barrier","year":"2000","text":" During       2000, clock speeds in home PCs were undergoing their biggest ever rate of increase. Later in the decade, however, this race to produce ever more gigahertz was abandoned in favour of multi-core systems.             Credit: Ray Kurzweil, The Singularity is Near  "},{"title":"Sydney         hosts the Olympic Games","year":"2000","text":" This was       the second occasion that the Olympics were held in the Southern Hemisphere, the       first being in Melbourne in 1956. The United States won the most medals with 93, while Australia came in 4th with 58.       © David         Iliff | Dreamstime.com   "},{"title":"Wikipedia         is launched","year":"2001","text":"Wikipedia         is a free, web-based, collaborative, multilingual encyclopedia project.         Launched on  15th January 2001, it went on to become the largest         and by far the most popular general reference work on the Internet.         By 2011, more than 18 million articles (3.7 million in English) had         been written by volunteers from around the world.    "},{"title":"George   Bush is sworn in as the 43rd President of the United States","year":"2001","text":"Following   a controversial election result, former Texas governor George Bush was sworn in as U.S. President on 20th   January 2001. Though he originally outlined an ambitious domestic agenda,   his priorities were significantly altered following the terrorist attacks   of the same year. Wars were waged in Afghanistan and later Iraq while   significant debates regarding immigration, healthcare, Social Security,   economic policy, and treatment of terrorist detainees took place within   the US.Over an   eight year period, Bush's once-high approval ratings steadily declined, while his disapproval numbers increased significantly   over the same time frame. In 2007, the U.S. entered into   its longest post-World War II recession and the administration responded   by enacting multiple stimulus packages.   "},{"title":"Space   station Mir is deorbited","year":"2001","text":"The predecessor   to the International Space Station, the Russian-controlled Mir had been   in orbit since 1986. During that time, it  hosted astronauts and cosmonauts   from 12 different countries. The last crew left in 1999 and, despite   attempts by private companies to purchase it, the aging space station   was deemed unsalvageable. Mir was ditched in the Pacific Ocean near Fiji,   with a few large pieces later retrieved.    "},{"title":"The   world's first space tourist","year":"2001","text":"American   engineer and multimillionaire Dennis Tito became the world's first space   tourist in 2001. He spent nearly eight days on the International Space   Station, Soyuz TM-31 and  TM-32, orbiting the Earth a total of 128   times. Tito performed   several scientific experiments that he said would be useful for his   company and business. He paid a reported $20 million for his trip,   through an arrangement with space tourism company Space Adventures Ltd.    "},{"title":"A   devastating terrorist attack leaves 3,000 dead in America","year":"2001","text":"On September   11th, 2001, a series of coordinated suicide attacks took place in the   United States. On that day, 19 al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked four   commercial airliners. The hijackers intentionally crashed two of the   airliners into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City – killing everyone on board, along with many others working in the buildings.Both towers   – two of the tallest in the world at the time – collapsed within two   hours, destroying nearby buildings and heavily damaging others. The   hijackers crashed a third airliner into the Pentagon, just outside Washington,   D.C. The fourth plane crashed into a field near Shanksville in rural   Pennsylvania, after some of its passengers and crew attempted to retake   control of the plane, which the hijackers had redirected toward Washington,   D.C. There were no survivors from any of the flights. "},{"title":"The         Euro enters circulation","year":"2002","text":"The         euro was established by the provisions in the Maastricht Treaty of 1992.         To participate in the currency, Member States were required to meet         strict criteria, such as a budget deficit of less than 3% of GDP, a         debt ratio of less than 60% of GDP, low inflation, and interest rates         close to the EU average.The euro         was introduced to world financial markets as an accounting currency         on 1 January 1999, with Euro coins and banknotes entering circulation         on 1st January 2002. It became the second largest reserve currency         and the second most traded currency in the world after the U.S. dollar.The euro         became the sole currency of 17 EU Member States: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus,         Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg,         Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain. These         countries comprised the \"eurozone\"; some 330 million people         in total.   "},{"title":"Apple         introduces the iMac G4","year":"2002","text":"The         iMac G4 was produced by Apple from early 2002 to mid-2004.         It replaced the aging iMac G3. This computer         featured a radical new design with a 15\" LCD screen mounted on         an adjustable arm above a hemisphere containing a tray-loading       optical drive. CPU speeds ranged from 700 Mhz to 1.25 Ghz.   "},{"title":"The         world's first cyborg","year":"2002","text":"In         2002, cybernetics professor Kevin Warwick at the University of Reading,         UK, achieved a major breakthrough in the field of brain-computer interfaces (BCI).         This landmark project consisted of two experiments, both carried out         by Professor Warwick himself.The first         involved an array of 100 electrodes, implanted into his         arm. These were able to connect directly with his central nervous system         and send an electrical signal outside his body. Using this method,         Professor Warwick successfully manipulated a robotic hand, using nothing         but nerve impulses. Further experiments included long distance control         via the Internet, as well as the control of a powered wheelchair.The second         stage of the project was direct, artificial connectivity between two         humans. This too was successfully demonstrated. Using the Internet as         the go-between, signals were sent between him and his wife. Although         the effects were only small, it was the first time that nerve signals had         been sent artificially between two humans.* After the         experiment, it was proven that the interfaces left minimal         damage to tissue.       Credit: Robert         Skoble (CC BY 2.0)  "},{"title":"The dwarf planet         Quaoar is discovered","year":"2002","text":"Quaoar         is a binary, trans-Neptunian object and dwarf planet. It was discovered         in June 2002 by astronomers at the California Institute of Technology.         It orbits at 43 astronomical units (6.4×109 km; 4.0×109 mi) from the Sun with an orbital period of 286 years. It has a single         tiny moon called Weywot.   "},{"title":"The         deadliest act of terrorism in the history of Indonesia","year":"2002","text":"The Bali bombings occurred on 12th October 2002 in the tourist district         of Kuta on the Indonesian island of Bali. The attack was the deadliest         act of terrorism in the history of Indonesia, killing 202 people, 152         of whom were foreign nationals (including 88 Australians), and 38 Indonesian         citizens. A further 240 people were injured.The attack involved         the detonation of three bombs – a backpack-mounted device carried by         a suicide bomber; and a large car bomb, both of which were detonated in         or near popular nightclubs in Kuta; and a third much smaller device         detonated outside the U.S. consulate in Denpasar, the latter causing only         minor damage.Various members         of Jemaah Islamiyah, a violent Islamist group, were convicted in relation         to the bombings, including three individuals who were sentenced to death.       Credit: Dtobias (CC-BY-SA-3.0)    "},{"title":"Space         Shuttle Columbia disaster","year":"2003","text":"At         the conclusion of the STS-107 mission, the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated during reentry over Texas, killing all seven astronauts inside. The loss           of Columbia was a result of damage sustained during launch,           when a piece of foam insulation the size of a small briefcase broke           off the Space Shuttle external tank (the main propellant tank) under           the aerodynamic forces of launch. The debris struck the leading edge           of the left wing, damaging the Shuttle's thermal protection system,           which was unable to protect it from heat generated by the atmospheric           re-entry.   "},{"title":"The         invasion of Iraq","year":"2003","text":"The         invasion of Iraq was led by the United States, alongside the United         Kingdom and smaller contingents from other countries. The initial invasion         phase lasted from 20th March to 1st May and involved troops from the         US (248,000), UK (45,000), Australia (2,000) and Poland (194). 36 other         countries were involved in its aftermath.According         to then President of the United States, George Bush, and then Prime         Minister of the United Kingdom, Tony Blair, the reasons for the invasion         were \"to disarm Iraq of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), to end         Saddam Hussein's support for terrorism, and to free the Iraqi people.\"         According to Blair, the trigger was Iraq's failure to take a \"final         opportunity\" to disarm itself of nuclear, chemical and biological         weapons that US and UK officials called an immediate and intolerable         threat to world peace.Although         some remnants of pre-1991 production were found after the end of the         war, US government spokespersons confirmed that these were not the weapons         for which the US went to war. In 2005, the CIA released a report saying that no weapons of mass destruction had been         found in Iraq.In December         2007, the Iraqi government reported that there were 5 million orphans         in Iraq – nearly half of the country's children. According to the UN,         Iraq's health had deteriorated to a level not seen since the 1950s.         Malnutrition rates had risen from 19% before the US-led invasion to         a national average of 28% four years later. Some 60-70% of Iraqi children         were suffering from psychological problems. 68% of Iraqis had no access         to safe drinking water. A cholera outbreak in northern Iraq was thought         to be the result of poor water quality. As many as half of Iraqi doctors         left the country between 2003 and 2007.By 2010,         the lowest credible estimate of civilian casualties in both Iraq and         Afghanistan was around 850,000 – about 283 times as many than were killed         in the attacks of 9/11. Put another way: over 121 times as many people         had been killed in these wars and occupations than in all terrorist         attacks in the world from 1993-2004, according to data compiled by the         US State Department. Throughout         the entire Iraq War and occupation there were countless human rights         abuses. The financial         cost of the war had been more than $845 billion to the US, with the         total cost to the US economy estimated at $3 trillion.   "},{"title":"The         Human Genome Project is completed","year":"2003","text":"The         Human Genome Project was an international scientific effort         with a primary goal to determine the sequence of chemical base pairs         which make up DNA and to map the 20,000+ genes of the human genome from         both a physical and functional standpoint.The project began         in 1990. About halfway through, critics pointed out that given         the rate at which the genome could then be scanned, it would take hundreds of years to finish. However,         a working draft of the genome was released in 2000 and a complete one         in 2003. This was made possible thanks to exponential progress – like         many areas of science, information on the base pairs was actually doubling         every year and required only a few more doublings to reach 100%.In addition to nearly $1 trillion of economic returns,* the project         brings huge long-term benefits to the world of science and medicine.         Knowledge of the effects of variation of DNA among individuals can revolutionise         the ways to diagnose, treat and prevent a number of diseases that affect         human beings, as well as providing clues to the understanding of         biology as a whole.   "},{"title":"Record         heatwaves kill tens of thousands in Europe","year":"2003","text":"The         2003 European heat wave was among the hottest summers ever recorded         in Europe. It led to a health crisis in several countries and combined         with drought to produce a crop shortfall. Seven days with temperatures         of greater than 40°C (104 °F) were recorded in France. More than         37,000 died as a result, mostly the elderly.       Above: 2003 heatwave temperature variations in comparison         to normal temperatures in Europe.   "},{"title":"MySpace         is launched","year":"2003","text":"MySpace.com         was launched in August 2003 and quickly became one of the most popular         social networking sites on the web. In 2006, the 100 millionth account         was created. However, it was overtaken by its main competitor – Facebook – during April 2008, based on monthly unique visitors.   "},{"title":"China         launches its first manned space mission","year":"2003","text":"On         15th October 2003, China successfully placed its manned \"Shenzhou         5\" spacecraft in orbit. This followed four previous missions         of which three were unmanned and one carried animals. Shenzhou         5 carried         a single astronaut – Yang Liwei. It was launched from the Jiuquan Satellite         Launch Center in the Gobi Desert, using a Long March 2F rocket booster.Shenzhou         5 was made up of three components: a service module, orbital module         and reentry module. The orbital module spent 21 hours above the Earth,         reaching a maximum height of 336 km (209 mi). It contained various experimental         equipment and was left in space, along with the service module. The         reentry component returned to Earth after orbiting the planet 14 times.With this         mission, China became only the third country in the world to have independently         put humans in space. Following this success, two more manned         missions were launched, Shenzhou 6 in 2005 and Shenzhou 7 in 2008.         However, China still received some criticism for its expensive space         program, with some saying the money could have been better spent elsewhere.    "},{"title":"The         emergence of Web 2.0","year":"2004","text":"This         year onwards saw the emergence of Web 2.0 – the next generation of         the Internet. Until this point, it had been primarily a tool used to         publish material for public consumption. This could be defined as Web         1.0 and was simply a one-way street.Web 2.0,         however, was far more powerful and dynamic. It marked a transition from         pure consumption by users to active participation. A host of new features         and services were flourishing at this time. These included a focus on         user-orientated design, information sharing and collaboration. The Internet become a method of peer review and a new template for         social media.User-generated         content became widespread during this time, with the average person         finding it much easier to participate in what was becoming a true world         wide web. Some hallmarks of Web 2.0 included the emergence of blogs,         wikis, video sharing, hosted services, web applications and social networking.         Indeed, the changes occurring at this time were setting         the stage for what could be described as the first collective intelligence.         Broadband was also becoming cheaper and more widely available during         this time, surpassing the number of dialup connections in some countries.       Credit: Markus Angermeier/Luca Cremonini  "},{"title":"Graphene is isolated","year":"2004","text":"Graphene is one of the crystalline forms of carbon alongside diamond, graphite, carbon nanotubes and fullerenes. In this material, the carbon atoms are arranged in a regular hexagonal pattern. Graphene can be described as a one-atom thick layer of the layered mineral graphite. High-quality graphene is extremely strong (up to 300 times stronger than steel), light, nearly transparent and conducts electricity better than copper. Its interaction with other materials, as well as photons, and its inherently two-dimensional nature, produce unique properties.At the time of its isolation in 2004, researchers studying carbon nanotubes were already well familiar with the composition, structure and properties of graphene, which had been theorised decades earlier. A combination of familiarity, extraordinary properties and surprising ease of isolation enabled an explosion in graphene research. Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov, at the University of Manchester, won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2010 \"for ground-breaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene\".By 2013, over 7,000 patents had been issued for graphene worldwide. In this same year, the European Union announced a €1 billion euro ($1.37 billion) project involving researchers from 200 research institutes, intended to accelerate the knowledge of its properties and production techniques.*Often described as the \"wonder material of the 21st Century\" – as plastics were to the 20th – a number of revolutionary applications would later emerge. The development of lightweight, ultra-thin, flexible and more durable display screens; the replacement of silicon allowing Moore's Law to continue; highly efficient solar cells; cheaper and faster methods of desalinating water; various new medical, chemical and industrial processes would all become possible in subsequent decades.       Graphene, discovered in 2004. Credit: AlexanderAlUS (CC BY-SA 3.0)   "},{"title":"The         first recorded hurricane in the South Atlantic","year":"2004","text":"This         hurricane, known as Cyclone Catarina, formed off the coast of Brazil         in mid-March and began to move toward the coast. Despite being a relatively         low-level category one hurricane, the people in this region had never         experienced such a storm in all of recorded history.Upon making         landfall, Catarina damaged or destroyed over 40,000 homes and dealt         huge damage to the rice and banana crops in the area. Three people were         confirmed dead. The overall damage amounted to $350 million.Scientists         debated over the cause of such a rare formation, many attributing it         to climate change. Although the hurricane was never officially declared         a result of global warming, the consensus stated that it was the product         of highly unusual warm currents in the South Atlantic – an ominous sign.   "},{"title":"George         W. Bush is re-elected","year":"2004","text":"The         US presidential election of 2004 was the United States' 55th quadrennial         presidential election. It was held on Tuesday 2nd November 2004. Republican         Party candidate and incumbent President George W. Bush defeated Democratic         Party candidate John Kerry, the then-junior U.S. Senator from Massachusetts.         Foreign policy was the dominant theme throughout the election campaign,         particularly Bush's conduct of the War on Terrorism and the 2003 invasion         of Iraq.As in  the 2000 presidential election, voting controversies and concerns of  irregularities emerged during and after the vote. The winner was not determined  until the following day, when Kerry decided not to dispute Bush's win in the  state of Ohio.  The state held enough electoral votes to determine the winner of the  presidency. Both Kerry and Democratic National Committee Chairman Howard Dean  have stated their opinion that voting in Ohio  did not proceed fairly and that, had it done so, the Democratic ticket might  have won that state and therefore the election. However, there was far less  controversy about this election than in 2000.Only three states changed allegiance. New Mexico and Iowa  voted Democratic in 2000, but voted Republican in 2004. New Hampshire voted Republican in 2000 but  voted Democratic in 2004. In the Electoral College, Bush received 286 votes, and Kerry 251.   "},{"title":"Athens         hosts the Olympic Games","year":"2004","text":"This         was the first time since 1896 that the Olympics were held in Greece. The United States won the most medals with 101, while Greece came in 15th with a total of 16. Despite the success of the event, its high cost (€10 billion, or about $13.8 billion) contributed to the nation's economic crisis later in the decade.       © Georgios           Alexandris | Dreamstime.com  "},{"title":"Train bombings in Madrid kill nearly 200 people","year":"2004","text":"The 2004 Madrid train bombings were a series of coordinated bombings against the Cercanías (commuter train) system of Madrid, on the morning of 11th March 2004 (three days before Spain's general elections), killing 191 and wounding over 1,800. The official investigation by the Spanish Judiciary determined that the attacks were directed by a Muslim al-Qaeda-inspired terrorist cell, though no direct al-Qaeda participation (only \"inspiration\") was established. Nationwide         demonstrations and protests followed the attacks. Some analysts claimed         that the Aznar administration lost the elections as a result         of the handling and representation of the terrorist attacks, rather         than the bombings per se.       Flowers and messages left at the site of the 2004 Madrid train bombings. Credit: Jordiferrer (CC BY-SA 3.0)    "},{"title":"Hubble         Ultra Deep Field","year":"2004","text":"The         Hubble Ultra Deep Field was an image taken by the Hubble Space Telescope,         with an exposure time of a million seconds. It was the deepest image         of the universe ever taken by humans, looking back 13 billion         years to just a few hundred million years after the Big Bang.The HUDF         image was taken in a section of sky with a low density of bright stars         in the near-field, allowing much better viewing of dimmer, more distant         objects. It revealed an estimated 10,000 galaxies. Located southwest         of Orion in the southern hemisphere constellation Fornax, the image         covers 11.0 square arcminutes. This is just one-tenth the diameter of         the full moon as viewed from Earth, or smaller than a 1 mm by 1 mm square         of paper held 1 metre away, and equal to roughly one 13-millionth the total area of the sky. Click         to enlarge  "},{"title":"Mars         Exploration Rovers","year":"2004","text":"The         Mars Exploration Rover Mission (MER) was a NASA mission involving two         rovers – Spirit and Opportunity – exploring the surface of Mars. Their primary scientific         objective was to search for and characterise a wide range of rocks and         soils holding clues to past water activity. The mission was         part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program which included three previous         successful landers: two Viking landers in 1976 and Pathfinder         in 1997. The total         cost of building, launching, landing and operating the rovers for the         initial 90-Martian-day primary mission was $820 million. However,         the rovers continued to function substantially beyond their intended         lifespan and remained operational into the following decade. Click         to enlarge  "},{"title":"The         first privately-funded human spaceflight","year":"2004","text":"Flight         15P of SpaceShipOne became the first privately-funded human spaceflight and took place in June 2004. This was the fourth powered test flight of         the Tier One program, the previous three having reached         much lower altitudes. The flight carried only its pilot, Mike Melvill,         who thus became the first non-governmental astronaut.       Credit: Rokits XPrize gallery (CC BY-SA 1.0)   "},{"title":"Facebook         is launched","year":"2004","text":"Launched         in 2004, Facebook later became the most popular social networking site         on the web – overtaking its main competitor, MySpace, in April         2008. It also became the most popular site for sharing photos, with         14 million uploaded daily. By 2010, it had over 350 million members         – or about one-fifth of all users on the Internet.Facebook met with some controversy. It was blocked intermittently in         several countries including Syria, China, Vietnam and Iran. It was also banned at many places of work to discourage employees from wasting         time using the service. Privacy also became an issue and was compromised on many occasions.   "},{"title":"The world's         first 1 gigabyte SD card","year":"2004","text":"In         2004, SanDisk released the         first SD (Secure Digital) card with a capacity of 1 gigabyte.* Costing         about $500, this was enough to store 300 MP3 music files, or 2,000         images taken at 1,600 x 1,200-pixel resolution, or around nine hours         of MPEG4 video. SD card         capacities grew exponentially this decade – doubling each         year whilst declining rapidly in cost. By 2011, they were available at 128GB.   "},{"title":"London's         skyline gets a new landmark","year":"2004","text":"30         St Mary Axe – known as the \"Gherkin\" and the Swiss         Re Building – was constructed between 2001 and 2003, officially         opening in April 2004. At 180m (590 ft) tall, it became the second tallest tower in the City of London.         Designed by architects Norman Foster and Ken Shuttleworth, it radically         altered the skyline of London and symbolised the start of a high-rise         construction boom in the city.The tower         was praised for its strong environmental credentials. Natural light was able to reach the very         core of the building – thanks to cutaway \"lightwells\"         behind the façade, angled progressively on each floor. Occupants         were given 360º views of the outside world, preventing \"sick building         syndrome\", which can be a major cause of discomfort to office workers.         Light and movement sensors could control artificial lighting when needed.Meanwhile, the building’s         aerodynamic form encouraged wind to flow around its face, minimising         wind loads on the structure and cladding, enabling the use of a more         efficient structure. Wind was not deflected to ground level – as         with rectilinear buildings – helping to maintain pedestrian comfort         and safety at the base of the building.Natural         air movement around the building, generating substantial pressure differences         across its face, could be used to facilitate natural ventilation         within the building. In other words, the building could actually \"breathe\"         by drawing in fresh air from outside, through the space formed between         its double-skin glass cladding and circulating throughout its 40 storeys,         once again saving huge amounts of energy consumption.As a final         touch, the building lacked parking spaces, except for disabled access.         This was to encourage the use of public transport and bicycles, rather than         cars.       © Simon           Gurney | Dreamstime.com  "},{"title":"Asia         gets a new tallest building","year":"2004","text":"Measuring         509m (1,671 ft) to the tip of its spire, Taipei 101 overtook the Petronas         Towers to become the tallest building in the world. It was the first         skyscraper to break the half-kilometre mark.       © Michael           Chien | Dreamstime.com  "},{"title":"Indian         Ocean earthquake leaves 230,000 dead","year":"2004","text":"The         2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was an undersea megathrust earthquake          occurring on 26th December 2004, with an epicentre off the west coast         of Sumatra, Indonesia.Caused by subduction,         it triggered a series of devastating tsunamis along coasts bordering         the Indian Ocean, inundating towns and cities with waves up to 30 metre         (100 feet) high. Nearly 230,000 people in 14 countries were killed         and over 1.7 million displaced. It was among the deadliest natural disasters         in recorded history. Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India and Thailand were the         hardest hit.With a magnitude         of 9.3, it was the second largest earthquake ever recorded on a seismograph.         The earthquake had the longest duration of faulting ever observed,         between 8.3 and 10 minutes. It caused the entire planet to vibrate as         much as 1 cm (0.4 inches) and triggered other earthquakes as far away         as Alaska.The plight         of the many affected people and countries prompted a widespread humanitarian         response. In all, the worldwide community donated more than $7 billion         (2004 U.S. dollars) in aid.       Credit: Cantus (CC BY-SA 3.0)    "},{"title":"Huygens probe reveals images of Titan's surface","year":"2005","text":"The         Huygens probe, supplied by the European Space Agency (ESA) and named         after the Dutch 17th century astronomer Christiaan Huygens, was an atmospheric         entry probe carried to Saturn's moon Titan as part of the Cassini-Huygens         mission. The combined Cassini-Huygens spacecraft was launched from Earth         in 1997.Huygens         separated from the Cassini orbiter on 25th December 2004 and landed         on Titan on 14th January 2005, near the Xanadu region. It touched down         on land, although the possibility that it would touch down in an ocean         was also taken into account during its design. The probe         continued to send data for about 90 minutes after reaching the surface.   "},{"title":"YouTube         is launched","year":"2005","text":"The         video-sharing website, YouTube.com, was launched in February 2005. It grew         rapidly, reaching 100 million views per day within a year of being launched.         By 2007, the site consumed as much bandwidth as the entire Internet         in 2000 – and in March 2008, its bandwidth costs were estimated at $1 million a day. By 2009, the site had reached over a billion views         daily and become the 4th most popular site after Google, Yahoo! and         Facebook.YouTube's         social impact was considerable. Before its launch in 2005, there were         few easy methods available for computer users wanting to post videos         online. With its simple interface, YouTube made it possible for anyone         with a connection to post a video that a worldwide audience         could watch within minutes. The wide range of topics covered by YouTube         turned video sharing into one of the most important aspects of Internet         culture.YouTube         popularised many trends outside the Internet, created Internet         celebrities, and promoted democracy and debate around the globe. It         even played a role in the 2008 US presidential election. However,         the site proved controversial in some nations, with governments blocking         access. It also received criticism for failing to ensure copyright protection.   "},{"title":"Deep Impact collides its impactor device with comet 9P/Tempel","year":"2005","text":"Deep         Impact was a NASA-operated spacecraft designed to study the interior         composition of comets. It was comprised of two sections. The larger was         a flyby component with imaging devices, an infrared         spectrometer, and cameras with both high and medium resolution. The impactor was         the second piece, weighing in at around 370 kg (771 lb) and containing         only a targeting sensor, the rest being mostly copper alloy.The mission         was to launch the impactor from the flyby module and position it to         collide with comet 9P/Tempel. The flyby module would then study         the composition of the ejected material, as well as the internal structure         of the comet, visible through the resultant crater. This plan proved         successful, with the impactor hitting the comet with a force equivalent to 4.7         tons of TNT.Many questions         regarding these celestial bodies were answered as a result of the mission.         The entire project from launch to collision gained considerable media         attention which, thanks to its wealth of useful data,         led NASA to consider Deep Impact one of its greatest modern         successes. The flyby module was later put on an extended mission to         study other comets of the inner Solar System.       "},{"title":"Crude         oil production is reaching a plateau","year":"2006","text":"In 2006 – according to the International Energy Agency* – conventional         crude oil production reached a plateau. This appeared to confirm what many had long suspected and feared: that the driver           of humanity's progress for the last 150 years was now finally being           exhausted.* There were major issues           the IEA's report failed to address, such as where the crude oil for the next           25 years was expected to be discovered (to even maintain a plateau), the energy return on energy invested, the quality of energy from newly developed           fields, the likely recession from higher prices, the political sensitivity           of remaining reserves, and much more.*By 2008, a combination of the falling U.S. dollar, Middle East tension, peak oil concerns and price speculation had led to a massive spike in the price of conventional crude oil. From only $30/barrel in 2003, it rose to $147/barrel in July 2008, contributing in part to the global financial crisis of that year.Crude oil production began to recover in 2009, but at a slower rate than in earlier decades.* A revolutionary uprising in the Middle East – the Arab Spring of 2011 – added         further uncertainty over  supplies.               Global oil production as reported by the International Energy Agency         (IEA)  "},{"title":"Twitter         is launched","year":"2006","text":"Twitter.com was launched in July 2006. This new method of social networking and micro-blogging         grew rapidly. Within a few years, it was comparable with         Facebook in terms of prominence. Many celebrities were using it         to keep in touch with fans, while news outlets and businesses could give instant updates to followers. By 2012, Twitter had 500         million users, was generating 340 million \"tweets\" a day and         handling 1.6 billion searches.   "},{"title":"Pluto         is demoted to \"dwarf planet\" status","year":"2006","text":"From         its discovery in 1930 until 2006, Pluto was considered the Solar System's         ninth planet. In the late 1970s, following the discovery of minor planet         2060 Chiron and the recognition of Pluto's very low mass, its status         as a major planet began to be questioned. Later, in the 21st century,         many objects similar to Pluto were discovered in the outer Solar System,         notably the scattered disc object Eris, which is 27% more massive than         Pluto.In August 2006, the International Astronomical Union defined the term \"planet\"         for the first time. This definition excluded Pluto, instead adding it         as a member of a new category – \"dwarf planet\" – along         with Eris and Ceres. After the reclassification, Pluto was added to         the list of minor planets and given the number 134340. A number of scientists         continued to hold that Pluto should be classified as a planet.       Size comparison of Pluto and Earth.  "},{"title":"North         Korea conducts its first nuclear test","year":"2006","text":"North         Korea announced its intention to conduct a test on 3rd October, six         days prior, and in doing so became the first nation to give warning         of its first nuclear test. The blast was estimated to have an explosive         force of less than one kiloton, and some radioactive output was detected.An official at the North Korean Embassy in Beijing told a South Korean         newspaper that the explosive output was smaller than expected. Due to North Korea's secretive nature and the small yield of the test,         there were questions as to whether it was an unusually small successful         test, or simply a dud.In any         case, international condemnation of this test was almost unanimous – including from North Korea's ally, the People's Republic of China.         On 14th October 2006, the UN Security Council unanimously approved military         and economic sanctions.   "},{"title":"The         West African black rhino is declared extinct","year":"2006","text":"At         the start of the 21st century, there were four subspecies of black rhino.         In 2006, the World Conservation Union announced that one of the         four subspecies, the West African Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis           longipe), had been tentatively declared extinct. Despite an exhaustive         survey across Africa, none could be found, and there were none being         held in captivity anywhere. The remaining three subspecies were         critically endangered.   "},{"title":"Saddam         Hussein is executed","year":"2006","text":"The         execution of Saddam Hussein took place on 30th December 2006. He was         sentenced to death by hanging, after being found guilty of crimes against         humanity by the Iraqi Special Tribunal for the murder of 148 Iraqi Shi'ites         in the town of Dujail in 1982, in retaliation for an assassination attempt         against him.Saddam         Hussein was President of Iraq from 1979 until 2003, when he was deposed         during the invasion of Iraq by a U.S.-led Allied Coalition. After his         capture in ad-Dawr, near his hometown of Tikrit, he was incarcerated         at Camp Cropper. On 5th November 2006, he was sentenced to death by         hanging.On 30th         December, he was taken to the prison to be executed. The Iraqi government         released an official videotape of the execution, showing him being led         to the gallows, and ending after his head was in the hangman's noose.         International public controversy arose when an unauthorised cellphone         recording showed him falling through the trapdoor of the gallows. The         audio – which was not in the official video – revealed taunts between         Saddam and his executioners, many of whom were supporters of         Muqtada Al-Sadr. The unprofessional and undignified atmosphere of the         execution drew criticism from nations around the world.On 31st         December 2006, Saddam Hussein's body was returned to his birthplace         of Al-Awja, near Tikrit, and was buried near the graves of other family         members.    "},{"title":"Global         economic downturn","year":"2007","text":"In 2007, the world experienced the biggest financial crisis since         the Great Depression. Former chairman of the Federal Reserve, Alan Greenspan,         called it a \"once-in-a-century type of event\". This global         downturn was caused by a number of factors.Primarily,         it was the result of a Wild West casino mentality which had characterised banking in recent years, combined with a lack of         regulation. Merchant bankers – keen to make a fast buck – had realised         there were vast numbers of poor Americans who had been refused loans         because they wouldn't be able to pay them back. Motivated by short term         gains, they employed predatory mortgage lenders to offer these people         the chance to own their first home. Inevitably, this led to millions         of poor Americans now owning homes they could not afford. Bankers         then bundled these mortgages together with more secure loans,         before selling them on to other banks, who sold them onto other financial         institutions, and so on. The bankers then received enormous bonuses         for the commission and fees they generated.This \"sub         prime\" market was a time bomb waiting to go off. As interest rates         rose, millions of Americans began defaulting on repayments. Loans         which had originated from them were suddenly shown to be worthless –         but it was already too late, as trillions of dollars' worth had spread         throughout the system. With banks afraid to lend to each other – and         not knowing the extent of each others' exposure – the outcome was a collapse         on an unprecedented scale, with a liquidity crisis almost unparalleled         in history. Some of the largest banks in the world, including Lehman         Brothers and Bear Sterns, fell into administration. Mortgage giants         Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac were nationalised. Even the likes of AIG         and Citigroup had to be rescued.The other         major factor was simply the greed of consumers         and their desire for instant gratification. In addition to buying homes         they couldn't afford, credit cards and loans were used on spending binges for personal items, holidays and other products they didn't particularly need. Personal         debt levels soared, leading to         a massive rise in bankruptcies and foreclosures, triggering a worldwide         recession.       "},{"title":"Dmitry         Medvedev is elected president of Russia","year":"2008","text":"Medvedev         took office during the 2008 financial crisis. He immediately set about         shifting federal funds to the market sector to stabilise the situation,         and also created new legislation concerning the government's control         over economic activities. Medvedev's vision of the economy was one focused         on technologies and innovation, while reducing the economy's dependence         on oil and gas revenues.Another         of his key policies was the fight against corruption, which he worked         towards with new laws concerning governmental self-awareness. One of         Medvedev's first moves in office was to appoint former president Putin as Prime Minister. Putin's extreme influence and high popularity         caused some to speculate about a \"tandem rule,\" with Medvedev         and Putin in a duel-headed executive position.According         to a poll conducted in September 2009 by the Levada Center, in which         1,600 people from across Russia took part, 13% believed Medvedev held         the most power, 32% Putin and 48% both (7% failed to answer). However,         Medvedev affirmed his position of strength, stating, \"I am the         leader of this state, I am the head of this state, and the division         of power is based on this.\"       Credit: www.kremlin.ru  "},{"title":"Cyclone         Nargis devastates Burma","year":"2008","text":"Nargis         was a strong tropical cyclone that caused the worst natural disaster         in Burma's history. After forming in the North Indian Ocean it         moved quickly towards the coast. Upon making landfall it caused massive         destruction, with peak wind speeds of 135 mph (215 km/h), making it         a category 4 on the Saffir–Simpson Scale. It continued inland         for over a day before dissipating.Although         international aid was immediately offered, the unstable political conditions         made relief efforts difficult. The Burmese military regime initially         resisted foreign intervention, and afterwards continued to hamper efforts         to import food and medical supplies.The damage         done was estimated at over $10 billion. The official death toll         was set at 138,366, but the actual number could have been         much higher, the government likely having minimised it to reduce political         fallout. Whatever the actual number, Cyclone Nargis was among the         deadliest natural disasters in human history.   "},{"title":"Oil         prices hit a record high","year":"2008","text":"In         July 2008, oil prices rose to a record high of $147 a barrel following         concern over recent Iranian missile tests. However, prices declined         to just $33 a barrel in December, less than a quarter of the peak price         reached four months earlier. A strong contributor to this decline was         the drop in demand for oil in the USA, as well as the global equities         slide.   "},{"title":"The         Internet continues to boom","year":"2008","text":"Despite         the ongoing financial crisis, the Internet continued to grow at a phenomenal         pace. By 2008, Google had processed over 1,000,000,000,000 (one trillion)         unique URLs, whilst the number of individual web pages was growing by         several billion per day and the number of individual users         had reached 1.5 billion.The Internet         could now be accessed virtually anywhere, by numerous means. Mobile         phones, smartphones, datacards, laptops, handheld games consoles and         cellular routers allowed users to connect to the Internet from anywhere         that had a cellular network supporting that device's technology. Broadband         was becoming ubiquitous.Recent         trends included the rise of social networking sites (such as Facebook),         social bookmarking (such as Digg) and a huge increase in blogging,         micro-blogging, wiki sites, music downloads, video sharing and podcasts.Online         gaming was now becoming immensely popular. It was no longer a niche         market, but very much part of mainstream entertainment – with some games         generating more revenue than blockbuster movies. Users could participate         in highly realistic battle simulations (such as the Call of Duty series), racing games, or MMORPGs (Massively Multiplayer Online Role         Playing Games) such as World of Warcraft; or they could explore         and interact with entire virtual worlds (as in Second Life)         and engage in the trading of virtual goods and services.Many traditional         high street retailers – especially those dealing in purely digital products         such as games, DVDs or music CDs – were now finding themselves increasingly         outmoded by online retailers who offered greater speed, convenience         and cost savings.   "},{"title":"Scientists         extract images directly from the brain","year":"2008","text":"In         a major scientific breakthrough, a Japanese company developed a way         of analysing electrical signals sent from the visual cortex and converting         them to digital images on screen. In one           of the experiments, test subjects were shown the six letters in the           word \"neuron\". The computer successfully reconstructed the           word on screen by measuring their brain activity.*   "},{"title":"Breakthrough in facial CGI","year":"2008","text":"In 2008, new         modelling technology was pioneered by California-based  Image Metrics, enabling the most minute details of facial expressions to be captured         and recreated. Overcoming a barrier known as the 'uncanny         valley' – the perception that animation looks less realistic as         it approaches human likeness – could now be seen as a realistic possibility. An example of this technology is demonstrated in the video below, which shows an entirely         computer-generated woman called \"Emily\". With further advances, the line between what appears real and what is merely rendered will         blur completely by 2020.*       "},{"title":"Barack         Obama is sworn in as 44th president of the USA","year":"2009","text":"Barack         Obama was inaugurated the 44th president of the U.S. in         January 2009, becoming the first African American to hold office.         His immediate actions were focused on the financial crisis plaguing         the country. He subsequently introduced several economic stimulus packages, with billions upon billions of dollars being spent in an effort to reinvigorate         the financial system and free up credit. A country-wide cleanup of the         banking system, with the aim of removing any toxic bank assets or loans,         was soon begun.Another         issue which became a prime focus of Obama's presidency was the failing         auto industry. The government issued financial aid to automotive giants         General Motors and Chrysler, with GM becoming partly controlled by the         federal government. During this time, the U.S. was going though a period         of high unemployment. Obama quickly began to put resources toward job         creation. Unemployment rates peaked in late 2009 and then slowly began         to trend downwards. Moderate rates of GDP growth and economic expansion         were experienced in the first years of Obama's term.He also         began several rigorous reforms to the social infrastructure of the U.S.         The most prominent of these was the trillion dollar health reforms.         These changes were made to stem the unending growth in healthcare spending         and to address issues with health insurance and access to care.         These reforms garnered considerable criticism. Many viewed them as a         sign of government over-spending, while others questioned how much the         healthcare system would actually benefit from the bills.Obama began         to pull troops out of Iraq between 2009 and 2010, while transitioning         those who remained from combat roles to counter-terrorism and the training         of Iraqi security forces. However, he continued to bolster the U.S.         military presence in Afghanistan. During the first years of his presidency,         Obama saw his approval ratings steadily decline, though he remained         popular in foreign countries. His ratings increased slightly         in May 2011 when he authorised a raid in Pakistan, conducted by US Navy         SEALs, which led to the death of Osama bin Laden.   "},{"title":"Major         breakthrough in cancer research","year":"2009","text":"In 2009,         a major landmark in medicine was achieved, as the complete genetic codes         for skin and lung cancer were identified. Every possible mutation turning healthy cells cancerous was fully catalogued, paving the way for drug targets that could lead to possible cures         in the not-too-distant future. Blood tests to spot tumours would also         be possible at far earlier stages. The genetic         code for other types of cancer would soon be catalogued too: the USA         began looking at cancers of the brain, the ovary and pancreas; the UK was looking         at breast cancer; Japan was studying the liver; China the stomach; and         India the mouth.*   "},{"title":"The         mouse genome is fully sequenced","year":"2009","text":"In 2009, after a         10-year effort, scientists  finished mapping the entire mouse genome.* This came six years after completion of the Human Genome Project. Given the prevalence of mice in laboratory experiments, it was hoped this could strengthen our understanding         and treatment of diseases.   "},{"title":"Scientists         engineer new plastics without the use of fossil fuels","year":"2009","text":"In 2009, researchers         in South Korea  developed a one-step production process for creating everyday         plastics through bioengineering, rather than fossil fuel-based chemicals.* Prior to this point, almost         all plastics were heavily reliant on oil, an increasingly limited         resource. These new plastics were also shown to be more environmentally friendly, biodegradable and low         in toxicity.    "},{"title":"Water         is discovered on the Moon","year":"2009","text":"Lunar         Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) was the first U.S.         mission to the Moon in over 10 years. It was designed to relay data         from the impact and debris plume resulting from the vehicle's upper         stage, Centaur, hitting a large crater near the Moon's south pole. The probe         impacted successfully, with a velocity of about 10,000 km/h (6,200 mph).         The plume of debris thrown up by the craft revealed significant amounts         of water ice – perhaps enough to supply drinking water to future colonists,         as well as hydrogen for rocket fuel.*       Credits: ISRO/NASA/JPL-Caltech/USGS/Brown         Univ.   "},{"title":"Kepler searches for Earth-like planets","year":"2009","text":"In March 2009, the Kepler space telescope was launched by NASA. It became the first         instrument capable of finding Earth-sized and smaller extrasolar planets. It was designed to observe         the brightness of about 145,000 stars to detect periodical         transits by planets. The mission had been hoped to work perfectly until 2016, but suffered a major setback in 2013 when the spacecraft's reaction wheels failed. Nevertheless, Kepler continued to return a wealth of data, with 134 confirmed exoplanets in 76 stellar systems, along with a further 3,277 unconfirmed planet candidates.*    "},{"title":"Discovery         of the first exoplanet that could hold liquid water","year":"2009","text":"In          2009, astronomers at the Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory in Arizona discovered the exoplanet GJ 1214 b – a \"super-Earth\"         orbiting a red dwarf star around 40 light years away. This         was the first planet outside our own Solar System with the possibility         of holding liquid water. Although direct confirmation was lacking,         the planet was strongly theorised to have a thick, hydrogen-rich atmosphere,         likely composed of water-vapor. Some scientists proposed that it could         in fact be covered in oceans, comparable to a heated-up Europa, only         on a scale much larger than Earth. This discovery increased the probability         of alien life elsewhere in the universe.*       Size comparison of Earth (left), GJ 1214 b (centre)         and Neptune (right). Credit: Aldaron (CC BY-SA 3.0)  "},{"title":"Mercury         is 98% mapped","year":"2009","text":"The MESSENGER probe, launched by NASA in 2004, completed a third and final flyby of Mercury in 2009 – mapping 98% of its surface including the previously unseen         far side. It also revealed higher than expected amounts of heavy metals         such as iron and titanium, forcing scientists to rethink how the small         planet evolved. Data also revealed changing \"seasons\" on the planet, in         the form of varying chemical compositions in Mercury's tenuous atmosphere.*   "},{"title":"Mind         control headsets enter the video games market","year":"2009","text":"In 2009, a company called Emotiv  released a headset         allowing users to control  games from  brain waves         alone. Sensors on the headset could         detect neuroelectrical patterns in the wearer's head, and these         were converted into actions on screen.*       Credit: Emotiv  "},{"title":"3D         scanning enters the consumer market","year":"2009","text":"For many years, 3D scanning had been available for use in         design visualisation, CAD/prototyping, architecture, engineering, movie         production, healthcare, etc. Other applications had included reconstructing fossils in paleontology, replicating ancient         and priceless artifacts in archaeology, reconstructing bones and body         parts in forensic pathology, and reconstructing heavily damaged evidence         acquired from crime scene investigations.A significant barrier to 3D scanning had been the expense, bulkiness and inconvenience of traditional equipment. This made it difficult         – if not impossible – for small businesses and hobbyists to have access         to such technology. In 2009, however, a new generation of smaller, cheaper and more portable devices emerged. One such           company driving this change was David Vision Systems, which unveiled a pocket-sized           3D laser scanner.* This could be used           in combination with a simple webcam and background setup, to capture           an endless variety of 3D objects (including the user's own face), for           use in home videos, animations, video games and other virtual environments. Scanned objects could also be used in combination with 3D printing to physically reproduce items.               Credit: David           Vision Systems  "},{"title":"The         tallest man-made structure in history is completed","year":"2009","text":"With 163         floors, rising to a height of 828m (2,717 ft), the Burj Khalifa became the tallest structure ever built, shattering         all previous records and setting a new benchmark for skyscrapers. The decision         to build the tower was based on the UAE government's aim to diversify         from a trade-based economy to one that was service- and tourism-orientated.         According to officials, it was necessary for projects like this to be         built in the city to garner more international recognition, and hence         more investment.Construction         of the tower aroused controversy, with         many site workers being low-paid immigrants, some earning         less than US$5 per day. Scores of new office towers, hotels and luxury resorts were being built all over Dubai during this period, making         it one of the fastest growing cities in the world. As well as the         Burj Khalifa, some of these megaprojects included         the Palm         Islands – a series of enormous artificial islands on which major         commercial and residential infrastructure was being built.         "},{"title":"Africa's         population reaches one billion","year":"2009","text":"In just 27 years, from 1982 to 2009, the African continent’s         population had doubled. It was forecast to double again by         the 2050s. Among the main reasons for this explosive growth had been a lack         of access to education, contraception and family planning centres.       © Timurk | Dreamstime.com   "},{"title":"Haiti         is struck by a devastating earthquake","year":"2010","text":" On 12th         January 2010, a magnitude 7 quake took place in Haiti, devastating the         nation's capital, Port-au-Prince. With a death toll of 222,000,         it was among the deadliest earthquakes on record.* Many landmark buildings were destroyed or  heavily damaged including         the Presidential Palace, National Assembly building, Port-au-Prince         Cathedral and the main prison. Those killed included the Archbishop Joseph         Serge Miot and opposition leader, Micha Gaillard. The headquarters         of the UN Stabilisation Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) collapsed, killing         many including the Mission's Chief, Hédi Annabi.Port-au-Prince's         morgues were quickly overwhelmed, with many tens of thousands of bodies         having to be buried in mass graves. As rescues tailed off, supplies,         medical care and sanitation became priorities. Delays in aid distribution         led to angry appeals from survivors, with looting and         sporadic violence. On 22nd         January, the UN noted that the emergency phase of the relief operation         was drawing to a close, and on the following day the Haitian government         officially called off the search for survivors.   "},{"title":"The         longest solar eclipse of the 3rd millennium occurs","year":"2010","text":"On 15th         January 2010, a solar eclipse took place across the Indian Ocean. With a duration of 11 minutes and eight seconds, it was the         longest eclipse of this millennium. It first became visible as a partial eclipse over Central Africa,         before entering the Indian Ocean, where it reached greatest eclipse.         It then passed over the Maldives, remaining at totality when passing         over the capital city, Malé. The path continued         over India and into Myanmar, finally ending after reaching China. The         next eclipse of a longer duration would not occur until December 3034.   "},{"title":"Apple         debuts the iPad","year":"2010","text":"The         iPad was Apple's first tablet computer – a device category between a         smartphone and laptop computer. Similar in functionality to a larger         and more powerful iPhone or iPod touch, it ran a modified version of         the same operating system (iPhone OS). Its applications were         also redesigned to take advantage of the larger screen with added functionality         similar to their Mac OS X counterparts.The iPad         featured a 9.7-inch (25 cm) LED backlit multi-touch display with resolution of 1024 x 768, 16 to 64 GB of flash memory, a 1-gigahertz         (GHz) Apple A4 processor, Bluetooth 2.1, and a dock connector to sync         with iTunes and connect wired accessories. "},{"title":"British   forces withdraw from Afghanistan","year":"2011-2014","text":"The         British Armed Forces played a major role in the Afghanistan         War, second only to the         U.S. in terms of troop numbers. Between         2001 and 2010, over 325 British forces personnel and MOD civilians were         killed, exceeding the death toll of the Falklands War, with some 4,000         injured. A phased withdrawal began from 2011, with a gradual transition of districts         and provinces which saw Afghan forces slowly taking over the security operations. The last remaining British troops would be gone by 2014.*  "},{"title":"Japan         is devastated by a 9.0 magnitude earthquake and tsunami","year":"2011","text":"On         11th March 2011, a 9.0-magnitude quake and subsequent tsunami hit the         east of Japan, killing nearly 16,000 and leaving another 2,600 missing.         Tsunami warnings were issued in 50 nations and territories, while         emergencies were declared at four nuclear power plants.The earthquake was the most powerful ever known to hit Japan, and among the         five most powerful in the world since modern record-keeping began in         1900. It triggered extremely destructive tsunami waves, in some         cases travelling up to 10 km (6 mi) inland. The earthquake moved the         entire Honshu region 2.4 m (8 ft) east and shifted the Earth on its         axis by 10 cm (4 in).As well         as loss of life and destruction of infrastructure, the tsunami caused         several nuclear incidents. By far the most serious was a level 7         event and 20 km (12 mi) evacuation zone around the Fukushima I Plant.         This became the worst nuclear disaster since Chernobyl.*The overall         cost exceeded $300 bn, making it the most expensive natural disaster         on record. Over 125,000 buildings were damaged or destroyed, while heavy         damage was inflicted on roads and rail routes. 4.4 million households         in northeastern Japan were left without electricity and 1.5 million without         water.Japanese         Prime Minister Naoto Kan said, \"In the 65 years after the end of         World War II, this is the toughest and the most difficult crisis for         Japan.\" The Bank of Japan offered ¥15 trillion (US$183 bn)         to the banking system in an effort to normalise market conditions.       2011: Japan       earthquake and tsunami | Credit: US       Navy  "},{"title":"The         death of Osama bin Laden","year":"2011","text":"Following         the attacks of September 11th – which he had largely masterminded – Osama         bin Laden became the most internationally hunted fugitive in history.         Aside from occasional videos of him living in unidentifiable wilderness locations,         he essentially vanished off the radar. After  a decade of false         leads and high body counts, many began to think the search was hopeless.During         this time, however, the CIA had been working to identify any possible         couriers of bin Laden, and, in 2007, one was positively identified and         then tracked. In 2010, a wire-tapped conversation between the courier         – commonly referred to as Abu Ahmed al-Kuwaiti, and another man – helped         the CIA to deduce the precise location of bin Laden's compound, which was in Abbottabad, Pakistan.After several         months of gathering intelligence, it was decided that a mission could         be carried out to either capture or kill bin Laden. Operation Neptune         Spear was conducted on 2nd May 2011 by a team of 79 Navy SEAL commandos         after the go-ahead was given by Barack Obama. A complex raid on the         compound was carried out with SEALs approaching from all sides and         from a helicopter hovering above the roof. The team was met with some         resistance, but overcame the al-Qaeda operatives defending the building.         After four others were killed (including the courier), the SEAL team         discovered bin-Laden inside the house in his sleeping quarters. After         a short confrontation, he was shot once in the chest and again above         the eye.No American         operatives were killed in the raid, but a helicopter was crashed and         had to be destroyed in order to cover up top secret flight technology. Several         hours later, the news of bin-Laden's death was announced publicly. The         event was heralded around the world as a major blow to al-Qaeda and         one of the most important events of the decade. In America, the public         reaction was extremely positive, with parties and parades actually being         held. This behavior raised eyebrows from other nations however. Some         also questioned the actual impact bin-Laden's death would have on terrorism         and whether the SEALs were right in killing him.Conspiracy         theories regarding the operation quickly sprung up, while the American-Pakistani         relationship came under stress, as many Americans doubted Pakistan's         supposed ignorance of bin-Laden's location. Meanwhile, Osama bin Laden's         body was taken by American forces and buried at sea within 24 hours,         in accordance with Muslim tradition.       Aerial view of Osama bin Laden's compound in the Pakistani       city of Abbottabad made by the CIA.  "},{"title":"Worsening         economic crisis in Greece","year":"2011","text":"For         years, the successive governments of Greece had spent money         they didn't have. These governments took advantage of the good economic         times in the early 2000s to borrow and spend at a greater rate than         taxes were being collected. As a result, the country ran up a massive       deficit, reaching an estimated 13.6% by 2010.*Being part         of the eurozone, this level of deficit spending was outside the EU's         economic regulations. In order to deal with it, Greece continually misreported         its official financial statistics. In fact, the government actually         paid hundreds of millions of dollars to banks such as Goldman Sachs,         specifically to have them initiate baseless financial transactions that       would hide the true level of spending and debt.*These factors made Greece extremely vulnerable to a financial crisis         – such as the major recession which struck the world in 2007. Subsequent         reductions in Greece's tourism and shipping industries stressed its         economy to near break-point. By 2009, the country had begun to collapse         under its crushing debts, which had grown 20% larger than the entire         economy and were now estimated at over US$410 billion. The banks Greece         had borrowed money from were only making the problem worse. In order to hide         the fact that Greece could soon go bankrupt, they were now charging the nation higher rates when it tried to borrow more.By 2010, Greece was forced to         ask for outside assistance, revealing the true levels of spending and deficit         that had accumulated. As a result, it was downgraded         to the lowest credit rating in the eurozone. This made it difficult         for the government to receive outside help, with investors viewing the         country as a financial black hole. The EU allowed Greece to borrow from         other European countries as well as the International Monetary Fund (IMF),         in what became the largest bailout package in recent history. In return,         Greece was forced to drastically cut back its spending. Government corruption,         large increases in taxes, and cuts to public social programs resulted       in widespread civil unrest during 2011.*       Credit: Philly boy92 (CC BY-SA 3.0)  "},{"title":"The         world's first synthetic organ transplant","year":"2011","text":"In         June 2011, surgeons in Sweden carried out the world's first synthetic         organ transplant.* A 36 year old man, suffering         from terminal cancer of the trachea, received a completely new replacement         windpipe. This was achieved with a nanotechnology scaffold made from spongy, flexible polymer and seeded with his own stem cells         in a bioreactor. The         scaffold was based on 3D scans moulded to the exact dimensions of his         trachea. The cells were grown on the scaffold for just two days before         transplantation into the patient. Since the cells used to regenerate         the trachea were the patient's own, there was no chance of rejection       by his immune system.This was a major breakthrough         in regenerative medicine. Future transplants using this method had the potential to be faster, more efficient and more accessible – requiring no human donation, taking just two days and being customised for a perfect fit. It could particularly benefit         children, for whom trachea donors are less available compared to         adults.Other recent progress in this area of science includes tooth regeneration, synthetic         arteries and the growing of thigh muscles and fingertips. In the 2020s,         more complex organs and body parts will be grown, such as hearts.         Later in the 21st century, entire synthetic humans will become a reality         (though not without controversy).       Credit: Harvard Bioscience  "},{"title":"South         Sudan becomes an independent nation","year":"2011","text":"Following         decades of conflict with the north – in which 1.5 million people died         – South Sudan in 2011 seceded from Sudan, becoming the 193rd country recognised       by the UN and the 54th member state in Africa.*A referendum         was held from 9–15th January 2011. The results released on 30th         January were that 98.8% had voted for independence. This led to formal         independence on 9th July, although certain disputes still remained such         as the sharing of oil revenues. An estimated 80% of the oil in the nation         was secured from South Sudan, which would represent amazing economic         potential for one of the world's most deprived areas.South Sudan         has a population of 8 million. Its capital and largest city is Juba.         It is divided into ten states, corresponding to three historical regions         of the Sudan: Bahr el Ghazal, Equatoria and Greater Upper Nile. Prior to this secession, Sudan was the largest country in Africa, with an area         of 2.5 million km².  "},{"title":"The         Space Shuttle fleet is retired","year":"","text":"This         year saw the last of the Space Shuttle missions to the International         Space Station and the subsequent retirement of the fleet. Two private         companies – SpaceX and Orbital         Sciences Corporation – took over the remaining work, using         cheaper disposable rockets. These would provide cargo delivery          to the ISS up to 2016.       Credit: NASA  "},{"title":"Global         population reaches 7 billion","year":"","text":"In         October 2011, the global population reached 7 billion. Over 74 million         people were now being added to the world each year – equivalent to the         entire population of Turkey. On current trends, the population was forecast         to reach 10 billion by 2100. Most of the increase was coming from high-fertility       nations in sub-Saharan Africa.*   "},{"title":"USB         3.0 is widely available","year":"","text":"USB         3.0 was the third major revision of the Universal Serial Bus (USB) standard         for computer connectivity. Transmission speeds of 5 Gbit/s made it 10 times faster than USB 2.0 (480 Mbit/s), greatly         reducing the time required for data transmission while cutting power consumption. It was downward compatible with USB 2.0.   "},{"title":"22         nanometre chips enter mass production","year":"","text":"In 2011, Intel began production of a new 22 nanometre (nm) processor. Codenamed         Ivy Bridge, it was the first high-volume chip to use 3D transistors. These new         \"Tri-Gate\" transistors were a fundamental departure from the         two-dimensional \"planar\"  structure used in the past. They could operate at lower voltage, with lower leakage,         providing an unprecedented combination of improved performance and energy         efficiency. Dramatic innovations across a wide range of electronics – from         computers to cellphones, household appliances to medical devices –       would now be possible.* "},{"title":"The   Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II","year":"2012","text":"6th         February 2012 marked the 60th anniversary of the Queen's accession to         the thrones of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand         (as well as the 60th anniversary of her becoming Head of Commonwealth).         Celebrations were held in these countries to mark the occasion.In June,         there was an extra public holiday in the UK. Events were staged in London         that included a concert and maritime parade of boats along the River Thames, in which up to 1,000 vessels participated (the largest         flotilla to be seen on the river in 350 years), with a million people         watching from the riverside.* Street parties         took place around the country.As of 2012, Queen Victoria was the only other monarch in the histories of Britain,         Canada and a few other Commonwealth realms to have celebrated a Diamond         Jubilee (in 1897).       Credit: Matt Gibson   "},{"title":"Euro         2012 is held in Poland and Ukraine","year":"2012","text":"The         2012 UEFA European Football Championship was jointly hosted by Poland and Ukraine. It was won by Spain, who beat Italy 4–0 in the final. Spain became the first team to win two consecutive European Championships, and also three straight major tournaments (Euro 2008, the 2010 World Cup and Euro 2012).*   "},{"title":"London         hosts the Olympic Games","year":"2012","text":"In 2012, London hosted the Summer Olympics for the third time in its history – the only city to have done so  on this many occasions. The event took place amid the largest security operation ever seen in peacetime Europe. London had been transformed in recent years by a number of massive construction projects. In addition to the Olympic Games venues themselves, there was neighbouring Stratford City, a  mixed use development with almost 11 million ft² of commercial floor space and community facilities. Work had also started on Crossrail, a £15 billion rail connection linking Heathrow Airport with the central and eastern parts of the city. Several new landmarks dominated the skyline, including the 87-storey Shard of Glass,* which became the tallest skyscraper in Europe (until surpassed by Mercury City Tower in Moscow) and the first to break the 1000 ft barrier.       Credit: BaldBoris (CC BY 2.0)   "},{"title":"Mars         Science Laboratory explores the Red Planet","year":"2012","text":"Mars Science Laboratory,  known as Curiosity, was by far the largest and most powerful rover ever sent         to Mars. Among its many instruments were the first  video camera         taken to another planet. As well as filming the surface, it also recorded the descent through the atmosphere, in HD quality. The rover also featured the first 3D camera on Mars. The mission         had four main goals:• to determine if life ever arose on Mars        • to characterise the climate of Mars        • to characterise the geology of Mars        • to prepare for human exploration "},{"title":"North Korea conducts its third nuclear test","year":"2013","text":"On 12th February 2013, North Korean state media announced it had conducted an underground nuclear test, its third in seven years.* A tremor that showed a nuclear bomb signature with magnitude 4.9 (later revised to 5.1) was detected by the China Earthquake Networks Centre, the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organisation Preparatory Commission and the U.S. Geological Survey.In response, Japan called an emergency UN meeting and South Korea raised its military alert status. The test prompted widespread condemnation and tightened economic sanctions from the international community.Estimates of the blast yield were mostly in the 6-12 kiloton range, though one geological institute in Germany claimed it may have been as high as 40 kilotons.* For comparison, the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of WWII had yields of 16 and 21 kilotons, respectively.   "},{"title":"A meteor explodes over the Russian city of Chelyabinsk","year":"2013","text":"On 15th February 2013, at 09:20 local time, a 19-metre asteroid entered the atmosphere over southern Russia. Estimated to have been moving at 18 km/s (40,000 mph or 64,000 km/h), or about 50 times the speed of sound, the object quickly became a superbolide – brighter than the Sun from up to 62 miles away. An intense heat from the fireball was also felt by eyewitnesses.Due to its enormous velocity and shallow atmospheric entry angle, the object exploded in an air burst over Chelyabinsk Oblast, peaking in heat and brightness at 19 km (30 miles) altitude. The explosion produced a flash, creating many small fragmentary meteorites and a powerful shock wave. Most of the object's energy was absorbed by the atmosphere, with a total kinetic energy before impact equivalent to 550 kilotons, or 34 times more energy than the atomic bomb detonated at Hiroshima.The object was undetected before its atmospheric entry and its explosion created panic among local residents. Although nobody was killed, nearly 1,500  were injured seriously enough to seek medical treatment. All of these injuries were due to indirect effects – rather than the meteor itself – mainly from  broken glass of windows that were blown in by the shock wave, minutes after the flash. Some 7,200 buildings in six cities were damaged by the explosion's shock wave, and authorities scrambled to help repair structures in sub-zero temperatures.With an estimated mass of 12,500 tonnes (heavier than the Eiffel Tower), and 19 metres in diameter, this was the largest known natural object to have entered the Earth's atmosphere since the 1908 Tunguska event that destroyed a remote, forested area of Siberia. The Chelyabinsk meteor was also the only meteor confirmed to have resulted in a large number of injuries.The predicted close approach of a second asteroid, the roughly 30-metre 2012 DA14, occurred 16 hours later; analysis of both objects later confirmed they were unrelated to each other. However, its orbit was sufficiently similar to the 2 km  asteroid 1999 NC43 to suggest they had once been part of the same object. In the months after Chelyabinsk, researchers estimated that the risk of asteroids this size hitting Earth might be 10 times greater than previously thought.* International concern over the vulnerability of the planet to such impacts led the United Nations to create a defence plan, the \"International Asteroid Warning Group\".* Another group, the B612 Foundation, proposed a space telescope called the \"Sentinel\", designed to locate 90% of asteroids greater than 140 metres (460 ft) in diameter in near-Earth orbits, though the project was later cancelled due to lack of funding.* "},{"title":"Latvia joins the eurozone","year":"2014","text":"Latvia officially adopted the euro currency on 1st January 2014, becoming the 18th eurozone country. This was despite a majority (52%) of its people opposing membership, with only 45% in support. Two years previously, many had wondered if the euro would survive. During 2013, however, the currency actually rose 4.5 percent against the dollar, finishing the year at 1.38 to the dollar. An assessment published in June 2013 asserted that Latvia had met all the convergence criteria necessary for euro adoption, which was given final approval by the Economic and Financial Affairs Council the following month.*   "},{"title":"The first gay marriages are held in England and Wales","year":"2014","text":"Civil partnerships had already been permitted in the UK since 2005, following the Civil Partnership Act. This gave rights and responsibilities to same-sex couples that were identical to civil marriage between opposite-sex couples. They were entitled to the same property rights, the same exemption on inheritance tax, the same social security and pension benefits, full life insurance recognition, the ability to get parental responsibility for a partner's children, as well as next of kin rights in hospitals.This angered some Christian groups concerned that the sanctity of marriage was being threatened. It was criticised by gay rights activists, however, for not going far enough – since the Act stopped short of awarding full marriage status, which they still viewed as a form of discrimination.The gay rights movement continued to gain momentum. A public consultation was conducted in 2012, aimed at further reform. This was supported by  conservative Prime Minister David Cameron as part of a modernising drive included in his party's election manifesto. It was proposed that full marriage rights  be granted to gay couples in England and Wales by 2015.* In the end, the agreed date was 29th March 2014,* with Scotland following by early 2015.* Ireland would also follow during the first half of 2015.* However, its neighbour, Northern Ireland, would not.* Including these new additions, over 20 countries around the world recognise gay marriage or have it legalised in some jurisdictions.*   "},{"title":"Google Glass is launched to the public","year":"2014","text":"Google Glass is an augmented reality head-mounted display, allowing hands-free access to the web.* The product resembles normal eyeglasses where the lens is replaced by a small electronic screen. It provides interaction  via natural language voice commands, as well as eye-tracking technology.* A miniature gyroscope can tell the user's position and orientation at all times. On the side frame is audio output, and a touch control pad, while on top is a button for recording photos and videos with a built-in camera. It was available to developers in 2013 and for the general public in May 2014.* The design allows for integration of the display into people's day-to-day eyewear. It is light and weighs less than most sunglasses. A prototype unveiled in 2012  received criticism over the potential for Google to insert advertising (its main source of revenue) into the user's field of vision. However, the company denied it would use adverts.   "},{"title":"Brazil         hosts the FIFA World Cup","year":"2014","text":"The 2014 FIFA World Cup – held from 12th June-13th July 2014 – was the 20th since the inaugural tournament         in 1930, and the second time that Brazil had hosted the competition.         It became the first World Cup to feature goal-line technology.* The         ball now had embedded magnetic strips, which sent a signal to the referee         if they crossed a sensor in the goal mouth. This was used in combination with a high-speed camera system which could triangulate the ball's exact location. Germany won the tournament and took its fourth title (its first since the reunification of West and East Germany in 1990), defeating Argentina 1–0 in the final.   "},{"title":"The 100th anniversary of World War I","year":"2014","text":"28th July 2014 marks exactly 100 years to the day since the outbreak of World War I. No living veterans from that conflict now remain, the last survivor having passed away two years earlier in 2012. Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, experiences a surge in tourism during this time. This city was the location of Archduke Franz Ferdinand's assassination on 28th June 1914, an event that triggered the war a month later.*       Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, whose assassination led to WWI.   "},{"title":"14 nanometre chips are released","year":"2014","text":"The 14 nanometre process is used for the next generation of computer chips following the 22 nanometre size. Intel had originally planned for these to be released in late 2013, but due to production problems they were delayed until September 2014.* Transistors are now reaching extremely small sizes, prompting fears that Moore's Law will come to an end. However, this trend in computing power will continue for some time to come, thanks to a new generation of materials such as graphene.   "},{"title":"Scotland votes \"no\" to independence","year":"2014","text":"Prior to the UK general election of 1997, popular arguments against a Scottish Parliament were that it would create a \"slippery slope\" to  independence, giving the pro-independence Scottish National Party (SNP)  a route to power. John Major, Conservative Prime Minister until  1997, famously claimed it would end \"1,000 years of British history\" (although the Acts of Union uniting the  countries were still less than 300 years old).  The Labour  Party met these criticisms by claiming that devolution would fatally undermine the SNP, and remedy the long-felt desire of Scots for a measure of self-government.Following the election of Tony Blair and Labour in 1997, a referendum was held in which the Scottish people voted in favour of a Scottish Parliament. This was established by the Scotland Act 1998, which set out its powers as a devolved legislature.  The first meeting of the new Parliament took place on 12th May 1999.In the 2007  parliamentary election the SNP emerged as the largest party but could only form a minority government. Its election manifesto had pledged to hold a referendum on  independence in 2010. The draft of a referendum bill was launched to the public, detailing the options and proposals for Scotland's future. Due to  opposition from the other main parties, however, the bill was eventually withdrawn after failing to secure enough support.During the 2011  parliamentary election, the SNP repeated its earlier manifesto pledge. This time, the party won an absolute majority, gaining a mandate to hold an independence referendum. In  2012, the UK government offered to legislate to provide the Scottish Parliament with the specific powers to hold a referendum, providing it was \"fair, legal and decisive\". This would set terms of reference for the referendum, such as the question(s) asked, the electorate used and the organising body. The Scottish Government then announced that they intended to hold the referendum in autumn 2014. Negotiations continued between the Scottish and UK Governments until October 2012, when an agreement was reached.Media reports  speculated that  autumn 2014 was chosen due to the 700th anniversary of the Battle of Bannockburn – one of the decisive Scottish victories in the wars of independence. However, this was  denied by First Minister Alex Salmond.  Salmond had been hoping to fund and build a campaign for a second question on greater devolution, but his efforts ended in failure. The referendum   would instead ask a single \"yes or no\" question on independence. The main arguments from those in favour of independence were political and economic freedom, allowing Scotland to have full control over its taxes, laws and natural resources. It was thought that being independent from England, Wales and Northern Ireland would give the country a greater presence on the world stage. Scotland could guide its own destiny, shaping its  unique values, needs and aspirations while remaining  friends with the rest of the UK.On the other side of the debate, those who favoured maintaining the status quo pointed to the centuries-long economic and political success of the existing union – arguably one of the most stable and prosperous in the world. An independent Scotland would mean greater financial risks and a loss of security, diminishing the Union as a whole, at a time of global uncertainty.A third viewpoint – known as Devo Plus – advocated for Scotland to have responsibility in raising the taxes it spent while keeping defence, pensions and foreign affairs at UK level.Polls conducted prior to the referendum  consistently favoured a continuation of the Union.*** In 2014, the majority of Scots voted \"no\" to independence. Scotland would retain its status as part of the United Kingdom, a position it had held since 1707.*   "},{"title":"The MAVEN         probe arrives at Mars","year":"2014","text":"In September 2014,* the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN (MAVEN) probe         arrived at Mars to study its atmosphere and climate history, with four         primary objectives.* 1. To         determine the role that loss of volatiles from the Mars atmosphere to         space has played through time.        2. To determine the current state of the upper atmosphere, ionosphere,         and interactions with the solar wind.        3. To determine current rates of escape of neutral gases and ions         to space and the processes controlling them.        4. To determine the ratios of stable isotopes in the Martian atmosphere.   "},{"title":"India's first Mars mission","year":"2014","text":"Joining MAVEN just two days after that probe's arrival was another orbiter – the first Indian mission to Mars.* Launched in November 2013, the probe entered a highly elliptical orbit of 261 x 48,000 mi (421 x 77,000 km) around Mars on 24th September 2014.* Its 25kg payload included a colour camera, infrared  and thermal analysers, a radiation spectrometer, methane sensor, and a Plasma and Current Experiment. Controversy surrounded the mission, however, in light of foreign aid to alleviate the country's ongoing poverty and social problems.*   "},{"title":"The global average Internet connection is broadband","year":"2014","text":"Consumer use of the Internet first became popular through dial-up access in the 1990s.* During the first decade of the 21st century,* many people in developed nations began using faster broadband technologies. In September 2014, a significant landmark was reached as the global average connection speed reportedly hit 4.6 Mbit/s – exceeding the minimum 4   Mbit/s threshold to meet the broadband criteria.*South Korea had the fastest speed of any country (24.6 Mbit/s), with Hong Kong in second place (15.7 Mbit/s), followed by Switzerland and Japan in joint fourth position (14.9 Mbit/s). The average speed in the United States was 11.4 Mbit/s, 14th in the world. Four of the top 10 countries/regions experienced year-on-year increases of more than 50% in average connection speeds, led by South Korea's 84% annual rise. Yearly increases were seen in 136 countries ranging from 1.2% in the United Arab Emirates (4.6 Mbps) to 197% in Uruguay (5.6 Mbps).Video streaming had placed ever greater demands on bandwidth in recent years, especially now that 4K resolution was emerging. For the United States it became a significant political issue in 2014, as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) considered sweeping changes to net neutrality rules and the possibility of a two-tier speed system. Nevertheless, broadband would continue to advance rapidly in the future, reaching terabits per second (Tbps) in many countries by the early 2030s.   "},{"title":"A comet passes extremely close to Mars","year":"2014","text":"C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring) is an Oort cloud comet discovered in January 2013 by the Siding Spring Observatory. Subsequent analysis by NASA showed that it probably took millions of years to come from the Oort cloud. In October 2014, it passed within 87,000 miles (140,000 km) of Mars, equivalent to about one-third of the distance between Earth and our moon. This gave an unprecedented opportunity for the probes in orbit around the planet to study a comet and its effects at close range. None of the spacecraft were damaged by the close approach.*   "},{"title":"Increased         automation in retail environments","year":"2014","text":"Checkout         operators of retail chains are increasingly being replaced with automated         systems, in order         to save costs and improve efficiency. The customer simply scans         the items themselves, and is prompted via on-screen instructions and         audio to insert their method of payment. In         2009, around 100,000 self-service checkouts were installed worldwide. By         2014, this number has more than quadrupled.*   "},{"title":"The IPCC releases its Fifth Assessment Report","year":"2014","text":"After three Working Group (WG) Reports in September 2013, March 2014 and April 2014, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate  Change (IPCC) releases the final part of its Fifth Assessment Report – known as the Synthesis Report – in November 2014. This further discusses  the possible future impacts of climate change, paving the way for a global, legally binding treaty in late 2015.**The first two assessments were  released in 1990 and 1995, respectively. Both highlighted the potential rise  in global temperature and the long term effects of greenhouse gases. The second report  was particularly strong in clarifying that humans were  affecting the climate.The third report,  released in 2001, provided even greater certainty on this and future projected temperatures. Every model presented in the  report showed global temperatures and sea levels rising significantly by the end of the  21st century.The fourth assessment report was  released in 2007. This was by far the most alarming to date. New data, along with state-of-the-art computer modelling, showed a global temperature increase as high as 6.4°C (11.5°F)  by the end of the 21st century on a \"business as usual\" scenario.Even these dire predictions proved to be an underestimate, however, due  to an incomplete scientific understanding. They failed to include the amplifying effects of certain feedback mechanisms – such as methane,   released from melting permafrost – and dynamic shifts in glacier melt. Another factor being overlooked was the sudden and rapid emergence of China and India. These nations, with their enormous populations, were now becoming industrialised at a phenomenal rate, creating a huge increase in greenhouse gas emissions.Since 1990, each report from the IPCC has been  more certain and more grim. The fifth assessment report continues this trend. The next generation of Earth System Models has produced petabytes of new climate  data, making available more information for this document than in earlier reports. The fifth assessment expands on the predictions of the 2007 report – narrowing the range of possible temperature and sea level rises. More  is known about how  natural processes react to climate change, helping to  build a comprehensive view of the future climate. The overall conclusion of the Fifth  Assessment Report is that humanity is on a path to self-destruction and is rapidly running out of time.** Despite these warnings, and a broad scientific consensus, much of the public remains sceptical about global warming.*   "},{"title":"The new World Trade Center is opened","year":"2014","text":"After the terrorist attacks of 2001, then-President George Bush vowed that the World Trade Center complex would be fully rebuilt and the skyline  made whole  again. A competition was held between several architecture firms to design an iconic new landmark. By 2010, however, only a single new building – 7 World Trade Center – had been completed, due to acrimonious disputes over money, security and the design of the other buildings. The economic downturn had also slowed   the project's progress considerably.In 2011,  construction picked up, with all of the new buildings now underway.* This new complex would be comprised of six towers, designed by five different architects. There would also be a memorial in the form of two square fountains in place of the previous Twin Towers' foundations. These would be located in a  park at the centre of the development, along with a museum and visitor center.The tallest of the new skyscrapers was One World Trade Center, previously called the Freedom Tower. Designed by David Childs of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (the same architecture firm behind the Burj Khalifa in Dubai) it stood a symbolic 1,776 ft from base to pinnacle, recalling  the year in which the Declaration of Independence was signed. The tower was built with several key safety features including a blast-resistant steel and concrete internal structure, polymer-reinforced glass, chemical and biological filters, widened stairs and a more thorough sprinkler system. It also set an example for environmentally-friendly design: the roof could collect rainwater to be used for its cooling system and, like all other buildings on the  site, would be heated by steam to reduce reliance on fossil fuels.The main tower – One World Trade Center – was opened in November 2014, becoming the tallest building in the US and the third tallest in the world, before being overtaken by the Shanghai Tower.* The entire complex including Three World Trade Center would be completed later in the decade.*       Credit: NeydtStock   "},{"title":"The European Single Supervisory Mechanism (SSM) is operational","year":"2014","text":"Introduced in November 2014, the Single Supervisory Mechanism (SSM) is a new system which gives the  European Central Bank (ECB) the power to intervene in any bank within the eurozone. Its aim is to reduce financial risk and prevent cross-border contagion. A new permanent rescue fund – the European Stability Mechanism – allows failing banks to be recapitalised directly without adding to a   country's sovereign debt. The biggest contributors are Germany (27%), France (20%) and Italy (18%).The SSM receives a mixed reaction. On the one hand, there are those who welcome the increased regulation, something which was largely absent for years and played a major role in the crisis of 2008. On the other hand, fears are raised over the centralised supervision of so many banks, viewed by many as another step towards a federal European superstate.This banking union is of particular concern to the UK, which until now has dominated financial services with over half of all investment banking in Europe. With its own separate currency – pound sterling – it lies outside the group of eurozone members and their circle of influence, but within the European Union (EU). It therefore stands to be marginalised when decisions are taken on  regulation in the EU as a whole. This triggers a major debate in the UK over the country's role in  policymaking, leading to further calls for a referendum on its EU membership.   "},{"title":"Rosetta         deploys its lander on comet 67P","year":"2014","text":"Rosetta is a probe launched in 2004 by the European Space Agency         and intended to study the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. The craft         studies two asteroids, 2867 Steins and 21 Lutetia, before rendezvousing         with the comet in 2014. It then deploys a lander. This uses harpoons to anchor itself to         the surface, and has legs designed to dampen its initial impact. During         its week-long mission, the lander uses a variety of scientific instruments         to examine the surface and internal composition.*   "},{"title":"The first test flight of NASA's Orion spacecraft","year":"2014","text":"The Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle was originally part of NASA's Constellation Program which was cancelled in 2010. However, the design was carried forward as the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (Orion MPCV), as part of NASA's new plans for manned exploration to the Moon, Mars and asteroids.The first test flight is  in December 2014.* For this particular mission, the capsule is unmanned. Nevertheless, it reaches a higher altitude than any spacecraft intended for human use since 1973. Orion makes two highly elliptical orbits of the Earth, before re-entering the atmosphere and splashing down in the Pacific Ocean.This test supports the development of the Space Launch System – a new dedicated rocket, which itself will be tested in 2017. The first manned flight of Orion will occur in the  2020s, depending on Nasa's future funding.*   "},{"title":"Laser guns are in naval use","year":"2014","text":"Following several years of research and development, the first Solid State Laser (SSL) weapon is now being integrated into U.S. Navy warships as a form of short-range defence. These high-powered beams of directed energy can hit targets moving at  300 mph (480 km/h). This extremely accurate system can protect against drones and other flying vehicles, or be used against  suicide boats. The SSL is vastly cheaper than conventional projectiles,  with a single shot costing  less than $1 – compared to hundreds of thousands of dollars required to fire a missile – very useful in a time of budget constraints. The weapons had been scheduled for deployment in 2016,* but were ready two years earlier than  planned.** In the 2020s, even more powerful weapons known as railguns will be deployed with phenomenal range and power.*       Credit: U.S. Navy  "},{"title":"Smart watches are the latest must-have gadget","year":"2014","text":"Worldwide, the market for smart watches has grown from 500,000 in 2013, to over 5 million by the end of 2014.* These devices – which function as wearable computers – are the most important new product category in consumer electronics since the iPad. Apple, Google, Microsoft and Samsung are among the firms launching a variety of premium, hi-tech watches, incorporating a range of new hardware and software features  to boost their appeal to consumers. Among the most popular uses are in health and wellness monitoring, sports and fitness. The market for traditional watches is being disrupted by the added functionality of this new generation. These devices continue to grow rapidly in popularity, numbering over 100 million by 2019.*       Credit: Sony   "},{"title":"NATO ends combat operations in Afghanistan","year":"2014","text":"Following the terrorist attacks of September 11th, the U.S. Congress passed legislation authorising the use of military force against those it deemed responsible. Less than a month later, on 7th October 2001 – in what was called \"an act of  self-defence\" – the U.S. government launched military operations in Afghanistan, with support from Britain. This occurred without the authorisation of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC).On 20th December 2001, with Taliban forces having abandoned the city of Kabul, the UNSC authorised the creation of an International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). This would help the Afghan Interim Authority in maintaining security. Command of the ISAF passed to NATO in August 2003, following the US invasion of Iraq during March of that year.Mullah Omar, spiritual leader of the Taliban, reorganised the Taliban movement and in 2003 launched insurgency against the Afghan government and ISAF forces. Though vastly outgunned and outnumbered by NATO forces and the Afghan National Army, the Taliban insurgents waged asymmetric warfare with guerrilla raids and ambushes in rural areas, suicide attacks against urban targets, and turncoat killings against coalition forces. The Taliban exploited the weak administration of the Afghan government, among the most corrupt in the world, to reassert influence across many areas of southern and eastern Afghanistan.By 2004, the war had expanded into neighbouring North-West Pakistan, with Pakistani Army forces clashing with local tribes hosting al-Qaeda and Taliban militants. The U.S. military began launching drone attacks in Pakistan to kill leaders of the insurgent groups. In 2006, NATO boosted its troop numbers for operations to \"clear and hold\" villages and began \"nation building\" projects to \"win hearts and minds\". These numbers proved to be insufficient, however, and further increases in support were needed in subsequent years. The war reached its peak in 2010 with over 100 coalition casualties in a single month.             Credit: Nigelj (CC BY-SA 3.0)  As the decade drew to a close, Obama's incoming administration proposed a new strategy. U.S. troop numbers would be increased again by 30,000 – bringing the total to 100,000. A phased withdrawal would then proceed from 2011 to 2014, with Afghan forces gradually assuming responsibility for security. A major turning point was reached on 2nd May 2011, as U.S. Navy SEALs killed Osama bin Laden in Pakistan. The following year, leaders of NATO countries endorsed an exit strategy for removing their soldiers from Afghanistan by the end of 2014.In the meantime, UN-backed peace talks got underway between the Afghan government and Taliban. Tens of thousands of people had been killed in the war, mostly militants and ordinary civilians. In addition, more than 4,000 ISAF soldiers and civilian contractors as well as over 10,000 Afghan National Security Forces had died. Support among the U.S. public for continued operations in the region had declined substantially.*Although combat operations were intended to end by 31st December 2014, several thousand training personnel, Special Operations and military assets would remain until 2024, to support Afghanistan's army and police forces, ensuring the country did not fall back into chaos.* Furthermore, $16bn in development aid – closely monitored to avoid corruption or mismanagement – would assist the nation in rebuilding itself.*    "},{"title":"Personal genome sequencing enters the mainstream","year":"2015-2019","text":"The use of bioinformatics in healthcare is growing exponentially during this time,* thanks in large part to the falling cost of genome sequencing. This is creating a new generation of personalised diagnosis and treatments that can be specifically tailored to an individual's own DNA.After the Human Genome Project was finished in 2003, its potential for public use began to be realised. It had taken nearly 15 years and billions of dollars to  identify and map all 3.3 billion base pairs in the human genome. However, the methods used to achieve this goal were improving at a rate even faster than Moore's Law in computer chips.* From 2008, the cost per genome went into freefall. Among the early adopters was 23andMe, a company which offered partial genome sequencing to  customers. Despite a slowdown of cost reductions in the early 2010s,* along with regulatory hurdles,* this company along with a range of others entering the market had already opened the floodgates. In the second half of the 2010s, average costs for whole genome sequencing would continue to fall* – reaching less than $1000** – while even greater advances were made in the portability* of machines for analysing samples. Thanks to nanopores and other novel technology,* these were now becoming so compact and fast that it was possible to get results from a handheld device in a matter of hours, at low cost.By the end of this decade, these genome sequencers have a wide range of practical applications. They can be used at crime scenes, for example, to analyse biological evidence without having to return to the laboratory, saving time and money. Foreign aid workers in developing nations can identify  viruses and verify water quality. Food inspectors can check for harmful pathogens in restaurants. Wildlife biologists can study genes in the field.But perhaps the most widespread use of genome sequencing is now among the general public, who can utilise it for a mere fraction of the cost in the previous decade. Just as the Internet seemed to appear out of nowhere during the mid-1990s, personalised genomics is now entering the mainstream. Its popularity stems from the health benefits and  medical insights it offers: after the base pairs are sequenced, an individual's genotype can be cross-referenced with a database of published literature to determine the likelihood of trait expression and disease risk   later in  life. This allows them to prepare years or even decades in advance and to seek treatment or advice at a much earlier stage.* By 2020, tens of millions of human genomes have been sequenced in countries around the world. At the same time, however, concerns are being raised over privacy of information and the potential for \"genetic discrimination\", as well as the psychological impact of test results.   "},{"title":"Five-year survival rates for thyroid cancer are nearing 100%","year":"2015-2019","text":"The thyroid  is one of the largest endocrine glands. Found in the neck, it controls how quickly the body uses energy, makes proteins and controls how sensitive the body is to other hormones. It does so by producing thyroid hormones which regulate metabolism and affect the growth and rate of function of many other systems in the body.Worldwide, an estimated 213,000 people were diagnosed with thyroid cancer in 2008. More than a quarter of  cases occurred in the US. However, treatments already existed that offered an excellent prognosis. In addition to surgery (which included thyroidectomy, lobectomy and tracheostomy), numerous drugs were being developed that improved the outlook for sufferers still further. In the second half of the 2010s, five-year survival rates are approaching 100% in much of the developed world.**   "},{"title":"Virtual         reality makes a comeback","year":"2015-2019","text":"Exponential         improvements in processing power (doubling every 18 months) are enabling the creation of highly lifelike         graphics and 3D environments. At the same time, faster broadband is         opening up new frontiers in cyberspace, allowing the development of         Web 3.0 – the next generation of Internet. This is being combined with developments         in on-person hardware, creating renewed interest in virtual reality.* Having been something of a gimmick in the 1980s, it is now becoming a serious tool for business, leisure, education and training. Much of         the content in these 3D environments is user-generated, with online communities     for sharing and exchanging virtual objects, buildings, avatars, etc. Among the hardware configurations to emerge is a circular treadmill-like interface, allowing players to move freely and naturally in all directions.*   "},{"title":"Lithuania joins the Eurozone","year":"2015","text":"On 1st January 2015, Lithuania officially adopts the euro as its currency, replacing the litas and becoming the 19th Eurozone country. The euro had previously been expected to replace the litas in 2007, but   the economic crisis and persistent high inflation – reaching 11% in October 2008, well above the acceptable limit of 4.2% – delayed   Lithuania's adoption. In July 2014, the Council of the European Union agreed that Lithuania met its entry criteria and would be allowed to adopt the euro as its currency.   "},{"title":"The Eurasian Union is formed","year":"2015","text":"The Eurasian Union (EAU) is a political and economic union consisting of Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Armenia and Kyrgyzstan. It creates a single economic market of 171 million people and a gross domestic product of US$3 trillion. The idea, based on the EU's integration, was brought to attention in October 2011 by  then-Prime Minister of Russia, Vladimir Putin, but was first proposed as a concept by the President of Kazakhstan, Nursultan Nazarbayev, during a 1994 speech at a Moscow university.In November 2011, the presidents of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia agreed on a target of establishing the EAU by  2015. The agreement included a roadmap for  future integration and established the Eurasian Commission (modelled on the European Commission) and the Eurasian Economic Space, which started work on 1st January 2012. A treaty to enlarge the group to include Armenia was signed in October 2014 and Kyrgyzstan followed in December 2014, with all five members officially establishing the Union in January 2015.It was speculated that future expansion of the Union might allow membership for other countries with close historical or cultural ties – such as Finland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Bulgaria, China and Mongolia, incorporating them into a common state body with Russian as the common language of communication and economic cooperation. According to Vladimir Putin, the Eurasian Union would build upon the \"best values of the Soviet Union\". However, critics expressed some concern at this \"re-Sovietization\" of Russia and Central Asia. The United States opposed the integration effort on human rights grounds.*       Credit: Ranko15 (CC BY-SA 3.0)  "},{"title":"Expo 2015 is held in Milan, Italy","year":"2015","text":"The Universal Exposition is held in Milan  this year, the first time the city has hosted the event since 1906. The main theme of the exposition is the future availability of food and water supplies and the state of nutrition and health in the years to come. New technology is on display with the aim of reducing poverty and famine around the world, as well as the spread of infectious diseases. A working prototype of a vertical farm is also presented as an alternative to traditional agricultural methods. The event is a catalyst for talks among concerned parties such as farmers, non-profit organisations, humanitarian workers and environmentalists, initiating  new  movements for change. More than 100 nations from around the world participate in the Expo, which runs from 1st May until 31st October. By the time it  finishes, many millions of people have visited.*   "},{"title":"The         Large Hadron Collider reaches its maximum operating power","year":"2015","text":"The         Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and highest-energy         particle accelerator. By smashing together sub-atomic particles at close         to the speed of light, it aims to recreate the conditions that existed         just a fraction of a second after the birth of the universe. In doing         so, it is expected to address some of the most fundamental questions         in physics.The LHC         lies in a tunnel 27 kilometres (17 mi) in circumference, as much as         175 metres (574 ft) beneath the Franco-Swiss border near Geneva, Switzerland.         This synchrotron is designed to collide opposing particle beams of either         protons at an energy of 7 tera-electronvolts (7 TeV) per particle, or         lead nuclei at 574 TeV per nucleus. The term \"hadron\" refers         to particles composed of quarks.The machine         was built by the European Organisation for Nuclear Research (CERN) with         the intention of testing various predictions of high-energy physics,         including the existence of the hypothesised Higgs boson, and of the         large family of new particles predicted by supersymmetry. It was built         in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists and engineers from over         100 countries, as well as hundreds of universities and laboratories.In September         2008, the proton beams were successfully circulated in the main ring         of the LHC for the first time – but nine days later its operations were         halted due to a serious malfunction. In November 2009, they were successfully         circulated again,  the first recorded proton-proton collisions occurring         three days later at the injection energy of 0.45 TeV per beam. After the         2009 winter shutdown, the LHC was restarted and the beam was ramped         up to half power, 3.5 TeV per beam (i.e. half its designed energy).         In March 2010, the first planned collisions took place between two 3.5         TeV beams – a new world record for the highest-energy particle         collisions. The LHC       continues to operate at half power until 2015, when it reaches maximum capacity of 7 TeV.*Initially, the experiment         sparked fear among the public that the collisions might produce a doomsday         scenario, involving microscopic black holes or  hypothetical         particles known as strangelets. Two CERN-commissioned safety reviews         examined these concerns and concluded that the experiments at the LHC         presented no danger and that there was no cause for concern, a conclusion         endorsed by the American Physical Society. The LHC would be followed by even bigger particle accelerators in 2028 and 2035.   "},{"title":"The first self-regulating artificial heart","year":"2015","text":"In 2013, French Professor Alain Carpentier engineered the first   self-regulating artificial heart, using biomaterials and electronic   sensors. The device weighed 900g, was roughly the same size as a real   heart and could imitate its functions exactly. In a 10-hour operation,   it was successfully implanted within a 75-year-old patient at the Georges Pompidou   European Hospital in Paris.*Permanent artificial hearts had been around since   1982, with similar inventions that preceded them going back to the 1940s. Unlike previous versions, however, Carpentier's invention was the first to be completely   artificial and self-regulating.   Electronic sensors and microprocessors could monitor blood pressure and flow in real time – instantly adjusting the pulse rate – while a \"pseudo-skin\" made of biosynthetic, microporous materials could prevent blood clots, which had been a major issue in the past. By 2015, after a period of clinical trials, it is available within the European Union priced between 140,000 and 180,000 euros (about US$190,000 to $250,000).*       Credit: CARMAT   "},{"title":"A         new generation of hi-tech supercarriers","year":"2015","text":"The         first in a new generation of US aircraft carriers is laid down this year.         The Gerald R. Ford-class will replace the aging Nimitz-class         which has been in service since 1975. This new class of ship includes         some major improvements over previous generations. These include: increased         automation, electromagnetic aircraft launch systems to replace previous         steam mechanisms, increased stealth, a new type of nuclear reactor for         more efficient power consumption, high tech radar and flight control,         as well as the ability to carry the new F-35 Lightning II fighter jet.         Ten carriers are commissioned in total, at a cost of $14bn each (including       research and development). The 10th and final ship is launched by 2040.*   "},{"title":"Queen Elizabeth II is the longest reigning monarch in  British history","year":"2015","text":"On 10th September 2015,  Elizabeth II becomes the longest reigning monarch in British history – surpassing the record held by Victoria, her great-great grandmother. Having ascended to the throne on 6th February 1952, Elizabeth II has now reigned for 63 years and 217 days.*The six decades of her reign have witnessed enormous changes on the world stage – including the dismantling of the British Empire, the civil rights movement,   the growing empowerment  of women in society, the development of the Space Age, accelerating globalisation, the fall of communism in  Europe, the end of the Cold War,  the dawn of the information age, and the rise of China, to name but a few.Now aged 89, she is becoming noticeably frailer and has scaled back her official duties. The next milestone (assuming she lives that long) will be in 2022 – her Platinum Jubilee. Her eldest son Charles will succeed her, becoming King Charles III.   "},{"title":"Personal biometric scanners for online banking","year":"2015","text":"In 2015, the United Kingdom introduces Finger Vein Authentication Technology (VeinID) to  improve banking security.** These devices are initially provided to corporate clients, but soon made available to regular consumers. Other countries had already used this form of personal biometric scanning in certain banks and cash machines, but the UK is the first to offer it for homes and remote offices globally.Desktop card readers, phone authentication and PIN codes are no longer needed, as vein  pattern recognition is both faster and more reliable. It is practically impossible to spoof or replicate – even more accurate than fingerprint ID – and the  finger must be attached to a live human body in order for veins in the finger to be scanned. The process takes just two seconds, using a near-infrared (NIR) LED and monochrome CCD  camera sensor to make the red pigment in blood (haemoglobin) absorb NIR light, with veins appearing as dark lines. No public record is kept, as the user's pattern is stored on their SIM card only.   "},{"title":"Windows 10 is released by Microsoft","year":"2015","text":"Following the much-criticised Windows 8, Microsoft launches a major overhaul of the operating system in 2015. Skipping past version 9.0, this instead becomes Windows 10. It is designed to run on a wide range of platforms – including the \"Internet of Things\" – with a tailored experience for each. Windows 10 addresses a number of usability issues, refining the \"Metro\" interface and bringing back the traditional Start Menu. Users can now switch between multiple desktop screens for a tidier workspace. The OS features a more unified code base, for improved compatibility and simpler transfer of data between various devices and services. There is a greater focus on apps. Advanced gesture recognition is also incorporated, now that 3D cameras are becoming more common. It also deals with power management issues. Initially codenamed \"Threshold\", it is released in the second half of 2015.** Click to enlarge  "},{"title":"Dawn arrives at Ceres","year":"2015","text":"Dawn was a robotic spacecraft sent by NASA on a mission to the asteroid belt.* It reached Vesta in 2011, before rendezvousing with the dwarf planet,         Ceres, in March 2015. Ceres and         Vesta are the two most massive members of the asteroid belt: 950 and         530 km in diameter, respectively. Dawn was the first probe to         study and photograph them at close range. Both bodies formed very early         in the history of the Solar System, thereby retaining a record of events       and processes from the time of the formation of the terrestrial planets.Of particular interest on Ceres were two distinct bright spots (high-albedo features) inside a crater,* which led to speculation about a possible cryovolcanic origin or outgassing. NASA later said the spots were consistent with highly reflective materials containing ice or salts, but that cryovolcanism was unlikely. Higher resolution images also confirmed that, instead of one or two spots, there were actually several. In addition to being the first probe to explore a dwarf planet, Dawn was also the first to enter into orbit         around a celestial body, study it, and then re-embark under powered flight       to a second target. (previous multi-target missions, such as the Voyager program, involved rapid planetary flybys).   "},{"title":"New         Horizons arrives at Pluto","year":"2015","text":"In July 2015, NASA's New Horizons spacecraft performed a close flyby of Pluto, becoming the first mission in history to visit the distant world. This probe – launched in January 2006 – had travelled 3 billion km through space. At its closest approach, it flew 12,600 km (7,800 mi) above the surface, with a relative velocity of 13.8 km/s (49,600 km/h; 30,800 mph). The initial photos revealed a surprisingly young terrain, evidenced by the lack of impact craters and suggesting that volcanism or some other geological process reshaped the landscape within the last 100 million years. The onboard cameras showed icy mountains reaching up to 11,000ft (3,300m) high, comparable to North America's Rocky Mountains. A large, light-coloured region measuring 1,590 km (990 mi) across was nicknamed \"the heart\" and then formally named Tombaugh Regio, in honour of astronomer Clyde Tombaugh who discovered Pluto in 1930. New measurements also showed that Pluto was slightly larger than previously thought, with a diameter of 2,370 km (1,472 mi), compared to earlier estimates of 2,306 km (1,432 mi).Because of the vast distance between Pluto and Earth (radio communications took four and a half hours, even at the speed of light), it was only possible to return a faint signal at 1 or 2 kilobytes per second. It would therefore take over a year to transmit all of the images and data. New Horizons would continue to explore the Pluto system for five months, including its five moons, before entering the Kuiper belt* and eventually leaving the Solar System, heading in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius.*   "},{"title":"Electric car ownership reaches 1 million worldwide","year":"2015","text":"In 2010, there were about 25,000 electric cars on the world's roads. This number grew exponentially during the next five years,* reaching over a million by the end of 2015. Pure electric car sales were led by Japan with a 28% market share of global sales, followed by the United States with a 26% share, China at 16%, France with 11% and Norway with 7%.* On a per capita basis, the leaders by far were Norway (6.1%) and the Netherlands (5.55%) with Iceland (0.94%) considerably behind in third place.* The biggest electric car companies were Nissan, GM/Opel, Toyota, Tesla and Ford.Despite growing rapidly, electric cars still only accounted for a tiny percentage (0.1%) of the billion or so total cars in the world. The main factors limiting their uptake were the high cost (even after government incentives), range anxiety, charging times and lack of public recharging infrastructure. A number of notable innovations were underway, however, that would allow these vehicles to continue their upward trend.Arguably the greatest advance was an ongoing fall in the price of batteries; from an average of $900/kWh in 2010, to under $600/kWh in 2015 and forecast to reach $300/kWh by 2020. Battery production would see a dramatic increase with Tesla's \"Gigafactories\" beginning in 2017.* Tesla was also constructing a  \"supercharger network\", offering high-speed charges for free. By the end of 2015, around 98 percent of the US population would lie within range of a station. Networks were being established in Europe and Asia too.Battery swapping was another method being developed, whereby a depleted battery is exchanged for a fully charged one in five minutes, saving the delay of waiting for the battery to charge. The first modern commercial deployment of this technology* ended in bankruptcy for the company involved* – but others would continue to develop and standardise the technology. Other opportunity areas for cutting costs included vehicle lightweighting to extend range, electric-drive systems fully integrating motors and electronics, employing wide bandgap semiconductors, nanotechnology materials and non-rare earth motors. Further into the future, wireless electricity* becomes a fairly common feature of urban centres and this further enhances the appeal of electric cars.With increasing concerns over energy and the environment – alongside breakthroughs in technology and cost – these vehicles have a bright future in the years and decades ahead.*   "},{"title":"Trucks with emergency braking systems are mandatory in Europe","year":"2015","text":"In November 2015, an EU law comes into effect which mandates that all new trucks must be fitted with emergency braking and collision warning systems.* This has been introduced in an effort to lower the number of rear-end collisions, which account for a significant proportion of road accidents.A radar and camera, working together to identify and monitor vehicles in front, can prevent a collision with a moving target at relative speeds of up to 44 mph (70 km/h). When the system detects a vehicle that the truck will hit at its current speed, the warning system activates a constant red light in the windscreen in order to attract the driver's attention.If the truck fails to detect any reaction from the driver, such as steering or braking, the light begins to flash red accompanied by a beeping sound. If there is still no reaction, the system applies the brakes gently. When all this fails too, an emergency braking system is activated, bringing the truck to a complete stop. In addition, to alert other drivers to the situation, the brake lights on the rear of the truck will change from fixed to flashing.By the end of this decade, the system is being extended to cars, too.* As more and more technology appears both in vehicles and road infrastructure, the number of accident fatalities continues to trend downwards,* reaching almost zero in the latter half of the century, with human drivers being entirely replaced by AI.  "},{"title":"Completion of the Panama Canal expansion project","year":"2016","text":"Built from 1881 until 1914, the Panama Canal was among the largest and most difficult engineering projects ever undertaken. Functioning as a short cut between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, it greatly reduced the travel times for ships – enabling them to avoid the lengthy, hazardous Cape Horn route around the southernmost tip of South America.For nearly a hundred years, the canal enjoyed great success, acting as a key         conduit for international maritime trade. By the early 21st century, however, it was handling far more vessel traffic than had ever been envisioned by its builders. In 1934, it was estimated that the maximum capacity of the canal would be around 80 million tons per year. In 2010, the actual figure was nearly 300 million tons and growing rapidly, with over a third of shipping traffic unable to pass through because         of size. Global demand necessitated a major upgrade.Plans were formulated for various improvements – including the excavation of new traffic lanes allowing more and larger ships to transit; two new locks, one each on the Atlantic and Pacific sides; the widening and deepening of existing channels; and the raising of Gatun Lake's maximum operating level. Construction was originally slated to take seven or eight years, with new locks beginning operations in late 2014, almost exactly a century after the canal first opened. In 2012, however, it was announced that the expansion project had fallen six months behind schedule, pushing the opening date back to April 2015. Further delays were reported in September 2014.In early 2016, construction is finally completed and the new gates are open for transit.* Capacity has now been         doubled, allowing the canal as a whole to handle the projected         rise in volume to 2025 and beyond. This mega-project eases numerous         burdens on the shipping industry, as well as creating huge numbers of         jobs among the Panamanian people – generating enough wealth to reduce         poverty in the country by almost 30%. However, critics of the project         contend that there are serious environmental issues.       Map of Panama Canal expansion project in 2016. Credit: PanCanal.com  "},{"title":"Microchipping of all dogs in England","year":"2016","text":"In April 2016, a  new law comes into effect  requiring all dogs in England to be tagged with a microchip implant.* This measure has been introduced in order to cut the growing number of strays. As of 2012, there were 118,932 dogs reported lost or stolen, of which 55,898 (about 47%) were reunited with their owner. Around 6,900 (5%) were put to sleep. This cost £57m (US$89m) to the taxpayer and welfare charities each year. Only 7,098 dogs were microchipped in 2012, barely 0.1% of the 6.7 million dogs in England.These  implants are similar in size to a grain of rice. They are coated in a  bio-compatible glass, the same material used in human pacemakers, ensuring they are not rejected. The devices are held firmly in place by fusing to the dog's bodily tissue. A simple procedure can be performed without anaesthetic, using a sterile needle to insert the chip between the shoulder blades.Similar measures had already been introduced in New Zealand and Northern Ireland. Other countries begin to recognise the benefits of microchipping in the years ahead. By the 2040s, this is being extended into humans.*       X-ray view of a microchip implant. Credit: Joelmills/Hundehalter  "},{"title":"Euro         2016 is held in France","year":"2016","text":"The 2016         European Football Championship is hosted by France between 10th June–10th July 2016. This year, the tournament         is expanded in size from 16 to 24 teams, following a plan unanimously         agreed by senior officials of all 53 UEFA member nations. The format         of the final tournament consists of six groups of four teams, followed         by a round of 16, quarter-finals, semi-finals and final. The top two         from each group will qualify in addition to the four best third-ranked         sides, the same system as was applied in the World Cups from 1986 to         1994. This format generates a total of 51 games, compared with 31 prior         to 2016, played over a period of 29 days.   "},{"title":"Rio         de Janeiro hosts the Olympic Games","year":"2016","text":"Rio becomes         the first South American city to host the event, which opens on 5th August 2016 and finishes on 21st August 2016.   "},{"title":"Supercomputers reach 100 petaflops","year":"2016","text":"In 2013, China's Tianhe-2 became the fastest supercomputer in the world, achieving 33.8 petaflops, with a peak performance of 54.9 petaflops. It was nearly twice as powerful as its nearest competitor, the \"Titan\" machine at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee, United States. Tianhe-2 showed great success in computational fluid dynamics (CFD), scramjet combustion and other aircraft simulations. Other research areas included genomics (population genetics) and biomedical applications. It continued to maintain the top spot for the next few years, with no other challengers, leading to concerns over a possible stagnation in the progress of supercomputing speeds. This was further compounded by trade restrictions – imposed by the United States government – which prevented China from using Intel's chip technology for upgrades. However, this actually boosted China's own processor development and production industry.In 2016, China unveiled the \"Sunway TaihuLight\", a home-grown machine with a Linpack rating of 93 petaflops, a peak performance of 125 petaflops and featuring 10.6 million CPU cores. This became the first supercomputer to demonstrate a peak performance of over 100 petaflops, or 100 quadrillion floating point operations per second.*This machine would reign at the top of the list for only a short while, however, as the U.S. was regaining its lead in supercomputing research. A project called \"Aurora\" was being developed at the Argonne Leadership Computing Facility (180 petaflops), along with IBM's \"Summit\"  (150 petaflops), the latter having an optional upgrade to 300 petaflops. This would be followed by the first exascale computer (1,000 petaflops) by 2021.       Tianhe-2. Credit: O01326 (Own work) [CC BY-SA 4.0], via Wikimedia Commons   "},{"title":"The Juno probe arrives at Jupiter","year":"2016","text":"Launched in 2011, Juno becomes the second  probe to orbit the gas giant, the first being Galileo in 1995. It is equipped with a camera, infrared and microwave radiometers,  particle  detectors, and an ultraviolet spectrometer. The mission objectives are:• Determine precisely how much water is in Jupiter's atmosphere, to help confirm which planet formation theory is correct (or if new theories are needed).• Look deep into Jupiter's atmosphere to gain a better understanding of its composition, cloud motions, temperature and other properties.• Map Jupiter's magnetic and gravity fields – revealing its deep structure, core mass and overall dynamics, helping to further explain the planet's origin.• Explore and study Jupiter's magnetosphere near the poles, especially the auroras – Jupiter's northern and southern lights – providing new insights into how the planet's enormous magnetic  field affects its atmosphere.Juno arrives at the planet in July 2016 and its mission concludes in October 2017, after a total of 33 orbits.* Like its predecessor, Galileo, it is crashed into the outer atmosphere of the gas giant, where it compresses and then melts as it falls.       Credit: NASA/JPL  "},{"title":"The world's largest single-aperture telescope is completed in China","year":"2016","text":"The Five-hundred-metre Aperture Spherical radio Telescope (FAST) is a major new astronomical observatory built in Guizhou province, southwest China. Constructed between March 2011 and September 2016,* it becomes the largest single-aperture telescope in the world, half a kilometre wide and featuring a collecting area of 2.1 million sq ft (196,000 sq m). This dwarfs the next largest – the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico – which had held the title since 1963.* The dish itself sits within a natural depression and is unable to move, due to its enormous size. However, the surface shape is changeable and the feed cabin (where radio waves are focused) can be moved around. This provides a viewing angle of up to 40° from the vertical.FAST is able to gaze three times further into space and survey the skies ten times faster than Arecibo. Its primary roles include mapping the  neutral hydrogen within the Milky Way at very high resolution, tripling the number of known pulsars from 2,000 to 6,000, and listening for possible signals from alien civilisations at distances of up to 1,000 light years;  far more stars can be monitored than in previous surveys. FAST is the latest in a whole series of massive new telescopes being built around the world in the early 21st century, heralding a new era of astronomy. Click to enlarge      Credit: NASA / National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) and the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS)  "},{"title":"The mining industry is highly automated","year":"2016","text":"Recent years have seen a rapid increase in the use of automation, a trend that is becoming especially prevalent in the mining sector. Rio Tinto, for example, now has a fleet of self-driving haul trucks which together are responsible for over half of its total material moved.** Codelco, meanwhile,  has installed automated IT systems which now cover both its open pit mines along with all underground operations.* Wireless, intelligent devices are able to communicate with each other to monitor environmental conditions and to automate control of the mines' technological systems and equipment.Self-driving vehicles, robotic drills, remote ship loading and other systems – despite  their greater efficiency and improved safety – are now having a major impact on employment and economic activity. This is particularly true of Indigenous Australians in remote communities, for whom the mining industry has been their biggest employer. Some companies have promoted Aboriginal training, scholarships and business development, to provide the skills needed for new hi-tech jobs created by automation. However, the bulk of entry-level jobs are disappearing.* As the use of robots and tele-operated machinery continues to increase, mining has  begun to expand into new environments and locations that were previously off-limits to humans. This includes the seafloor, rich in metals like gold, copper, manganese, nickel and cobalt.** Longer term plans are being made to exploit asteroids.*   "},{"title":"Agricultural robots are increasingly common on farms","year":"2016","text":"Significant numbers of robots are now appearing on farms.* These have been in development for  20 years and are  now cheap and sophisticated enough for mainstream use. New scanning and imaging technology has solved the problem of allowing  robots to handle the varying shapes of individual fruits and vegetables. Their on-board computers can now differentiate between an object and its shadow and between green fruits, leaves and vines. This is accomplished using an array of cameras, each picking up a different spectrum of light and creating a perfect picture of the obstacles and topography in the robot's surrounding environment.*Complex algorithms allow robotic workers to \"learn\" the longer they are on the job, so they become more adept as time goes on. This  helps the computer to recognise a fruit that is partially covered by a leaf or similar obstruction, for example. The grasping tools themselves are based on human movements and are programmed to apply the correct pressure.Advantages of this technology include much greater accuracy in spraying pesticides (cutting its use by 80%), uninterrupted output, and, as the technology improves, greater efficiency and speed. Initially, these robots are present on  a small number of farms, often working alongside traditional human workers. As the years go by, however, and the technology proliferates, more and more farms begin to adopt robotic workers. By the 2020s, entire farms are becoming fully automated.*The increased output helps to alleviate food shortages caused by rising global  populations. Despite these gains, agricultural robots prove controversial. They exacerbate the ongoing unemployment crisis, with the potential of putting many thousands  of workers out of a job. Mechanisation continues its unending progress, as yet another industry begins to be handed over to machines.       Credit: Vision Robotics Corporation  "},{"title":"High-definition CCTV cameras are ubiquitous","year":"2016","text":"Closed-circuit television (CCTV) has improved hugely in recent years with a shift from analogue to digital equipment. The vast majority of cameras now record footage in high definition, with some capable of gigapixel resolution. Although discouraging crime and helping to identify more offenders (made easier with facial recognition software), this mass proliferation of security is raising  a number of privacy and civil liberties issues, due to a creeping sense of \"Big Brother\". For instance, governments are  using them to keep tabs on people to stifle protest, free expression and assembly.* This is especially notable in the UK – a country renowned for its  surveillance culture – with more CCTV cameras per capita than anywhere else on the planet, and where the average person is filmed over 300 times each day. In 2012, there were   1.85 million CCTV cameras in the UK, 129,000 of which were high definition. By 2016, there are  3.7 million HD cameras, a 29-fold increase.*   "},{"title":"OLED displays are in widespread use","year":"2016","text":"Having         fallen greatly in cost, organic light-emitting diodes (OLED) are now available in a wide range of devices. These use  less power         than traditional LCDs whilst allowing sharper, thinner, brighter         displays. They also         eliminate the need for back lights. Sunlight that would normally \"wash         out\" a display has no effect – the screens appear the same even         in broad daylight, or when tilted at an angle.**   "},{"title":"Three-person babies","year":"2016","text":"A new method of IVF which involves the creation of babies with three parents has been introduced in the UK.* The controversial technique uses DNA from parents and combines it with healthy mitochondria from a female donor. This can prevent a rare, potentially fatal disease occurring that would normally cause a severe lack of energy, muscle weakness and in some cases heart failure. Although the baby has genetic material from three people, regulations state that for legal purposes it has two and the donor remains anonymous. A number of ethical concerns are raised by this landmark in IVF, but the treatment is shown to be safe. More advanced techniques will emerge in the decades ahead, leading to \"designer babies\" for the wealthy.*   "},{"title":"China completes the largest environmental cleanup in its history","year":"2016","text":"The rapid growth of China in recent decades led to some truly appalling environmental conditions in the country, particularly the developing urban areas. Since 2006, China had been the world's largest producer of CO2, a result of coal power supplying 70% of the country's energy. Smog became a major problem in  cities, with lung disease affecting many millions of their inhabitants. By 2011, 16 of the world's 20 most polluted cities were located in China, with Linfen, Shanxi Province the most polluted overall.* Numerous rivers and aquifers were endangered.*To rectify these conditions, the Chinese government in 2011 began an ambitious Five Year Plan to stem the flow of pollutants and clean up the damage done.* A tax was applied to heavy polluters, based on the output of hazardous chemicals and sewage. The goal was to fix the situation caused by the previously unregulated industrial growth, which had first attracted the polluters to the country. The resultant revenue primarily went towards restoring damaged environments. Many non-profit groups aided in the cleanup during this time. New regulations were also introduced, putting a cap on energy use. Targets were set to lower carbon emissions significantly. This went along with China's long term goal of green energy dominance.Though some progress has been made over  this five year period, the entrenchment of dirty industry and the explosive growth of the country makes it very difficult to turn the environmental situation around. It will take decades of further work before China has transitioned to a truly green economy.   "},{"title":"Polymer banknotes are introduced by the Bank of England","year":"2016","text":"Until now, all banknotes in the UK were made from cotton fibre and linen rag. This  made them susceptible to dirt and damage – five pound notes in particular, which lasted on average for just one year. In late 2016, a new range of smaller, plastic banknotes enters circulation.* These are produced from a thin, transparent and flexible film made of polypropylene which offers a number of advantages:• They are resistant to dirt and moisture, so stay cleaner for longer than paper banknotes.• They are more secure than paper banknotes.  They can incorporate advanced security features, making them more difficult to counterfeit. This includes a portion of the film left clear to form a \"window\" in the design.• They are more durable.  They last at least 2.5 times longer than traditional paper banknotes, so will take longer to become \"tatty\", improving the quality of banknotes in circulation. They can even survive being put into a washing machine by accident, for example.In addition, they are more environmentally friendly   and, because they last longer are, over time, cheaper than paper   banknotes. Being thin and flexible, they fit into wallets and purses as easily as paper banknotes.Modern polymer banknotes were first issued as currency by Australia in 1988 (coinciding with that country's Bicentenary year). By the early 2010s, around 20 other countries were using them. "},{"title":"South Korean city Pyeongchang hosts the Winter Olympics","year":"2018","text":"The 2018 Winter Olympics take place from 9th February to 25th February 2018, in Pyeongchang, South Korea. The elected host city was announced by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in July 2011. Pyeongchang won on its third consecutive bid, having lost previously to Vancouver in Canada and Sochi in Russia. It is the first Winter Olympic Games and second Olympic Games in South Korea; the 1988 Summer Olympics were held in Seoul. Pyeongchang is also the third Asian city to host the Winter Games after Sapporo, Japan (1972) and Nagano, Japan (1998). It is the first Winter Olympic Games since 1992 to be held in a ski resort town. In June 2015, four new disciplines were approved for inclusion in the games: snowboarding big air; curling mixed doubles; speed skating mass start and Alpine skiing team.   "},{"title":"Launch of the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS)","year":"2018","text":"The Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) is a  space telescope intended to search for extrasolar planets using the transit method. It is part of NASA's long-running \"Explorer\" program which has been going since 1958 and involves working with a variety of other institutions and businesses. In this case, the $200m project is led by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), with seed funding from Google.Equipped with four wide-angle telescopes and charge-coupled device (CCD) detectors totalling 192 megapixels, TESS conducts a two-year all-sky survey focussed on nearby G, K and M-type stars with apparent magnitudes brighter than 12. Around 500,000 are studied – more than triple the 156,000 that Kepler was designed to observe – including the 1,000 closest red dwarfs. The region of sky covered is also 400 times bigger.Several thousand Earth-sized and larger exoplanets are identified, adding to the already huge tally from Kepler. Many of these candidate worlds are later investigated by the James Webb and other telescopes to enable more detailed analysis of their masses, sizes, orbits and atmospheres.In order to obtain unobstructed imagery of both the northern and southern hemispheres of the sky, TESS utilises a 2:1 lunar resonant orbit that has never been used before. The spacecraft's 373,000 km (232,000 mi) apogee is timed to keep the craft away from the Moon, which acts as a destabilising agent. This highly elliptical orbit remains stable for decades, and keeps the TESS's cameras in a suitable temperature range. The majority of the orbit is spent outside the Van Allen belts to avoid radiation damage. Every 13.7 days at its perigee of 108,000 km (67,000 mi), TESS downlinks the data it has collected over a period of approximately three hours. Originally planned for 2017, the TESS mission is delayed until 17th April 2018,* when it is placed into orbit by a SpaceX Falcon 9 Full Thrust rocket from the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station.       Credit: NASA      "},{"title":"Russia         hosts the FIFA World Cup","year":"2018","text":"The 2018 FIFA World Cup is held in Russia from 14th June to 15th July 2018. This is         the first time that Russia has hosted the World Cup. Some $10 billion is         spent on the tournament, which is spread over 14 venues including         Moscow and St. Petersburg. As of 2010,         there were no stadia in the country with 80,000+ capacities, but Luzhniki         Stadium in Moscow is expanded to 90,000 seats in time for the games. France beat Croatia in the final, winning 4-2. "},{"title":"The 5G standard is released","year":"2019-2020","text":"From 2019 to 2020, the next major cellular wireless standard is rolled out, providing vastly improved data transfer rates. The 5G family of standards is a major leap from previous generations in terms of power and connectivity.While 4G bandwidth was typically measured in tens of megabits per second, with peak speeds of around 100Mbps, the new 5G networks achieve an order of magnitude improvement – several hundred megabits per second in real-world, less-than-ideal conditions, with peaks of multi-gigabits per second. Streaming of 4K and even higher resolutions, along with near-instant downloads of high-definition videos and other large files, becomes the norm.A key advantage of 5G is Ultra Reliable Low Latency Communications (URLLC) – i.e. reduced time to pass a message from sender to receiver – barely a millisecond of delay compared to approximately 70 ms on 4G networks. This is especially useful in multiplayer mobile gaming, factory robots, remote surgery (a.k.a. telesurgery), self-driving cars and other tasks demanding an instant response.Another key feature is pervasive networks, which mean that a 5G user can be simultaneously connected to several wireless access technologies and seamlessly move between them, whether they are connected to 2.5G, 3G, 4G or 5G, Wi-Fi, WPAN or any other contemporary access technology. Multiple, concurrent data transfer paths are easily handled. Meanwhile, high-altitude stratospheric platform station (HAPS) systems using 5G can deliver high-speed Internet services to very large geographical areas.5G is among the most significant technologies of the early 21st century. It marks the true birth of the Internet of Things (IoT), triggering an unprecedented explosion of \"smart\" devices with multi-trillion-dollar impacts. It ensures one unified global standard with full compatibility, no matter what brand or model.The first phase is completed by March 2019, to accommodate early commercial deployment for approximately 20 operators around the world, including all major U.S. carriers. The second phase is completed by March 2020. The 5G standard is followed by 6G in the 2030s, offering terabit speeds.    "},{"title":"The New Horizons probe arrives at Kuiper Belt Object 2014 MU69","year":"2019 ","text":"After visiting Pluto and its moons in 2015, NASA's New Horizons probe began heading towards the Kuiper Belt – a remote ring of icy debris that surrounds our Solar System. The spacecraft performed a series of four manoeuvres in October and November 2015. These propulsions were the most distant trajectory correction ever performed by any space probe. New Horizons was now on course for a rendezvous with 2014 MU69, a Kuiper Belt object located a billion miles beyond Pluto.2014 MU69 was discovered in June 2014 by the Hubble Space Telescope. Based on its brightness and distance, it was estimated to have a diameter of 30–45 km (20–30 mi), with an orbital period of 293 years, low inclination and low eccentricity. This unexcited orbit meant that it was a cold classical Kuiper Belt Object, unlikely to have undergone significant perturbations. Further observations in May and July 2015 greatly reduced the uncertainties in the orbit, making it a suitable target for New Horizons. The probe finally reached this object – nicknamed Ultima Thule – on 1st January 2019.* At 6.5 billion km from Earth, it was the most distant body to ever be encountered by a spacecraft. The close flyby revealed it to be slightly smaller than expected, with a striking and highly unusual \"snowman\" shape consisting of a top and bottom section fused together and a light reddish-brown colour. New Horizons returned high-priority data and initial low-resolution images within hours of this rendezvous. At such a vast distance, however, the data rate was only 1–2 kilobits per second and the full download at higher resolution would take 20 months. The probe continues to study this region until 2022.*   "},{"title":"US copyright begins to expire, starting with all works from 1923","year":"2019 ","text":"Up until 1998, US copyright law stood with all works published before 1923 in the public domain, all works between 1923 and 1977 holding a copyright for 75 years (assuming a renewal was made) and  works published after 1977 holding a copyright dependent on the author's date of death.However, the Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998 made several revisions to the law. While all works published prior to 1923 remained in the public domain, all works published between 1923 and 1977 had their copyrights extended to 95 years after their creation. According to this law, the copyright of the first year of materials, 1923, will expire in 2019, assuming they did not have their copyright renewed. In 2020, all works from 1924 will enter the public domain, and so on.**Examples of works now entering the public domain this year include the Pulitzer Prize-winning collection of poems, New Hampshire, by Robert Frost; the Noël Coward play, The Young Idea; and the film, The Ten Commandments, directed by Cecil B. DeMille.  "},{"title":"Jair Bolsonaro becomes President of Brazil","year":"2019 ","text":"From mid-2014 to 2016, Brazil experienced a severe economic crisis. This became coupled with a political crisis that resulted in the impeachment of President Dilma Rousseff and in widespread dissatisfaction with the political system. In 2015, Brazil's gross domestic product (GDP) dropped by 3.9% due to falling wages, restrictions on credit and a rise in the basic interest rate. In 2016, it fell again, by 3.6%, with reductions across all sectors of the economy. This was the first time since 1931 that Brazil's GDP had fallen in two consecutive years.In 2017, a 1% rise in GDP for the first quarter of the year was reported; the first rise after eight consecutive falls over the previous two years. Minister of Finance Henrique Meirelles stated that the country had exited the \"greatest recession of the century\". However, economists warned that this growth characterised only the end of the \"technical recession\" and that it was still too early to declare the crisis over, given that unemployment remained high and much uncertainty persisted regarding the future of the country, especially in the aftermath of Brazil's political scandals.General elections were held in Brazil on 7th October 2018 to elect a new President, Vice President and the National Congress. Elections for state governors and vice governors, state legislative assemblies and the Legislative Chamber of the Federal District were also held. Jair Bolsonaro, Rio de Janeiro congressman and former army captain, won the first round of the presidential vote. On 28th October 2018, a run-off between him and Fernando Haddad, former São Paulo mayor, took place. With 55.1% of the popular vote, Bolsonaro was declared the winner.   Gustavo Lima / Câmara dos Deputados [CC BY 3.0],  via Wikimedia Commons A polarising and controversial politician, Bolsonaro's views and comments – described as far-right and extremely conservative in nature – had drawn both praise and criticism. On 6th September 2018, while campaigning in the southeast of Brazil, he survived an assassination attempt when a 40-year-old man stabbed him, causing major blood loss. Later that month, hundreds of thousands of people across Brazil staged protests against Bolsonaro's candidacy.Throughout his political career, Bolsonaro had expressed his admiration for Brazil's military dictatorship, which ruled from 1964 to 1985, describing it as a \"glorious\" period in the country's history. He also repeatedly praised other Latin American dictatorships.Bolsonaro vowed to improve relations between the United States and Brazil, praising Donald Trump and his foreign policy. Regarding the State of Palestine (recognised by 137 U.N. members), he stated it was \"not a country, so there should be no embassy here\", adding \"You don't negotiate with terrorists.\" Bolsonaro's son Eduardo indicated that Brazil should distance itself from Iran, sever ties with Nicolás Maduro's government in Venezuela and relocate Brazil's embassy in Israel to Jerusalem.Bolsonaro frequently provoked outrage for what many viewed as racist, homophobic and misogynistic remarks. In 2015, he argued that men and women should not receive equal salaries, because women get pregnant, adding that he believed the mandating of paid maternity leave harmed work productivity. During a public speech in 2017, he said that his first four children were male, but the fifth he produced was a daughter out of \"a moment of weakness\". Bolsonaro also stated that \"I would be incapable of loving a gay son\", adding that he would prefer any gay son of his \"to die in an accident\". He was described by The Advocate, an LGBT magazine, as \"Brazil's biggest homophobe\".Bolsonaro's election victory was seen as a crushing blow for the environment. He pledged to dramatically expand the available land for agriculture, energy, mining and other activities in the Amazon, as well as the vast and biologically rich savannas to the south. He promised to ban international NGOs such as Greenpeace and WWF from  the country. He also came out strongly against lands reserved for indigenous tribes. Under his policies, from 2021 to 2030, accumulated emissions from clear-cutting the world's biggest rainforest would attain 13.12 gigatons of carbon dioxide equivalent (GtCO2e), making it all but impossible for Brazil to fulfil its commitments to the Paris Agreement. This quadrupling of deforestation would represent 20% of the \"free\" carbon budget remaining to achieve the 1.5° Celsius IPCC goal.Shortly before his inauguration, reports emerged on social media that more than 20 universities in Brazil had been subjected to invasions by military police, confiscation of teaching materials on ideological grounds, and the suppression of freedom of speech and expression – especially in relation to anti-fascist history and activism.These controversies would continue throughout his presidency. Bolsonaro's four-year term began on 1st January 2019.  "},{"title":"The first soft landing on the far side of the Moon","year":"2019 ","text":"On 3rd January 2019, China made the first soft landing on the far side of the Moon with its Chang'e 4 probe. Named after the Chinese Moon goddess, Chang'e, this was a follow-up to Chang'e 3, a landing on the Moon's near side that occurred in December 2013. The landing site of Chang'e 4 was within a large crater called Von Kármán, about 180 km (110 mi) in diameter, in the South Pole-Aitken Basin.Like its predecessor, Chang'e 4 included a small rover with science instruments – a panoramic camera (PCAM), lunar ground-penetrating radar (LPR), visible and near-infrared imaging spectrometer (VNIS) and Advanced Small Analyser for Neutrals (ASAN). The VNIS would be used for identification of surface materials and atmospheric trace gases, while the ASAN would study the effects of solar wind and the process behind the formation of water. The rover's nominal operating time was three months, but after the experience with Chang'e 3 in 2013, the design was improved and Chinese engineers were hopeful it could last for \"a few years\".The lander also carried a 3 kg (6.6 lb) sealed \"biosphere\" with seeds and insect eggs to test whether flora and fauna could hatch and grow together in synergy on the lunar surface. The experiment included seeds of potatoes and Arabidopsis thaliana, as well as silkworm eggs. Environmental systems would keep the container hospitable and Earth-like, except for the low lunar gravity, with a miniature camera to monitor any growth.Chang'e 4 would be followed by additional Chang'e 5 and Chang'e 6 probes, aiming to collect at least 2 kg (4.4 lb) of lunar soil and rock samples and return them back to Earth, the first such effort since Russia's Luna 24 in 1976. These missions were intended to pave the way for a Chinese crewed landing.   Credit: China National Space Administration (CNSA)  "},{"title":"The Emperor of Japan abdicates","year":"2019 ","text":"On 30th April 2019, Emperor Akihito of Japan abdicates his position, due to old age (85) and declining health. He is the first Japanese monarch to do so in over two centuries. This marks the end of the Heisei period (1989–2019) and precipitates numerous festivities leading up to the accession of his successor, the Crown Prince Naruhito. Akihito's younger son, Prince Akishino, becomes his brother's heir presumptive. Official farewell celebrations begin with a 30th Jubilee ceremony on 12th February. This is followed by a special ten-day block of Golden Week holidays lasting from 27th April to 6th May. The Enthronement Ceremony takes place on 22nd October, marking the end of the transition period, which is an extra public holiday. An abdication within the Japanese Imperial Family had not occurred since Emperor K�kaku in 1817.   "},{"title":"Europe's Galileo satellite navigation system is fully operational","year":"2019 ","text":"Galileo is a global navigation satellite system (GNSS)  built by the European Union (EU) and European Space Agency (ESA). The €5 billion project is named after the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei. One of the aims of Galileo is to provide a high-precision positioning system upon which European nations can rely, independently from the Russian GLONASS, American GPS, and Chinese Compass systems, which can be disabled in times of war or political conflict.When in operation, it uses two ground operation centres near Munich, Germany and in Fucino, Italy. In 2010, Prague in the Czech Republic was voted by EU ministers as the headquarters for the project. In 2011, the first two of four operational satellites were launched to validate the system. The next two followed in 2012, making it possible to test Galileo \"end-to-end\". Once this In-Orbit Validation (IOV) phase was completed, more satellites were launched, reaching Initial Operational Capability (IOC) in the middle of the decade. Full completion of the 30 satellites in the Galileo system (27 operational + 3 active spares) is achieved in 2019.* Europe now has its own independent satellite navigation capability.*In addition to basic navigation services free of charge (giving horizontal and vertical measurements accurate to within 1 metre), Galileo provides a unique global Search and Rescue (SAR) function. Satellites can relay distress signals from a user's transmitter to the Rescue Coordination Centre, which then initiates a rescue operation. At the same time, the system provides a signal to the user, informing them that their situation has been detected and that help is on the way. This latter feature is a major upgrade compared to the existing GPS and GLONASS systems, which do not provide feedback to the user. The use of basic (low-precision) Galileo services is free and open to everyone. High-precision capabilities are available for paying commercial users and for military use.       Credit: Lukas Rohrt  "},{"title":"Connected vehicle technology is being deployed in a number of countries","year":"2019 ","text":"Many of the world's cars are already linked to the Internet in some way. By 2019, another layer of technology is being added in the form of wireless connections between vehicles.* Using a combination of Wi-Fi and GPS signals, they are now able to alert drivers to potential hazards or obstructions. For example, if a car two vehicles ahead of the driver brakes, but the car immediately in front  does not, this technology  warns him/her with a loud beep and flashing red lights on the windshield to hit the brakes.By communicating with each other and the roadway infrastructure, cars now have greatly improved safety, while  traffic congestion and carbon emissions are reduced. In fact, the system is so effective that in some countries, accident fatalities drop by  80%.* It soon becomes mandatory, due to the obvious economic and safety benefits. This technology had already begun to appear on trucks, a few years earlier. Now passenger cars are using it too.   "},{"title":"Automated         freight transport","year":"2019 ","text":"Autonomous         rapid transit has already been in place at certain airports         and on city metro systems. By 2019, it has begun spreading to public roads, with a number of driverless trucks  appearing.* These are capable of travelling hundreds of miles, negotiating     traffic and  obstacles  using advanced GPS, lidar and other technologies. They have a number of advantages over human drivers – such as being         able to operate for 24 hours a day without getting tired, never being absent,         and not requiring a salary or training. These become increasingly widespread in the 2020s and 2030s.   © Scanrail | Dreamstime.com  "},{"title":"LEDs dominate the lighting industry","year":"2019 ","text":" Light-emitting diode (LED) lamps are 20 times more efficient and over 100 times longer lasting than incandescent bulbs. LEDs were first demonstrated in the early 1960s, but were low-powered and only emitted light in the low, red frequencies of the spectrum. For many years, they were   used as indicators such as red standby dots on TVs.The first high-brightness blue LED was achieved in 1994 (an invention that earned the researchers a Nobel Prize in October 2014*). The existence of blue LEDs and high-efficiency LEDs quickly led to the development of the first white LED, which employed a phosphor coating to mix down-converted yellow light with blue to produce light that appeared white. As the technology developed further and the lamps became brighter, LEDs found new roles in a wide range of home, business and other applications.Governments around the world began passing measures to phase out incandescent light bulbs for general lighting in favour of more energy-efficient alternatives.* These regulations effectively banned the manufacture, importation or sale of traditional filament bulbs – first in Brazil and Venezuela (2005), then most of Europe (2009), Australia (2009), Argentina (2012), Canada (2012), Russia (2012) and the United States (2012). Other countries would follow later in the decade, including China.*By the early 2010s, many cities were recognising the benefits of LED lighting for streets and public areas. In particular, social housing communal areas could be made to feel safer and more secure,** while delivering huge energy savings in the long term (90%) and reducing the need for maintenance. Buildings that once appeared dim and foreboding at night were now illuminated with fresher, brighter light more closely resembling daylight. In addition, light pollution could be reduced with innovations in the way light was focussed, preventing it from overlapping or flooding areas it was not needed.*Among the early adopters were Los Angeles – which completed a massive retrofit in 2012 – and New York which replaced all 250,000 of its street lights with LEDs by 2017.* The market share of LEDs continued to increase rapidly, as prices tumbled and public awareness grew. By the end of this decade, they comprise a clear majority of total sales in the lighting industry.* Regulations on mercury begin to limit the sale of fluorescent lamps from 2020,* boosting the uptake of LEDs even further in the years ahead.*    "},{"title":"The City Circle Line opens in Copenhagen","year":"2019 ","text":"Copenhagen's Metro was first opened in 2002. Back then, only two lines were operational – running from Vanløse to Vestamager and Lergravsparken. The next phase commenced in  2007, with an extension of the existing line to Copenhagen Airport. This meant that journeys from the city centre of Copenhagen to the airport could be achieved in just 14 minutes. The fourth phase of the Metro is called Cityringen, or the City Circle Line. This route is a substantial upgrade, with 17 new stations covering major parts of the city centre as well as the Østerbro, Nørrebro, and Vesterbro districts and the Municipality of Frederiksberg previously not covered by the S-train or Metro line service. It takes approximately 24 minutes to travel all the way around the circle line. Originally planned for 2018, it is delayed by a year, opening in 2019.*   "},{"title":"The CHEOPS telescope is deployed to study exoplanets","year":"2019 ","text":"In late 2019, the European Space Agency  (ESA) launches a new satellite to hunt for exoplanets. Its focus of study is nearby star systems already known to host Earth-to-Neptune size planets. The small CHaracterising ExOPlanets Satellite (CHEOPS)  operates in a Sun-synchronous low-Earth orbit at 435 miles (700 km) altitude and has a  mission lifetime of 3.5 years. It is powerful and precise enough to form accurate measurements of a planet's radius, as well as determining the likely density and internal structure. The mission  provides unique targets for more detailed follow-up studies by the next generation of telescopes such as the ground-based European Extremely Large Telescope and the James Webb Space Telescope. Originally planned for launch in 2017, CHEOPS was delayed until the end of 2018, then delayed yet again until late 2019.*       Credit: University of Bern/CERN           "},{"title":"At some point during this period, the USA is struck by the most devastating earthquake in its history","year":"2020-2060","text":"The Cascadia Subduction Zone is a 600 mile-long converging plate boundary stretching from northern California to southern British Columbia. The fault  causes a major earthquake about once every 300 years. Compared to other fault lines, this is an unusually long return time – resulting in greater stress build-up and stronger subsequent earthquakes. The last major event (a so-called megathrust quake) took place in 1700 and was estimated to have had a magnitude of at least 9.0.Since then, the movement of the two plates has steadily built up pressure. In the first half of the 21st century, the fault exceeds the vast majority of previous time intervals in recorded history.* During this time, the plates  finally slip, resulting in the single most devastating earthquake in United States history.*** It is centred on the state of Oregon, with a duration of several minutes, inflicting deadly damage to major population centres like Portland, Seattle, Olympia and even Vancouver and Victoria. Of course, many structures have been retrofitted and are able to withstand the earthquake, along with the majority of newer buildings. However, years of economic trouble, as well as a general inexperience of large earthquakes, have left many structures vulnerable.Bridges and highways collapse, while the ground in the Seattle bay area liquefies, dragging  buildings underwater. Broken gas mains and power lines spark many fires. The quake  generates massive tsunamis,* which inundate coastal communities from California to Alaska. These giant waves are  sent racing across the Pacific, causing damage as far away as Hawaii and Japan. Millions are left without power, while emergency responders struggle to adapt to the scale of the disaster. The death toll quickly reaches into the thousands, while the financial cost exceeds $100 billion. Along with the similarly devastating southern California earthquake, this disaster pushes much of the American west coast toward financial ruin.  "},{"title":"Exascale computers are deployed","year":"2021","text":"An exaFLOP is 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 (a million trillion, or one quintillion) floating point operations per second. The world's top supercomputers are now reaching this speed, which is a 1,000-fold improvement over a petaFLOP machine.The growth of computing power had followed an exponential trend for many years. However, a slowdown in the rate of progress was observed during the second half of the 2010s. It had earlier been predicted that exaFLOP machines would arrive by the end of the decade, but this schedule appeared to slip as technical and funding issues were encountered. IBM unveiled \"Summit\" – featuring a peak performance of 200 petaFLOPS – which became the world's fastest supercomputer in June 2018, a title it would retain into 2019 and 2020. Several challengers were waiting in the wings, including three exaFLOP machines being developed by China, three by the USA and others by the European Union, India, Japan and Taiwan. These would be deployed during the early and mid-2020s. China was the first country to achieve a \"peak\" exaFLOP machine, but there were ongoing delays in  reaching a sustained exaFLOP performance. By 2021, this is finally demonstrated, using processors designed and manufactured domestically. Among the new machines is Tianhe-3, successor to the Tianhe-2.* After China, the next countries to demonstrate a sustained exaFLOP performance are the United States and Japan.*Exascale computing leads to revolutionary advances in a number of  fields – allowing simulations of greater scale, complexity and duration than ever before. Neuroscience is one area of particular note, as it becomes possible to simulate the entire human brain in real-time, down to the level of individual neurons. Subsequent upgrades to existing machines, along with entirely new machines, enable further orders of magnitude gains in performance and pave the way to zettaFLOP supercomputers in the 2030s.   "},{"title":"The ExoMars rover touches down on Mars","year":"2021","text":"ExoMars is a joint mission between the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos). Divided into two parts, the first phase of the mission was launched in 2016, arriving nine months later. This consisted of an orbiter – ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter – for mapping sources of methane and other gases on Mars, to determine the best location for a rover to study. It also contained a  static demonstration module to prove the landing site was viable.The second phase is launched in 2020, arriving in   2021 with the ExoMars rover built by ESA. This lands on Mars using a \"sky crane\" system, in which four rockets  slow the descent once the main parachute has been deployed. The landing site is near the equator to maximise available solar power.The rover's primary objective is to determine any signs of microbial life on Mars, past or present. It is equipped with a drill that bores down two metres below the surface to retrieve samples. These are transferred to a miniature laboratory inside the rover. This  contains a sensor for biological molecules, infrared and X-ray spectroscopes that catalogue the mineralogical makeup of the sample, together with imaging devices.Located in the drill structure is another infrared spectrometer that studies the inside surface of the bore hole. ExoMars uses ground-penetrating radar to search for ideal locations at which to drill. The mission is almost entirely automated, as the rover uses imaging cameras to create a 3D map of the terrain in order to avoid obstacles. It has a lifespan of six months, travelling approximately 100 metres each day and testing dozens of different samples.The spacecraft was scheduled to launch in 2018 and land on Mars in early 2019, but due to delays in European and Russian industrial activities and deliveries of the scientific payload, it was moved to the launch window in July 2020. With a journey time of nine months, it arrives in March 2021.*       Credit: ESA        "},{"title":"The James Webb Space Telescope is launched","year":"2021","text":"The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is the long-awaited successor to the aging Hubble Space Telescope. Named after James E. Webb – the NASA administrator from 1961 to 1968 – it is developed as a collaboration between NASA, the European Space Agency, and the Canadian Space Agency.The JWST is located near Earth–Sun Lagrangian point L2 with an orbital distance that varies from 374,000 km (232,000 mi) to as far away as 1,500,000 km (930,000 mi). It is designed to offer unprecedented resolution and sensitivity from long-wavelength visible light through the mid-infrared range. While the Hubble Space Telescope had a 4.5 m2 (48 sq ft) primary mirror, the JWST's collecting area is nearly six times larger at 25 m2 (270 sq ft). This is composed of 18 hexagonal mirror segments working in unison. In terms of magnification, it is 100 times more powerful than Hubble, making it capable of seeing the very first generation of stars that ignited less than 200 million years after the Big Bang – a time when the universe was only 1.4% of its current age. If a bumblebee was placed on the Moon's surface, the JWST would be able to spot the insect both in reflected light, and from its body heat.* A large sunshield keeps the telescope's instruments below 50 K (−220 °C; −370 °F).The JWST has four main scientific goals:• To search for light from the first stars and galaxies that formed in the Universe after the Big Bang  • To study the formation and evolution of galaxies  • To understand the formation of stars and planetary systems  • To study planetary systems and the origins of lifeThe JWST was first proposed in 1996, at which time its cost was estimated at $0.5 billion, with a launch date of 2007. Over the years, however, the costs began to spiral upwards and the schedule faced major delays. By 2018, the project had mushroomed to $9.7 billion, with a launch date of March 2021.*         Credit: NASA   "},{"title":"First uncrewed maiden flight of NASA's Space Launch System (SLS)","year":"2021","text":"The Space Launch System (SLS) is an expendable launch vehicle in the \"super heavy-lift\" class, developed from 2011 onwards and intended to supersede the retired Space Shuttle as NASA's flagship vehicle.Initially designed to carry 70 metric tons (150,000 lb) into low Earth orbit (LEO), the SLS later exceeded that requirement by a significant margin, with a rated payload capacity of 95 metric tons (209,000 lb). Future versions, known as Block 2, would have upgrades including advanced boosters, with an even greater LEO capability of more than 130 metric tons (290,000 lb). For comparison, the earlier Space Shuttle program of 1981 to 2011 had a maximum payload capacity of only 27.5 tons (60,600 lb), or about 21% of the SLS Block 2.The SLS was to become the primary launch vehicle of NASA's deep space exploration plans – including crewed lunar flights of the Artemis program and a subsequent follow-on human mission to Mars. It would also be used for constructing a new space station in orbit around the Moon.A first uncrewed maiden flight occurs in 2021,* which is followed by a crewed lunar flyby in 2022. Additional launches include a Block 1 Cargo flight that delivers the Europa Clipper probe to Jupiter via a direct Hohmann transfer orbit. The human missions to lunar orbit and beyond make use of a partially reusable module atop the SLS, known as the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (Orion MPCV), which can support a crew of six on long-duration missions.While the SLS is extremely powerful (featuring the highest ever total thrust at launch), the project is criticised for its cost, in comparison to new and emerging commercial rockets, which can also provide greater reusability – such as those developed by SpaceX and Blue Origin. This forces a rethink of NASA's funding as the private sector takes on an increasingly large role in spaceflight, contributing to an industry worth $1 trillion by the late 2030s. "},{"title":"India becomes the most populous country on Earth","year":"2022","text":"India is now overtaking China to become the most populous country on the planet, with over 1.4 billion people.* The gap between these two countries will begin to widen as China peaks and declines, while India continues to soar ahead. An earlier estimate by the UN had forecast India to reach this point by 2030. However, its population was subsequently found to be growing faster than expected. By 2040, its economy is rivalling both China and the USA* with its population maintaining growth until the 2060s. A major driver of India's prosperity is the rapid expansion of its energy sector. Huge rural areas undergo electrification with solar playing a key role* – now cheaper and more efficient than ever before and even challenging the dominance of coal.* With its plentiful sunlight, India is geographically well placed to capture this energy source* and 100GW are installed by 2022.*   "},{"title":"The ITER experimental fusion reactor is switched on","year":"2022","text":"Human-engineered         fusion was already  demonstrated on a small scale. The problem has         been finding ways of scaling it up to commercial levels in an efficient,         economical, and environmentally benign way.ITER –              previously known as the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor         – aims to be the first project to achieve this. Built in southern France         at a cost of €20 billion, it has taken over a decade to construct         and is among the largest scientific projects ever undertaken, second         only to the International Space Station. This joint research experiment         is funded by the US, EU, Japan, Russia, China, India and South Korea.To demonstrate         net fusion power on a large scale, the reactor must simulate the conditions         at the Sun's core. For this, it uses a magnetic confinement device         called a tokamak. This doughnut-shaped vacuum chamber generates a powerful         magnetic field that prevents heat from touching the reactor's walls.         Tiny quantities of fuel are injected into and trapped within the chamber.         Here they are heated to 100 million degrees, forming a plasma. At such         high temperatures, the light atomic nuclei of hydrogen become fused         together, creating heavier forms of hydrogen such as deuterium and tritium.         This releases neutrons and a huge amount of energy.Following         its operational activation in 2022,* it         is hoped that ITER will eventually produce over 500 megawatts of         power, in bursts of 400 seconds or more. This compares with 16 MW for         the Joint European Torus (JET) in 1997, the previous world record peak       fusion power, which lasted only a few seconds.ITER will         require many more years before its reactor has been sufficiently         perfected. To generate the sort of continuous levels of power required         for commercial operation, it will need a way of holding the plasma in         place at the critical densities and temperatures. This will need refinements         in the design of the chamber, such as better superconducting magnets         and advances in vacuum systems.However,         it could ultimately lead to a revolution in energy. If this project         were to succeed, humanity would gain a virtually unlimited supply of       clean, green electricity.*       Credit: ITER  "},{"title":"Germany         phases out nuclear energy","year":"2022","text":"After the         Fukushima disaster in Japan, a number of countries began to reconsider         their use of nuclear power. Germany was among the nations to abandon         this form of energy altogether. Its government had originally planned         to keep plants running until 2036, but this schedule was brought forward.         Seven plants which had been temporarily shut down for testing in 2011,         and an eighth taken offline for technical problems, would remain closed         permanently. The remaining nine plants would be shut down by 2022.Prior to         this phasing out, nuclear power in Germany had produced  a quarter         of the country's electricity and the industry employed some 30,000 people.         The shortfall would be made up by renewables, a temporary increase in coal use* and the cutting of electricity usage by 10 percent through more efficient machinery and buildings.* "},{"title":"A tipping point for block chain","year":"2023-2027","text":"Bitcoin is a form of digital money that was created in 2009 by an unknown person. As a decentralised virtual currency, the system is peer-to-peer and transactions take place between users directly, without the need for banks or transaction fees.* These payments are verified by network nodes and recorded in a public distributed ledger called the \"block chain\", which uses bitcoin as its unit of account. Although these records are public, the names of buyers and sellers are completely anonymous; only their wallet IDs are revealed. International payments are easy and cheap, since bitcoins are not tied to any specific country and are mostly unregulated.New bitcoins are created as a reward for payment processing work in which users offer their computer processing power to verify and record payments into the public ledger. This activity is known as \"mining\" and miners are rewarded with transaction fees and newly created bitcoins. Besides being obtained by mining, bitcoins can be exchanged for other currencies, products, and services. Bitcoin became the first cryptocurrency – and by far the most well-known – but various others were introduced in subsequent years. These were frequently  referred to as altcoins; a blend of bitcoin alternative. The underlying block chain technology of these virtual currencies grew in popularity. Money was just one of their many possible applications. They could be programmed to represent units of energy, shares in a company, election votes, digital certificates of ownership,  or whatever properties its users wished to assign. The open, transparent and flexible nature of cryptocurrencies helped to reduce bureaucracy, made administrative processes faster and more efficient and enabled the automation of many systems.This became especially useful as the Internet of Things began to take shape. Machines could be programmed to automatically perform transactions and order new items or services when required, using the block chain for verification, without the need for banks or middle men. For example, a fridge or vending machine would know when its supplies were running low and ensure that food was kept regularly stocked.In 2015, the number of merchants accepting bitcoin for products and services passed 100,000. Block chain was described as \"one of the most powerful innovations in finance in 500 years\" by the Wall Street Journal, with many banks predicting it could revolutionise their operations.* A tipping point for government use of the technology occurs by 2023, with large-scale adoption by businesses and the public by 2027.* Around 10% of the world's gross domestic product (GDP) is stored on a block chain by this time, compared to just 0.025% in 2015. The supply growth is 25 bitcoins per block in 2016 (approximately every ten minutes), then afterwards 12.5 bitcoins per block for four years until the next halving. This halving continues until 2110–40, when 21 million bitcoins have been issued.*   "},{"title":"Xi Jinping extends his presidency","year":"2023","text":"On 15th November 2012, Xi Jinping was elected as General Secretary of China's Communist Party, replacing Hu Jintao. In his opening speech, he mentioned the aspirations of the average person, remarking, \"Our people ... expect better education, more stable jobs, better income, more reliable social security, medical care of a higher standard, more comfortable living conditions, and a more beautiful environment.\"Xi also vowed to root out corruption at the highest levels and warned that it could threaten the Party's survival. This move subsequently led to the downfall of prominent Communist Party officials – including members of the Politburo Standing Committee, China's highest decision-making body.On 14th March 2013, Xi was elected President of the People's Republic of China, in a confirmation vote by the 12th National People's Congress, once again replacing Hu Jintao, who retired after serving two terms.Xi introduced far-ranging measures to enforce party discipline and ensure unity. He significantly centralised institutional power by taking on a wide range of leadership positions – including chairing the newly formed National Security Commission. In addition to his anti-corruption campaign, he tightened restrictions over civil society and ideological discourse, advocating Internet censorship across China. He called for further socialist market economic reforms, for governing according to the law and for strengthening legal institutions, with an emphasis on individual and national aspirations under the slogan \"Chinese Dream\".Xi espoused a more assertive foreign policy, particularly with regard to China–Japan relations, China's claims in the South China Sea, and its role as a leading advocate of free trade and globalisation. The 2015 meeting between Xi and Taiwanese President Ma Ying-jeou marked the first time the political leaders of both sides of the Taiwan Strait had met since the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1950.In 2018, Forbes ranked Xi as the most powerful and influential person in the world, dethroning Russian President Vladimir Putin who held the accolade for five consecutive years. Viewed as one of the most important leaders in modern Chinese history, Xi amended the state constitution to abolish term limits, allowing him to continue serving as President beyond 2023.**Among the major challenges facing China in the 2020s is a slowdown in population growth. The country had abandoned its one-child policy in 2015.* However, the relaxation of family planning laws did little to reverse this trend. Combined with rapid increases in life expectancy, China is therefore now experiencing the same problems that its rival, Japan, underwent in earlier decades. Substantial investments are being made for elderly care, along with measures to increase the economic productivity of its shrinking worker base.To consolidate his power, President Xi takes advantage of the ongoing progress in artificial intelligence (AI), leading to a further crackdown on civil liberties as surveillance methods become ever more advanced. These and other technologies are also employed to great effect in foreign operations such as hacking, industrial espionage, spying and general cyber activities.Other developments around this time include a further colonisation of islands in the South China Sea, plus additional pressure on Taiwan (though stopping short of all-out war) and progress on the Belt and Road Initiative.* China also continues to lead the global effort against climate change, with additional large-scale closures of coal-fired plants and a huge increase in clean energy capacity. By the middle of this decade, 50% of the country's electricity is produced from renewable sources, more than twice the amount in 2015.China continues its move away from being the world's factory floor (cheap goods and low quality) to higher value products and services (e.g. aerospace, automotive, IT, pharmaceutical, robotics and semiconductors). Despite various economic, demographic and other challenges, it continues to edge ahead of the United States and to increase its share of global GDP.   "},{"title":"The Aerion AS2 supersonic jet enters service","year":"2023","text":"Following many years of research and development, a supersonic business jet for the super rich is launched this year by the aerospace company Aerion. Known as the AS2, it has a top speed of Mach 1.5, which is 67 percent faster than the top cruise speeds of conventional long-haul subsonic aircraft. Carrying between eight and 12 passengers, the AS2 has a range of 4,750 nautical miles at supersonic speed. It can save 2.5 hours across the Atlantic versus subsonic aircraft and more than five hours on longer trans-Pacific routes. This three-engine jet has its first test flight in 2021 and enters commercial service in 2023.* A competitor supersonic jet – the Spike S-512 – was launched some years earlier, in 2018.* These jets are among the first in a new generation of dramatically faster airliners. The wing design of the AS2 allows for lighter fuel consumption and increased travel ranges by reducing aerodynamic drag by 20%.*   "},{"title":"The Large Synoptic Survey Telescope begins full operations","year":"2023","text":"Joining the European Extremely Large Telescope this year is another observatory, the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST), beginning full operations for a ten-year study.* This wide-field \"survey\" reflecting telescope is located on the 2,715 m (8,907 ft) Cerro Pachón, a mountain in northern Chile.The LSST design is unique among large telescopes in having a very wide field of view: 3.5 degrees in diameter or 9.6 square degrees. For comparison, both the Sun and Moon, as seen from the Earth, are 0.5 degrees across or 0.2 square degrees. Combined with its large aperture, this provides it with a spectacularly large collecting power of 319 m²degree². In other words, vast amounts of data can be obtained  simultaneously over huge areas of sky.The observatory has a 3.2 gigapixel camera, taking 200,000 pictures (1.28 petabytes uncompressed) per year, far more than can be reviewed by humans. Managing and effectively data mining this enormous output is among the most technically difficult parts of the project, requiring 100 teraflops of computing power and 15 petabytes of storage. The main scientific goals of the LSST include:"},{"title":"The next generation of London Tube trains","year":"2024-2064","text":"A new generation of London Underground trains enters service during 2024,* remaining in operation for 40 years.* The aging Tube network had been underinvested for decades – resulting in ever-worsening delays, overcrowding and safety issues. In the early 21st century, however, a massive programme of upgrades and modernisation was initiated. This included a £16bn ($26bn) project announced by Transport for London in October 2014, intended to fundamentally overhaul its rolling stock.These futuristic new carriages were designed to accommodate the city's rapidly increasing population (forecast to grow by 37% to 11 million by 2050),* address safety concerns, improve usability for the disabled and offer a more pleasant overall experience for travellers. Step-free trains and wider doors would enable those in wheelchairs to have seamless access from platform to carriage, while door barriers placed on the edge (already introduced on the Jubilee Line) could prevent suicides or accidents.With trains designed to be more spacious and easier to board – in combination with modern signalling and control systems – a faster, more frequent and more reliable service could be provided. The Piccadilly line, for example, serving many of London's top tourist attractions, would have its capacity boosted by 60%, equivalent to an extra 19,000 customers per hour.*In the past, summer temperatures and humidity on some lines were known to reach levels unsuitable for cattle transport, let alone humans. All of these new carriages now feature air conditioning, for vastly improved comfort. In addition, hi-tech electronic displays provide real-time information, while better lighting creates more of a \"living room\" feel.The New Tube is first introduced on the Piccadilly line in 2024, followed by the Bakerloo, Central and Waterloo & City lines. Self-driving trains are deployed from the early 2030s.* These had already been present on some parts of the network, such as the Docklands Light Railway (DLR) in the Canary Wharf financial district. As they become widespread on the main Tube lines as well, these automated systems bring to an end the notorious union strikes that had caused severe disruption in earlier decades. However, there is criticism over the costs and safety aspects.*Another development in 2024 is access to 4G, which is now available in all stations and tunnels. The final installations are completed this year, with plans now underway for upgrading the network to 5G. "},{"title":"Unemployment is soaring","year":"2025-2050","text":"The second quarter of the 21st century is marked by a rapid rise in unemployment around much of the world.* This results in considerable economic, political and cultural upheaval. For most of the 200 years since the Industrial Revolution, new advances in technology and automation had tended to create more jobs than they destroyed. By the 21st century, however, this was no longer true. A fundamental change had begun to occur.**Median wages, already falling in recent decades, had continued to stagnate – particularly in the West.*** Globalisation and the outsourcing of jobs to overseas markets with lower international labour rates had, of course, been partly responsible in the past. But a growing and rapidly accelerating trend was the impact of machines and intelligent software programs. Not only were their physical abilities becoming more humanlike;******** in many ways their analytical and cognitive skills were beginning to match those of people too.******Blue collar workers had traditionally borne the brunt of layoffs from technological unemployment. This time, white collar jobs were no longer safe either.* Advanced robotics, increasingly sophisticated algorithms, deep learning networks, exponential growth in computer processing power and bandwidth, voice/facial recognition and other tech – all were paving the way towards a highly automated society. Furthermore, of the (few) new jobs being created, most were in highly skilled roles, making it hard or impossible for those made redundant to adapt. Many workers now faced permanent unemployment.By 2025, transport was among the sectors feeling the biggest impacts.* The idea of self-driving vehicles had  once been science fiction, but money was being poured into  research and development. In 2015, the first licenced autonomous truck was announced. These hi-tech vehicles saw rapid adoption. Initially they required a driver to be present, who could take over in case of emergencies, but later versions were fully autonomous.* In the US alone, there were 3.5 million truck drivers, with a further 5.2 million people in non-driving jobs that were dependent on the truck-driving industry, such as highway cafes and motels where  drivers would stop to eat, drink, rest and sleep. A similar trend would follow with other vehicle types,* such as taxis, alongside public transport including trains – notably the London Underground.* With humans totalling 1/3rd of operating costs from their salaries alone, the business case was strong. Self-driving vehicles would never require a salary, training, sleep, pension payments, health insurance, holidays or other associated costs/time, would never drink alcohol, and never be distracted by mobile phones or tempted by road rage.Manufacturing was another area seeing rapid change. This sector had already witnessed heavy automation in earlier decades, in the form of robots capable of constructing cars. In general, however, these machines were limited to a fixed set of pre-defined movements – repetitive actions performed over and over again. Robots with far more adaptability and dynamism would emerge during the early 21st century. Just one example was \"Baxter\", developed by Rethink Robotics.* Baxter could understand its environment and was safe enough to work shoulder-to-shoulder with people while offering a broad range of skills. Priced at only $22,000 this model was aimed at midsize and small manufacturers, companies that had never been able to afford robots before. It was fast and easy to configure, going from delivery to the factory floor in under an hour, unlike traditional robots that required manufacturers to develop custom software and make additional capital investments.Robots were increasingly used in aerospace,* agriculture,*** cleaning,* delivery services (via drone),** elderly care homes, hospitals,* hotels,** kitchens,** military operations,**** mining,* retail environments,* security patrols** and warehouses.* In the scientific arena, some machines were now performing the equivalent of 12 years' worth of human research in a week.* Rapid growth in solar PV installations led some analysts to believe that a new era of green jobs was about to explode,* but robots were capable of this task with greater speed and efficiency than human engineers.*Holographic representations of people were also being deployed in various public assistant/receptionist roles. While the first generation lacked the ability to hold a two-way conversation, later versions became more interactive and intelligent.**Other examples of automation included self-service checkouts,* later followed by more advanced checkout-free payments via a combination of sensors and machine vision* (which also enabled stock levels to be monitored and audited without humans). Cafes and restaurants had begun using a system of touchscreen displays, tablets and mobile apps to improve the speed and accuracy of the order process,* with many establishments also providing machines to rapidly create and dispense meals/drinks,* particularly in fast food chains like McDonalds.AI software, algorithms and mobile apps had exploded in use during the 2010s and this trend continued in subsequent decades. Some bots were now capable of writing and publishing their own articles online.* Virtual lawyers were being developed to predict the likely outcome and impact of law suits; there were virtual doctors and medical bots (such as Watson), with increasingly computerised analysis and reporting of big data (able to find the proverbial \"needle in a haystack\" with hyper-accuracy and speed);* virtual teachers and other virtual professions.3D printing was another emerging trend, and by the mid-2020s had more than tripled in market size compared to 2018.* It found mainstream consumer uses in the home and was increasingly used in large-scale formats and industrial settings; even for vehicle and building constructions. By 2040, traditional manufacturing jobs had been largely eliminated in the US* and many other Western societies. Meanwhile, the ability to quickly and cheaply print shoes, clothing and other personal items was impacting large numbers of jobs in developing nations, particularly those in Asian sweatshops.*The tide of change was undeniable. All of these developments led to a growing unemployment crisis; not immediately and not everywhere, but enough to become a major issue for society. Unions in the past had attempted to protect their workers from such impacts, but memberships were at record lows – and in any case, they had never been particularly effective in slowing the march of technology and economics. Sources: World Bank* and the Oxford Martin Programme on the Impacts of Future Technology* Governments were now facing profound questions about the nature and future direction of their economies. If more and more people were being made permanently unemployed, how could they afford to buy goods and services needed to stimulate growth? Where would tax revenues come from? Confronted by increasingly angry and desperate voters, now protesting on scales dwarfing Occupy Wall Street, many leaders between 2025 and 2050 began formulating a welfare  system to handle these extraordinary circumstances. This had gone by several names in the past – such as basic income, basic income guarantee, universal basic income, universal demogrant and citizen's income – but was most commonly referred to as the unconditional  basic income (UBI).The concept of UBI was not new. A minimum income for the poor had been discussed as far back as the early 16th century; unconditional grants were proposed in the 18th century; the two were combined for the first time in the 19th century to form the idea of unconditional basic income.* This theory received further attention during the 20th century. The economist Milton Friedman in 1962 advocated a guaranteed income via a \"negative income tax\". Martin Luther King Jr. in his final book, Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?, wrote: \"I am now convinced that the simplest approach will prove to be the most effective – the solution to poverty is to abolish it directly by a now widely discussed measure: guaranteed income.\" US President Richard Nixon supported the idea and tried (unsuccessfully) to pass a version of Friedman's plan. His opponent in the 1972 election, George McGovern, also suggested a guaranteed annual income.Traditional welfare payments, such as housing benefit and jobseeker's allowance, were heavily means-tested. In general, they provided only the bare minimum for survival and well-being of a household. By contrast, UBI would be more generous. Unconditional and automatic, it could be paid to each and every individual, regardless of other income sources and with no requirement for a person to work or even be looking for work. The amount paid would make a citizen \"economically active\", rather than idle, in turn  stimulating growth. Some would use the UBI to return to education and improve their skills. Those with jobs would continue to earn more than those who did not work.In most countries, UBI would be funded, in part, by increased taxation on the very rich.* At first glance, this appeared to be a radical left-wing concept involving massive wealth redistribution. For this reason, opposition was initially strong, particularly in the US. As time went by, however, the arguments in favour began to make  sense to both sides of the political spectrum. For example, UBI could also be funded by cutting dozens of entitlement programs and replacing them with a single unified solution, reducing the size of government and giving citizens more freedom over their personal finances. Demographics in the US were also shifting in ways that made it very difficult for Republicans to maintain their traditional viewpoints.* With pressure mounting from mass social protests – and few other plausible alternatives to stimulate consumer spending – bipartisan support was gradually achieved. Nevertheless, its adoption in the United States (as with universal healthcare) occurred later than most other countries. Switzerland, for example, conducted a popular referendum on UBI as early as 2016,* with a proposed amount of $2,800/month. Meanwhile, a small-scale pilot project in Namibia during 2004 cut poverty  from 76% to 37%, boosted education and health, increased non-subsidised incomes,  and cut crime.* An experiment involving 6,000 people in India had similar success.*In the short to medium term, rising unemployment was highly disruptive and triggered an unprecedented crisis.* For the US, in particular, it led to some of the biggest economic reforms in modern history.* In the longer term, however, it was arguably a positive development for humanity.* UBI acted as a temporary bridge or stepping stone to a post-scarcity world, with even greater advances in robotics and automation occurring in the late 21st century and beyond.**   "},{"title":"All television is becoming Internet-based","year":"2025-2035","text":"During this period, cable TV and other traditional modes of television are beginning to disappear in favour of Internet-based streaming. The inflexibility of scheduled programmes had made them increasingly unattractive, with users shifting instead towards on-demand services providing greater choice, convenience and value for money. By the late 2010s, more people were streaming video online each day than watching scheduled linear TV.* This trend continued into the following two decades,* resulting in a huge loss of subscribers for older traditional media companies,* which were forced to either evolve or die.In Britain, the traditional TV licence fee (which stood at £145 annually, as of 2016) is now being seriously called into question. A Royal Charter had guaranteed licence fee funding until 2026. However, briefing papers for the government proposed alternative methods of financing the BBC in the future and moves are now underway to implement a new system.* Options being considered include the use of advertising revenue, a new broadcasting levy and the switch to a subscription-based system.* Longer term, this reduces the power and influence of the BBC.The visual quality of TV sets, tablets and other devices has markedly improved compared to previous generations, with 4K and even higher resolutions now cheap and ubiquitous. Connection speeds are improving in parallel, with 5G and its successor generating exponential growth in web data. By the early 2030s, it is fairly common for users in developed nations to have a terabit web connection.Furthermore, access and coverage has been made easier via expanded rural and remote networks, greater use of public Wi-Fi, high-altitude balloons (such as Google's Project Loon), etc. As more of the world comes online, the flow of knowledge it brings contributes to further public uprisings like the Arab Spring. Increased availability of the web leads to increased awareness of political issues, corruption and injustice. Citizen journalists in these volatile regions can record and disseminate their experiences on video – using mobile apps to capture footage of war crimes and human rights abuses, for example.*   "},{"title":"Small modular nuclear reactors gain widespread adoption","year":"2025-2035","text":"Small modular reactors (SMRs) are a new class of smaller, cheaper, safer and more adaptable nuclear power plants that gain widespread adoption from the mid-2020s to the mid-2030s.* They are defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency as generating an electric output of less than 300 MW, reaching as low as 10 MW for some of the smallest versions. This is compared to larger, conventional reactors, which typically produce 1 to 2 GW.Electricity was first generated from nuclear energy in 1951, during tests of an experimental reactor in the high desert of Idaho. The original output was estimated at 45 kW. In subsequent decades, reactors grew much larger, with outputs reaching the gigawatt scale. Later, more than half a century after the first commercial use of nuclear energy, reactor designs with lower electrical outputs were starting to be developed again.In the early decades of the 21st century, the need for small modular reactors was arising due to several different factors. Firstly, they could be built at a much lower cost than traditional reactors, making them less risky from an investment viewpoint. They were especially attractive to developing nations (which lacked the ability to spend tens of billions of dollars on infrastructure), to remote communities without long distance transmission lines, and for areas with limited water and/or space.SMRs could be designed with flexibility in mind. Unlike the larger power plants (most of which used \"light water\" designs based on uranium fuel and ordinary water for cooling), they were being developed in a broad range of shapes and sizes, with various fuels and cooling systems. Some could even use existing legacy radioactive waste as an energy source. Among the most promising concepts were those able to be assembled in factories and delivered in sealed containers – meaning the plant would never require decommissioning, but could simply have its power source replaced like a battery, further reducing costs. In a similar vein, some of the other proposed concepts generated far less waste than conventional reactors. SMRs would also allow increments of capacity to be gradually added as power needs increased over time.There were yet more advantages. The smaller size and safety features of the SMRs would mean both a reduced environmental impact and little or no damage from an accident – easing public concerns – while ensuring a faster and simpler planning process. Being much smaller and easier to construct, the time required from ground breaking to commercial operation could be greatly reduced, compared to larger power plants that often required decades to plan, build and test. Additionally, the threat of nuclear weapons proliferation was eliminated by the design, materials and safety aspects of SMRs.This variety and flexibility, alongside the demand for lower carbon energy, was leading to a renaissance in nuclear power generation. By the mid-2010s, around 50 experimental prototype SMRs were in development (excluding nuclear submarines and ships). A small number  achieved commercial viability in the early 2020s** and these paved the way to greater adoption through the following decade.* By 2035, the SMR industry is generating several tens of gigawatts in energy and is valued at nearly half a trillion dollars worldwide.*   "},{"title":"Manned missions to the Moon","year":"2025-2035","text":"During this period, at least two space agencies conduct manned exploration of the Moon. This occurs in parallel with private commercial ventures including lunar tourists. The huge length of time since Apollo had led to a perception among the general public that space travel was making little or no progress. In reality, a number of developments were underway.Perhaps most notable was the rapid emergence of China. In 2003, its first astronaut had been placed into orbit. This was followed by two additional manned missions in 2005 and 2008. A decade later, China was building its first space station,* while launching probes to the lunar surface including a sample return mission.* The country had even greater ambitions, however, putting its first astronauts on the Moon by the late 2020s.* This would take place in the southern polar region, with abundant solar energy, relatively stable temperatures and the presence of water-ice.*Russia was making strides too. After years of stagnation, its space program saw a resurgence in the 2010s with a major increase in funding.* A new spaceport is operational by 2025, while rockets have been developed based on cheaper acetylene and ammonia fuel.* By the early 2030s, a combination of better infrastructure and technology, increased funding and government commitment leads to a Russian presence on the Moon.*       China on the Moon, 2025-2030.  NASA had been developing a new rocket – the Space Launch System (SLS)* – along with a distant space station known as the Deep Space Gateway (DSG), situated at Earth-Moon Lagrange Point 2.* The agency's ultimate goal was to send astronauts to  Mars.* However, an interim step would be provided by the DSG, regarded as a successor to the International Space Station (ISS). Before the monumental achievement of sending humans to Mars, the DSG would orbit close to the Moon – providing the knowledge and experience necessary to venture beyond low-Earth orbit. It could also function as a platform for space tourism and other private commercial interests, such as inflatable modules designed by Bigelow Aerospace.** The SLS had performed a number of lunar orbits during the construction of the DSG,* including the first human orbit of the Moon since the Apollo era.*The European Space Agency (ESA) had initially been less vocal than other agencies when it came to  manned lunar missions, preferring instead to focus on the robotic exploration of Mars. However, ESA would eventually collaborate on the Deep Space Gateway, just as it had done on the ISS.*Other nations had shown an interest in manned lunar exploration and even permanent bases – including Japan, India and Iran. However, despite making significant progress, a lack of technical experience and the sheer financial commitment  needed would postpone their goals until further into the future.  "},{"title":"The Advanced Technology Large-Aperture Space Telescope (ATLAST) conducts its life-searching mission","year":"2025-2035","text":"The Advanced Technology Large-Aperture Space Telescope (ATLAST) is a major new space observatory launched by NASA. It has substantially higher resolution than Hubble and the James Webb  Space Telescope (JWST), with a primary mirror that dwarfs both. Its angular resolution is 10 times better than JWST, with a sensitivity limit up to 2,000 times better than Hubble.  ATLAST is a flagship mission of the 2025-2035 period, designed to address one of the most compelling questions of our time: is there life elsewhere in the Galaxy? It attempts to accomplish this by detecting \"biosignatures\" (such as molecular oxygen, ozone, water and methane) in the spectra of terrestrial exoplanets.*Operating in the ultraviolet, optical and infrared wavelengths, its mirror is so powerful that it can distinguish the atmosphere and surface of Earth-sized exoplanets, at distances up to 150 light years – including their climate and rotation rate.* ATLAST enables astronomers to glean information on the nature of  dominant land features, along with changes in cloud cover. It even has the potential to detect seasonal variations in surface vegetation.In addition to searching for  life, ATLAST has the performance required to reveal the underlying physics driving star formation and to trace  complex interactions between dark matter, galaxies and the intergalactic medium.The observatory is placed at Sun-Earth Lagrange point L2. Servicing and maintenance are performed using a robotic ferry, with occasional help from astronaut crews flying in the Orion spacecraft (which allows NASA to gain experience for  manned Solar System missions). Like the Hubble Space Telescope, ATLAST has a 20-year lifespan. By the 2050s, it is being succeeded by telescopes of truly prodigious magnitude, offering detailed close-up views of distant exoplanets.*  "},{"title":"Mouse revival from cryopreservation","year":"2025-2035","text":"Cryopreservation – a process where cells or whole tissues are preserved by cooling to  sub-zero temperatures – witnesses major advances during this period. By far the most notable achievement is a mouse being revived from storage at −196°C.In the past, among the most serious challenges to overcome had been damage from crystallisation as a result of the freezing process. During the first decade of the 21st century, this problem was comprehensively solved by the development of cryoprotectants offering complete vitrification. In other words,  the body being preserved was turned into a glass, rather than crystalline solid.A number of issues remained, however – such as the toxicity of these cryoprotectants, as well as the fracturing that occurred due to simple thermal stress. In subsequent decades, research saw a dramatic acceleration and resulted in progressively more successful  techniques, culminating in the mouse revival.*Although a human revival is still many years away (and fraught with ethical, legal and social hurdles), such a feat now appears to be a realistic prospect. Once considered the stuff of science fiction, cryopreservation becomes an increasingly regular feature in mainstream scientific literature. Many new startup companies are  formed  around this time, promising to \"resurrect\" people at some future date.         Photo courtesy of Alcor Life Extension Foundation.  "},{"title":"Many cities are banning fossil fuel-powered vehicles","year":"2025-2030","text":"During this period, many cities and regions around the world enforce outright bans on the use of traditional petrol and diesel-powered vehicles. This is primarily to meet climate targets under international agreements such as the Kyoto Accord and the Paris Agreement, but is also for reasons of energy independence and improved air quality. Among the first places to announce bans were Athens, Madrid, Paris and Mexico City. In December 2016, the mayors of each city pledged to take diesel cars and vans off their roads by 2025. Over the next few years, many more plans were announced for partial (diesel only) or complete bans (both gasoline and diesel) in more than 20 countries. The vast majority would cover the 2025-2030 timeframe, with some being implemented sooner (e.g. 2020 for Oxford, UK) and a few others later (e.g. 2040 for China, France and the UK). For these 'outliers' in 2040, it was subsequently suggested that these timelines were not ambitious enough and should be brought forward. By the early 2020s, a flood of additional countries had joined this planned phase out. With zero-emission vehicles now cheaper than ever, their numbers were growing exponentially, regardless of any bans or regulations. Batteries had been the main reason why electric cars were more expensive than their internal combustion engine (ICE) counterparts, but these prices have declined at such a rate that the overall price balance has flipped by the late 2020s.* The relative cost difference continues to widen each year – making them the preferred option from now on. Progress also continues to be made with fuel cell and other clean technology vehicles. Many cities around the world are now finally beginning to see a noticeable improvement in their air quality.*   "},{"title":"The         threat of bioterrorism is increasing","year":"2025-2030","text":"Biotechnology         is now sufficiently advanced, widespread and inexpensive that a small         group of people – or even a single person – can threaten the survival         of humanity. Desktop fabrication labs, genetic databases and AI software         are becoming accessible to the public. These enable the rapid research       and synthesis of DNA, for those with appropriate technical knowledge.Criminals         have already begun to exploit this – providing access to drugs and other         substances without prescriptions, for example (like offshore Internet         pharmacies of earlier decades) – and now terrorists are making use of         them too.In the         past, government agencies were able to combat bioterrorism by restricting         access to pathogens themselves. This was achieved by regulating the         laboratory use of potentially deadly agents, such as the Ebola virus.         However, the advent of DNA synthesis technology means that simply restricting         access to the actual pathogen no longer provides the security it once         did. Since the gene sequence is a \"blueprint\", i.e. a form         of coded information, once an organism has been sequenced it can be         synthesised without using culture samples or stock DNA.As synthesis         technology has continued to advance, it has become cheap, more accessible         and far easier to utilise. Like the personal computer revolution of         the early 1980s, biotechnology is diffusing into mainsteam society.         At the same time, the ongoing need for medical breakthroughs has necessitated         a gradual easing of database regulations. Furthermore, the DNA sequences         for certain pathogens – such as anthrax, botulism and smallpox – have         already been available on the Internet, for decades.It has therefore         become alarmingly easy to produce a new virus (possibly an even deadlier         version of an existing one) using a relatively low level of knowledge         and equipment. One such     home-made bioweapon is unleashed around this time,* with significant worldwide impacts.   "},{"title":"Hypersonic missiles are in military use","year":"2025-2030","text":"When launched, cruise missiles have typically reached 500-600 mph (800-965 km/h). However, a new generation of air-breathing supersonic combustion ramjet (scramjet) engines is now emerging on the battlefield after many years of testing and development. These are capable of exceeding Mach 5, or about 3,840 mph (6,150 km/h), making them hypersonic.*As well as enhancing the responsiveness of a warfighter, the survivability of these missiles as they fly over enemy territory is greatly improved, since they are difficult (if not impossible) to hit at such a high speed.Now that military use of  scramjets has been  perfected, commercial use will soon follow. In the  2030s, the first hypersonic airliners begin to appear, capable of travelling around the globe in under four hours.**   "},{"title":"Some of Britain's most well-known animal species are going extinct","year":"2025-2030","text":"Due to a combination of habitat loss, agricultural intensification, road accidents,  pesticides, pollution and other human interference, some of Britain's most iconic and well-known animals are disappearing. This includes hedgehogs, red squirrels, cuckoos, brown hares, Scottish wildcats, natterjack toads, red-necked phalaropes,  woodland grouse,  and turtle doves.*** Many butterfly species have also declined drastically.*   "},{"title":"The Martian Moons Exploration probe collects and returns samples","year":"2025-2029","text":"Martian Moons Exploration (MMX) is a robotic space probe designed to bring back the first samples from Mars' largest moon, Phobos. It is developed by the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), with collaboration from NASA, ESA and CNES who provide scientific instruments. The U.S. contributes a neutron and gamma-ray spectrometer, while the European contribution includes a near-infrared spectrometer and expertise in flight dynamics to plan the mission's orbiting and landing manoeuvres. Launched in 2024 and arriving in 2025, MMX lands and collects around 10 g (0.35 oz) of samples from Phobos, along with conducting Deimos flyby observations and monitoring Mars' climate. It provides evidence to  explain the origins of the Martian moons,   while also yielding information useful to future   crewed missions. The samples are returned to Earth by 2029.* In addition to its spectrometers, the spacecraft includes multiple cameras and a dust monitor. Other missions to Phobos take place this decade – including a Russian attempt to repeat the ill-fated Fobos-Grunt probe and a sample-return effort by ESA called Phootprint.       Credit: NASA/JAXA      "},{"title":"Contact with the Voyager probes is lost","year":"2025-2028","text":"Voyager   I is the farthest man-made object: 14 billion miles (22 billion km) away, or 150 times   the distance between the Sun and Earth. Both Voyager I and its sister probe, Voyager II, have remained operational for nearly half a century, continuing to transmit   data back to NASA. They have left the heliosphere and   are now headed towards the Oort Cloud. By 2025, however, onboard power is finally starting to wane.*During 2017, Voyager I had fired its trajectory thrusters for the first time since November 1980, to subtly rotate the spacecraft and reorient its antenna – extending the mission lifetime slightly. This makes Voyager II the first of the two to shut down, with Voyager I outliving it by three years.* The shutdowns happen gradually rather than instantly, with instruments failing one by one, until none are left operating.Each probe   carries a gold-plated audio-visual disc, in the event that either spacecraft   is ever found by intelligent alien life. The discs carry images of Earth   and its lifeforms, a range of scientific information, along with a medley,   \"Sounds of Earth\", that includes the sounds of whales, a baby   crying, waves breaking on a shore, music from different   cultures and eras, plus greetings in 60 different languages. Voyager I passes by the red dwarf star Gliese 445 in the year 42,000 AD and Voyager II approaches Sirius in 298,000 AD.    "},{"title":"A billion human genomes have been sequenced","year":"2025","text":"DNA testing is now so cheap, fast and routinely accessible that over a billion human genomes have been sequenced around the world. Back in 1990, when the first attempt was made to identify and map all 3.3 billion base pairs in a person – an effort known as the Human Genome Project – the cost of doing so ran into billions of dollars. The time required was over a decade and involved many scientists from all over the globe in what became the largest ever collaboration on a biological project.In the years following the completion of the Human Genome Project, tremendous improvements were made in sequencing times and costs. These new techniques allowed many more individuals to have their DNA read. The cost per genome fell by orders of magnitude – from $100 million by 2001, to under a million dollars by 2008, less than $10K by 2011 and just $1,000 by 2016. This was a trend even faster than Moore's Law.*DNA sequencing began to enter the mainstream in the second half of the 2010s.* In the United Kingdom, for example, the National Health Service (NHS) offered its first medical diagnoses via genetic testing in 2015 and three years later had completed the 100,000 Genomes Project. Similar initiatives were attempted in many other regions, as the benefits of large-scale health databases became clear. The increasing portability and availability of consumer testing kits, such as those offered by 23andMe, led to a further acceleration of this trend. Initially restricted to partial scans, it was now technically and financially viable to conduct whole genome sequencing to provide a full and complete analysis of an individual's DNA. As well as future health risks and personalised treatments, information could also be gleaned about their ancestry and family history.By 2025, a billion human genomes have been sequenced – about one-eighth of the world's population.* The quantity of genomic data is now reaching into the exabyte scale,* larger than the video file content of the entire YouTube website. This has created huge demand for improved storage capacities and led to a surge in cloud computing networks. The sheer volume and complexity of Big Data has made AI programs such as IBM's Watson far more commonly used for medical and research purposes. Among the latest discoveries are thousands of genes for intelligence,* providing new insights and targets for the treatment of impaired cognitive abilities. With around 75% of a person's IQ attributed to genetic differences,* these genes will play a role in creating super-intelligent humans in the more distant future.While great progress is now being made in genetics, there are privacy and security implications of so much health information being generated and stored online. Various hacking scandals involving theft and selling of personal data have made the news headlines recently. Insurance firms and others with vested interests, particularly in the U.S., are keen to exploit the treasure trove of medical information now available and have stepped up their lobbying efforts. There is growing concern about the injustice of genetic prejudice and discrimination.   "},{"title":"Human         brain simulations are becoming possible","year":"2025","text":"The first complete simulation of a single neuron was perfected in 2005. This was followed by a neocortical column with 10,000 neurons in 2008;   then a cortical mesocircuit with 1,000,000 neurons in 2011. Mouse brain simulations, containing tens of million   of neurons, were later achieved. By 2025, the exponential         growth of data has made it possible to form accurate models         of every part of the human brain and its 100 billion neurons.** Between         2000 and 2025, there was a millionfold increase in computational         power, together with vastly improved scanning resolution and bandwidth. Much like the Human Genome Project, there were many in the scientific community who doubted that the brain could be mapped so quickly. Once again,     they failed to account for the exponential (rather than linear) growth of information technology.Although it's now possible to scan and map a complete human brain down to the neuron level, analysing the enormous volumes of data it contains and using that to fully understand its workings will take much longer. Nonetheless, this represents a major milestone in neurology and leads to increased funding towards various brain-related ailments.       Credit: Sergey Nivens    "},{"title":"3D-printed human organs      ","year":"2025","text":"Additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, was first developed in the mid-1980s. Initially used for industrial applications such as rapid prototyping, it   fell dramatically in cost during the 2010s and 2020s, becoming available to a  much wider audience.*Arguably the  most transformative breakthroughs were occurring in health and medicine. Customised, 3D-printed body parts were saving peoples' lives and included artificial jaw bones,* bioresorbable splints for breathing* and  replacement skull parts,* among many other uses. Non-critical applications included dental implants* and exoskeletons to assist with mobility and joint movement.*Even greater advances were taking place, however. 3D printing was no longer limited to inorganic materials like polymers or metals. It was  being adapted to construct living, biological systems. Layer after layer of cells, dispensed from  printer heads, could be placed exactly where needed with precision down to  micrometre scales. Initially demonstrated for simple components like blood vessels and tissues,** more sophisticated versions later emerged in combination with scaffolds to hold larger structures in place. Eventually, the first complete organs were developed with sufficient nutrients, oxygen and growth vectors to survive as fully-functioning replacements in mouse models.By 2025 – after testing on animals – customised 3D-printing of major human organs is becoming feasible for the first time.** Although yet to be fully perfected (as certain types of organs remain too complex), this is nevertheless a major boost for life extension efforts. In the coming decades, more and more of the 78 organs in the human body will become printable.*       Credit: ExplainingTheFuture.com  "},{"title":"China is becoming highly urbanised","year":"2025","text":"Much         of China is now highly urbanised and densified. Its growing economy         has led to the construction of literally tens of thousands of new skyscrapers         all over the country. There are now over 200 cities with more than a         million inhabitants, compared with just 35 in the whole of Europe circa         2010.* Even  remote and isolated         regions have seen development on an unprecedented scale. Widespread         infrastructure such as maglev trains, airports, bridges and tunnels         is forming an extensive network to all corners of the nation, leaving         few areas untouched. China is well on its way to becoming a developed       country.Some of         the largest metropolitan areas – such as Hong Kong and Shenzhen – have         actually begun to overlap and form mega-cities overtaking         Tokyo in population and land area. Many of the world's tallest buildings         can now be found in China, including kilometre-high \"supertalls\".All of         this has had a considerable impact on the price of steel and other materials,         leading to cutbacks of many projects in Europe,         America and elsewhere. The rise of neighbouring India is adding to this.         The West now has reduced influence on setting the price of metals.         Meanwhile, enormous profits are being made by construction and mining firms,         leading to many high profile takeovers and acquisitions. At the same         time, record accident numbers during this time – as a result of so much         construction activity – are leading to tighter industrial regulations and improved         safety.As China         grows, its energy requirements are soaring. The country has prepared         for this by strengthening relations with Central Asian countries         and importing more oil and gas from them, especially Turkmenistan which         has made significant new discoveries. China's entry into Central Asia         was also partly motivated by the need to reduce its dependency on (a)         the Middle East, and (b) the Malacca Strait for shipping oil from the         Persian Gulf and Africa; this stretch of water had become increasingly         vulnerable to pirate attacks, and was the subject of ongoing political         tensions regarding its control.As well         as strengthening its oil imports,  gains have been made from         efficiency and conservation, along with increased         use of nuclear power. By 2025, China's nuclear  generating capacity         is nearly 150 billion kilowatthours (khwh), passing that of both Canada         and Russia.* In the  near future,         this will increase still further, as 4th generation plants         become available. Falling prices have also greatly boosted     solar and wind.       © Chris           Jewiss | Dreamstime.com  "},{"title":"Vertical         farms are common in cities","year":"2025","text":"With a total population fast approaching 8 billion, world food demand   has continued to climb. At the same time,   however, the increasingly dire effects of climate change, as well as   other environmental factors, are now having a serious impact. Droughts, desertification and the growing unpredictability of   rainfall are reducing crop yields in many countries, while shrinking   fossil fuel reserves are making large-scale commercial farming ever   more costly. Decades of heavy pesticide use and excess irrigation have   also played a role. The United States, for example, has been losing almost 3 tons of topsoil per acre, per year. This is between 10 and 40 times the rate at which it can be naturally replenished – a trend that, if allowed to continue, would mean all topsoil disappearing by 2070.* As this predicament worsens and food prices soar, the world is now approaching a genuine, major  crisis.*Amid the deepening sense of urgency and panic, a number of potential solutions have  emerged. One such innovation has been the appearance of vertical   farms. These condense the enormous resources and land area required for traditional   farming into a single vertical structure, with crops being stacked on top of each other like the floors of a building. Singapore opened the world's first   commercial vertical farm  in 2012.* By the   mid-2020s, they have become widespread, with most major urban areas using them in one form or another.*Vertical farms offer a number of advantages. An urban site of   just 1.32 hectares, for example, can produce the same   food quantity as 420 hectares (1,052 acres) of conventional farming,  feeding tens of thousands of people. Roughly 150 of these   buildings, each 30 stories tall, could potentially give the entire   population of New York City a sustainable supply of food.* Genetically modified crops have increased in use recently* and these are particularly well-suited to the enclosed, tightly-controlled environments within a vertical farm. Another benefit is that food can then be sold in the same   place as it is grown. Farming locally in urban centres greatly reduces   the energy costs associated with transporting and storing food, while giving city dwellers access to  fresher and more organic produce.Another major advantage of vertical farming is its sustainability.   Most structures are primarily powered on site, using a combination of   solar panels and wind turbines. Glass panels coated in titanium oxide   cover the buildings, protecting the plants inside from any outside   pollution or contaminants. These are also designed in accordance with   the floor plan to maximise natural light. Any other   necessary light can be provided artificially. The crops themselves are   usually grown through hydroponics and aeroponics, substantially reducing the   amount of space, soil, water and fertiliser required.Computers and automation are  relied upon to intelligently manage and control the distribution of these resources. Programmed systems on each level control water sprayers, lights   and room temperature. These are adjusted according to the species of   plant and are used to simulate weather variations, seasons and   day/night cycles. Some of the more advanced towers even use robots to tend to crops.* Excess water lost through evapotranspiration is recaptured   via condensers in the ceiling of each level, while any runoff   is funnelled into nearby tanks. This water is then reused, creating a   self-contained irrigation loop. Any water still needed for the system   can be filtered out of the city's sewage system.Vertical farms also offer environmental benefits. The   tightly controlled system contained in each structure conserves and   recycles not just water – but also soil and fertilisers such as phosphorus, making the   total ecological footprint orders of magnitude   smaller than older methods of agriculture. On top of that, the reduced   reliance on arable land  helps to discourage deforestation and habitat   destruction. Vertical farms can also be used to generate electricity,   with any inedible organic material transformed into biofuel, via methane   digesters.       Credit: Chris         Jacobs, Gordon Graff, Spa Atelier  "},{"title":"Solid waste is reaching crisis levels","year":"2025","text":"Solid waste has  been accumulating in urban areas and landfills for many decades. Poor funding for waste disposal and lack of adequate recycling measures, together with population growth and associated consumption have ensured a never-ending rise in trash levels. The global output of solid waste has risen from 1.3 billion in 2012,* to over 2.2 billion tons annually by 2025.* The cost of dealing with this quantity of garbage has nearly doubled as well, rising to $375 billion annually.Developing nations, lacking the money and infrastructure to properly dispose of their trash, face the greatest crisis, with solid waste increasing five-fold in some regions. Public health is being seriously affected, since groundwater is becoming more and more polluted as a result. E-waste is proving to be even more damaging. In India, for example, discarded cellphones have increased eighteen-fold.* Rapid advances in technology, ever-more frequent upgrades to electronic products, and the aspiration for Western  lifestyles have only exacerbated this situation.Developed nations are better able to handle the problem, but since only 30% of their waste is recycled it continues to build rapidly. Plastics are a particular problem, especially in oceans and rivers, since they require centuries to  fully degrade.* As well as direct environmental damage, this waste is releasing large amounts of the greenhouse gas methane, which contributes to global warming.* Public activism, though increasing at this time,  has little effect in halting the overall trend.   "},{"title":"Kivalina has been inundated","year":"2025","text":"Kivalina was a small Alaskan village located on the southern tip of a 7.5 mi (12 km) long barrier island. Home to around 400 indigenous Inuit, its people survived over countless generations by hunting and fishing. During the late 20th and early 21st centuries, a dramatic retreat of Arctic sea ice left the village extremely vulnerable to coastal erosion and storms. The US Army built a defensive wall, but this was only a temporary measure and failed to halt the advancing sea. By 2025, Kivalina has been completely abandoned, its small collection of buildings disappearing beneath the waves. The Alaska region has been warming at twice the rate of the USA as a whole, affecting many other Inuit islands. At the same time, opportunities are emerging to exploit untapped oil reserves made available by the melting ice.*   "},{"title":"Completion of the East Anglia Zone","year":"2025","text":"The United Kingdom, one of the best locations for wind power in the world, greatly expanded its use of this energy source in the early 21st century – offshore wind in particular. With better wind speeds  available offshore compared to on land, offshore wind's contribution in terms of electricity supplied could be higher, and NIMBY opposition to construction was usually much weaker. The United Kingdom became the world leader in offshore wind power when it overtook Denmark in 2008. It also developed the largest offshore wind farm in the world, the 175-turbine London Array.As costs fell and technology improved, various new projects got underway. By 2014, the United Kingdom had installed 3,700MW – by far the world's largest capacity – more than Denmark (1,271MW), Belgium (571MW), Germany (520MW)  the Netherlands (247MW) and Sweden (212MW) combined. Growing at between 25 and 35 per cent annually, the United Kingdom's offshore wind capacity was on track to reach 18,000MW by 2020,* enough to supply one-fifth of the country's electricity.The largest of these projects, known as \"Dogger Bank\", was built off the northeast coast of England in the North Sea. This gigantic installation featured 600 turbines covering an area the size of Yorkshire* and generating 7,200MW from the early 2020s. Eight other major sites were  being planned around the United Kingdom* with potential for up to 31,000MW.Among the biggest of these other sites was the East Anglia Zone. This was divided into six separate areas, each with 1,200MW capacity for a combined total of 7,200MW – the same as Dogger Bank. Each turbine would have a rotor diameter of 200m, and a tip height up to 245m. The first stage received planning permission in 2014 and was operational by 2019,* providing a clean, renewable energy source for 820,000 homes. The remaining five stages were approved between 2016 and 2020,* followed by a similar schedule for construction. When fully completed in 2025, the whole East Anglia Zone would supply a total of four million homes.With ongoing concerns over energy and climate change, offshore wind capacity in the United Kingdom continued to grow rapidly in subsequent decades. Eventually it became integrated into a continent-wide \"supergrid\" stretching across Europe.* This was followed by \"peak wind\" in the late 21st century* as the resources utilised offshore reached a theoretical maximum of 2,200 GW* – though alternative energies such as fusion had arrived by then.* Click to enlarge  "},{"title":"The UK phases out coal power","year":"2025","text":"As the world's first industrialised country, the United Kingdom had a long history of coal use. Even before the Industrial Revolution, there was some evidence of coal mining in ancient and medieval times. Stone and Bronze Age flint axes, for example, were discovered embedded in coal, showing that it was mined in Britain before the Roman invasion.The  surge of coal mining in the 18th and 19th centuries was driven by demand for steam engines, the rapid expansion of the rail network and other industries throughout the Victorian period. Coal was widely used for domestic heating, due to its low cost and widespread availability. The manufacture of coke also provided coal gas, which could be used for heating and lighting. Coal production peaked in 1913 at 287 million tonnes. Until the late 1960s, coal was the main source of energy produced in the UK, peaking at 228 million tonnes in 1952.From the 1970s onwards, the UK became increasingly reliant on imports, which coincided with initiatives for cleaner energy generation. By the 2010s, only a dozen or so coal-fired power stations remained in the UK. One third of these were closed by 2016 to meet EU air quality legislation. As part of the ongoing drive towards cleaner energy, the UK Energy Secretary proposed that coal power should be phased out  within 10 years. The last remaining coal power plants in the UK are shut down by the mid-2020s.*             Photo credit: Lynne Kirton [CC BY-SA 2.0], via Wikimedia Commons      Graph by Plazak (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0], via Wikimedia Commons   "},{"title":"The         European Extremely Large Telescope is operational","year":"2025","text":"This         revolutionary new telescope is built in \tCerro Armazones, Chile, by the European Southern Observatory (ESO), an intergovernmental research organisation supported by fifteen countries. It has the aim of observing the         universe in greater detail than even the Hubble Space Telescope.The main mirror         is 39 metres (129 ft). This makes it powerful enough to study the atmospheres         of extrasolar planets, and to detect water and organic molecules in protoplanetary disks around other stars. It can also perform \"stellar archaeology\"         – measuring the properties of the first stars and galaxies, along with probing the nature of dark matter and dark energy.Originally planned for 2018, the observatory was delayed until 2022 due to financial problems, then delayed again until 2025.* The mirror is also reduced in size slightly, having previously been 42m.         Credit: ESO  "},{"title":"The Giant Magellan Telescope is fully operational","year":"2025","text":"The Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT) is a major new astronomical observatory completed in 2025.* Costing around $1 billion, this international project is led by the US, in partnership with Australia, Brazil, and Korea, with Chile as the host country. The telescope is built on a mountain top in the southern Atacama Desert of Chile with an altitude of 2,516 m (8,255 ft). This site was chosen as the instrument's location because of its outstanding night sky quality and clear weather throughout most of the year, along with a lack of atmospheric pollution and sparse population giving it low light pollution.The GMT consists of seven 8.4 m (27.6 ft) diameter primary segments, with a combined resolving power equivalent to a 24.5 m (80.4 ft) mirror. It has a total light-gathering area of 368 m sq (3,960 sq ft), which is 15 times greater than the older, neighbouring Magellan telescopes. It is 10 times more powerful than the Hubble Space Telescope.The GMT operates at near infrared and visible wavelengths of the spectrum. It features adaptive optics, which helps to correct image blur caused by the Earth's atmospheric interference. The first of the seven mirrors was cast in 2005, with polishing completed to a surface accuracy of 19 nanometres, rms. By 2015, four of the mirrors had been cast and the mountain top was being prepared for construction.The GMT achieves first light in 2024, with full operational capability in 2025.* It is just the latest in a series of major telescopes being constructed around this time, heralding a new era of higher resolution astronomy. Others include the Thirty Metre Telescope (2024), the European Extremely Large Telescope (2025), and the Square Kilometre Array (2027), in addition to numerous space-based observatories. This new generation of telescopes leads to huge advances in knowledge of the early universe, major new discoveries of Earth-like planets around other stars, and breakthroughs in understanding the mysterious dark matter and dark energy that influence the structure and expansion of the universe.       By Giant Magellan Telescope - GMTO Corporation [CC BY-SA 3.0], via Wikimedia Commons   "},{"title":"The first test flight of the Skylon spaceplane","year":"2025","text":"Until now, all spacecraft launching from Earth into space have used multiple stages. This has required jettisoning parts of a launch vehicle while in flight, in order to reduce weight. During the 2020s, however, a new reusable spaceplane is developed that can operate without the need for booster rockets, fuel tanks, engines or other external components – instead utilising a single stage, hybrid jet/rocket system.*Known as Skylon, the vehicle is designed by Reaction Engines Limited, a British aerospace manufacturer based in Oxfordshire, England, with funding provided by the UK government, European Space Agency and BAE Systems. The total program cost \twas projected to be £7.1 billion ($10.1 billion), with a unit cost of about £190 million ($270 million). BAE Systems acquired a 20% stake in the company during 2015, investing an initial amount of £20.6 million ($29.4 million) to develop the engine system.Skylon takes off from a specially strengthened runway. It uses a precooled jet engine (rather than scramjet) to reach speeds of Mach 5.5 (1,700 m/s) at 26 km (16 miles) altitude using oxygen in the atmosphere to \"breathe\". This provides a significant reduction in propellant consumption. It then closes the air inlet and operates as a highly efficient rocket to complete the remainder of its journey to orbit, 300 km (186 miles) above the Earth. This concept is known as the Synergetic Air-Breathing Rocket Engine (\"SABRE\").*Although its payload capacity is only 15 tons (about 1/3rd that of the Space Shuttle), each plane is cheaper (about 1/10th) and vastly more fuel efficient than earlier spacecraft, largely thanks to the reduced weight offered by the SABRE. After   completing a mission, it reenters the atmosphere with its skin protected   by a strong ceramic, landing back on the runway like a normal   aeroplane. It then undergoes any necessary maintenance and is capable of   flying again in just two days (compared to two months for the Space   Shuttle). Ground-based tests of the SABRE engine commence in 2019. The first unmanned test flights were originally planned for 2020, but subsequently faced delays until 2025.* Although initially crewless, the Skylon is later used to carry astronauts to and from space stations. Future versions are even capable of being adapted for space tourism, transporting up to 30 passengers in a purpose-built module and costing under $500,000 per person. Skylon is hailed as the biggest breakthrough in aerospace propulsion technology since the invention of the jet engine – revolutionising access to space.* It also leads to commercial airliners capable of travelling around the globe in under four hours.       Skylon in flight. Credit: Reaction Engines  "},{"title":"The first manned flights from Russia's new spaceport","year":"2025","text":"Despite being a  major space power, Russia  for decades lacked its own proper independent space launch facility for manned flights. Instead it was reliant on the Baikonur Cosmodrome in neighbouring Kazakhstan – leased from the government of that nation until 2050, at a cost of $115 million per year.In 2011, construction began on the Vostochny Cosmodrome, a new spaceport located in the Amur Oblast region in  Russia's Far East. This was intended to reduce Russia's dependency on Kazakhstan, enabling most missions to be launched from its own soil. The area devoted to this new infrastructure would be nearly 100 sq km (39 sq mi) with four separate launch pads, an airport, train station, academic campus, training and space tourism facilities,  business centres and a town of 30,000 capacity for housing workers and their families.*Roscosmos had suffered a number of setbacks and launch failures in the 2000s and early 2010s, including the loss of its Phobos-Grunt probe. To address this issue and restore the nation's reputation in space,  Vladimir Putin announced a major boost in funding;   a budget of 1.6 trillion rubles ($51.8 billion or €39 billion euros) for 2013-2020, a  far greater increase than any other space agency in the world.Nevertheless, the spaceport faced delays. The first manned flights had been scheduled for 2018,* but were subsequently put back until 2025. Plans for the launch vehicle were also revised to incorporate a new craft with a two-stage, heavy-lift Angara A5B rocket, instead of the older Soyuz. Russia is now beginning a moon exploration program based on this modernised launch vehicle.*       Credit: Roscosmos   "},{"title":"High-speed         rail networks are being expanded in many countries","year":"2025","text":"By the mid-2020s, many countries have radically overhauled their rail transport infrastructure, or are in the process of doing so.In Spain,         more than 10,000km of high-speed track has been laid, making it the         most extensive network in the world. 90 percent of the country's population     now live within 50 km of a bullet train station.*In Britain, the first phase of a major high-speed rail line is nearing completion. This will travel         up the central spine of the country – connecting London with England's next largest city, Birmingham. It will eventually be expanded to Manchester and the north. Trains will be     capable of reaching 250 mph, slashing  previous journey times.*In Japan,         Tokyo will soon be connected with Nagoya via superfast magnetic levitation trains. Tests conducted in         previous decades showed that it was possible to build a railway tunnel         in a straight route through the Southern Japanese Alps. The first generation         of these trains already held the world speed record, at 581 km/h (or         361 mph); but recent advances in carriage design have pushed this still         further, to speeds which are fast enough to compete     with  commercial airliners.*Many other         countries are investing in high-speed rail during this time, due to         its  speed and convenience. Even America – which for decades had neglected its rail network – is now making big progress in this area.*       Source: Federal         Railroad Administration  "},{"title":"A comprehensive overhaul of the U.S. airspace system is complete","year":"2025","text":"The final upgrades of the Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) are completed this year. This has involved a complete overhaul of  the existing air transport network. Many aspects of the National Airspace System (NAS) had been failing because of a reliance on largely obsolete technology. The navigation system, for example, which relied on ground-based radar beacons, was based on technology from the 1940s.NextGen brings  pervasive upgrades and improvements to the entire system during the 2010s and early 2020s. This includes physical infrastructure as well as computer systems. Hundreds of new ground-based  stations are built to allow satellite surveillance coverage of nearly the entire country. New safety and navigation procedures are introduced that markedly reduce flight times, while offering a more dynamic method of air traffic control.Advances in computer power and digital communication have produced what is now a far more integrated and efficient national system. One of the largest technical advances is the complete replacement of the previous radar navigation system with a  modern, GPS-based version. This creates detailed, three-dimensional highways in the sky, and takes into account variations in topography and weather – enabling pilots to fly shorter, more precise routes. By 2018, this system was in place at every major US airport.Once on the runway, taxiing planes are guided by automated systems. These use data gathered on the position of every other plane and vehicle to present pilots and controllers with detailed, real-time traffic maps of the tarmac. Runway capacity is increased with the introduction of multiple take-off and landing pathways, as opposed to the older, single route approach.Overall, these upgrades offer substantial improvements in flight-times, air pollution and fuel consumption. Delays are reduced by nearly 40%, saving tens of billions of dollars. Over 1.4 billion gallons of fuel are saved and CO2 emissions are cut by  14 million metric tons. These numbers will continue to improve steadily over the years.*Aircraft themselves are evolving in form, function and efficiency. A number of striking new designs have emerged with significant technological and environmental benefits.*   "},{"title":"Railguns are in use by the U.S. navy","year":"2025","text":"After years of research and development, railguns are now in common use on U.S. naval ships.* Unlike traditional artillery, which   create force with explosive materials, the railgun is powered entirely   by electricity from the ship's grid. It works by storing up a supply of   electrical power, using what is called a pulse-forming network, which is   then converted to an electromagnetic pulse. This travels up the barrel   along parallel tracks of magnetic rails, forcing the projectile out of   the gun, away from the power source.The weapon is capable of firing an 18-inch metal projectile, itself equipped with complex internal   guidance systems, over 100 miles at close to mach 6. This is fast   enough to set the air around the projectile ablaze, while delivering it   to targets in mere minutes. Explosive rounds are   unnecessary, since the  kinetic energy released upon impact yields more power than   traditional bombs of much greater size. New rapid-fire systems allow for   a launch rate of around ten per minute.A number of technical issues   first had to be overcome to reach this point though. Advances in   materials technology were required to keep the barrel from wearing out   after repeated firings, while the projectiles needed to be outfitted in a   way that protected  internal guidance systems during launch. New   cooling techniques also had to be introduced. The guns themselves   originally required more electricity than standard naval ships could   provide. This was overcome with advances in energy efficiency, along with  ultra-dense storage batteries.In combat situations, the railgun offers   major benefits. It has greater accuracy over extremely long ranges. It   can be used as initial cover fire for marines landing on shore, or as a   defense against incoming missiles and other threats. Ships armed with   these hi-tech weapons are able to attack with virtual impunity, safe from   almost any retaliatory strike. Railguns  become widespread around the world in the   2030s, adopted by many other navies. This devastating   form of weaponry provides a considerable advantage in modern   conflicts.** "},{"title":"India's reusable launch vehicle is operational","year":"2026-2031","text":"During this period, a two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO) reusable launch vehicle is developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). This follows successful testing of smaller, scaled-down versions, which demonstrated important technologies such as autonomous navigation, guidance and control, hypersonic and scramjet flight, a reusable thermal protection system, and re-entry mission management.An early prototype in 2016 achieved a speed of Mach 5 and maximum altitude of 40 miles (65 km)* – not quite enough to reach outer space, which is generally considered to begin at a height of 62 miles (100 km). It lasted for 13 minutes and covered a distance of 280 miles (450 km), steering itself to an on-target splashdown to land (ditch) in the Bay of Bengal. Not designed to float, the vehicle disintegrated on impact and was not recovered. Known as the Hypersonic Flight Experiment (HEX) this was the first in a series of five tests. The four subsequent iterations were more advanced and enabled landing, return flights and scramjet propulsion experiments. These would eventually culminate in the finalised version, able to transport cargo into orbit, return safely to Earth and be re-used.*India had already launched astronauts into space by 2021, in a small capsule atop a GSLV rocket. The addition of a reusable launch system greatly expands ISRO's capabilities in space – enabling longer, more complex and commercially successful missions, while cutting launch costs by a factor of ten. This comes at a time when various new space planes are being developed by other countries and space agencies, making access to space increasingly affordable and routine.       Credit: ISRO    "},{"title":"The PLATO observatory is operational","year":"2026-2030","text":" PLAnetary Transits and Oscillations of stars (PLATO) was selected as the third medium-sized (M) mission in the European Space Agency's Cosmic Vision programme (the others being \"Solar Orbiter\" launched in 2017 and the Euclid Space Telescope launched in 2022). This observatory would include a payload of 34 separate  telescopes and cameras, each comprised of four CCDs at 4500 x 4500 pixels resolution. It would scan up to a million stars, looking for truly Earth-like planets in sufficient detail to examine their atmospheres for signs of life.* In operation from 2026 until 2030,* at Earth-Sun Lagrangian point L2, the mission has the following objectives:• Discover and characterise a large number of close-by exoplanetary systems, with a precision in the determination of the planet mass up to 10%, of planet radius of up to 2%, and of stellar age up to 10%.  • Detect Earth-sized planets in the habitable zone around solar-type stars  • Detect super-Earths in the habitable zone around solar-type stars  • Measure solar oscillations in the host stars of exoplanets  • Measure oscillations of classical pulsators PLATO is aided by data from the Gaia mission launched in 2013, which provides many useful targets for subsequent follow-up observations.         Credit: ESA    "},{"title":"A synthetic human genome is completed","year":"2026","text":"In May         2010, scientists  created the first artificial         lifeform. Mycoplasma laboratorium was a new species         of bacterium, with man-made genetic code originating on a         computer and placed on a synthetic chromosome inside an empty cell.         Using its new \"software\", the cell could generate proteins         and produce new cells.In March 2016, the same research institute in the U.S. announced the creation of a minimal bacterial genome, known as JCVI-syn3.0, containing only the genes necessary for life, and consisting of 473 genes.*A few months later, in June 2016, scientists formally announced \"Human Genome Project - Write\" (also known as HGP-Write), a ten year extension of the Human Genome Project, to create a synthetic human genome. The original project – completed in 2003 – was the largest ever collaboration in biology and involved hundreds of laboratories, taking 13 years of work. It led to major developments in genomic-based discovery, diagnostics, and therapeutics. Whereas the original project (HGP-Read) was intended to \"read\" DNA to understand its code, the HGP-Write project would use the cellular machinery provided by nature to \"write\" new code, producing vast DNA chains.*The bacterial genome created in 2016 had 531,000 DNA base pairs and 473 genes. By contrast, the HGP-Write project would be orders of magnitude larger and more complex, with three billion  base pairs and 20,000 genes. However, the earlier work on bacterial genomes had paved the way for new tools and semi-automated processes for whole genome synthesis. HGP-Write  would cut the costs of engineering and testing large genomes in cell lines by more than 1,000-fold within ten years. Alongside this, an ethical framework for biological engineering was being developed.Longer term, the project would lead to transformative applications. Previously, the capability to construct DNA sequences in cells was mostly limited to a small number of short segments, restricting the ability to manipulate and understand biological systems. After the completion of HGP-Write, the ability to synthesise large portions of the human genome leads to major advances – in medicine, agriculture, energy and other areas – by connecting the sequence of bases in DNA with their physiological and functional behaviours. Some health applications that arise from HGP-write include the growing of transplantable human organs, engineering of immunity to viruses in cell lines, engineering cancer resistance in cell lines, and enabling high-productivity vaccines at low cost.HGP-Write involves taking synthetically constructed DNA to produce a human genome able to power a single cell in a dish. In the more distant future, however, this area of biology advances to the point where entire synthetic people can be designed from scratch – new custom-made \"super humans\" able to resist all disease infections, or made immune to the radiation and vacuum in space, for example. This leads to profound ethical questions about the nature of life.*   "},{"title":"Aquaculture provides the majority of the world's seafood","year":"2026","text":"Aquaculture – the cultivating of freshwater and saltwater fish  under controlled conditions – has remained one of the fastest growing industries in the agricultural sector. Since the late 1980s, traditional \"capture\" fisheries have been on a plateau. Aquaculture, by contrast,  increased by 8.8% per year from 1985 to 2010* and had witnessed an eightfold increase by the mid-2020s. It now accounts for the majority of  the world's seafood, surpassing wild catch harvests by  weight.The capture fishing industry itself has faced severe problems. Overfishing, climate change and pollution have all contributed to  the sharp decline of  yields.* Numerous regions have experienced  near-collapse or total collapse and will take decades to repopulate. Examples include the UK cod and Chilean jack mackerel fishing industries.  The largest centres for aquaculture   remain in East  and Southeast Asia – with the Philippines, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand and Indonesia seeing large increases in production. Cambodia in particular has seen massive growth.*New techniques have been adopted, helping to increase both sustainability and yield. One such method, used for the cultivation of jumbo shrimp, is super-intensive stacked raceways. Shrimp are grown in large, enclosed tubes called raceways, in which computers monitor and control a steady circulation of mineral water. As they mature, they are moved down the stacked columns of tubes, until they reach the final bottom row, fully grown, where they are harvested. This method greatly increases the output of shrimp farms, up to one million pounds of shrimp per square acre, and can be deployed almost anywhere. Water usage is  lowered significantly.* This method helps to alleviate the myriad of environmental damages traditional shrimp farming brings to the environment.*Another method being utilised is land-based, closed-loop recirculating aquaculture systems. These indoor systems recycle around 98% of their water, with little-to-no discharge back into the environment. The risk for disease in a closed-loop system is essentially zero and minimises the use of chemicals or antibiotics. Being entirely independent from any particular environment, these type of fish farms can be built anywhere, no matter the distance from any major body of water.*The growth of aquaculture has caused a major shift in commerce and trade. Countries previously reliant on imports are now  capable of producing vast quantities of fish, crustaceans, seaweed and other seafood. Countries with dwindling natural fisheries benefit, now being able to produce as much or even more than can be caught from lakes or the ocean. Numerous startup companies have appeared to fill the growing industry. Aquaculture as a whole will become one of the most vital industries in the world this century, as traditional commercial fishing breaks down and produces unsustainable yields.   "},{"title":"The High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider (HL-LHC) is operational","year":"2026","text":"The High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider (HL-LHC) is a major upgrade of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) that is completed by 2026.* This new design boosts the machine's luminosity by a factor of between five and seven, allowing 10 times more data to be accumulated, providing a better chance to see rare processes and improving statistically marginal measurements.Luminosity is a way of measuring the performance of an accelerator: it is proportional to the number of collisions that occur in a given amount of time. The higher the luminosity, the more data that can be gathered during an experiment. The HL-LHC can perform detailed studies of the new particles observed at the LHC, such as the Higgs boson. It enables the observation of rare processes that were inaccessible at the previous sensitivity levels. More than 15 million Higgs bosons can be produced each year, for example, compared to the 1.2 million produced in 2011-2012.The development of the HL-LHC depends on several technological innovations that are exceptionally challenging to researchers – such as cutting-edge Tesla superconducting magnets, very compact and ultra-precise superconducting cavities for beam rotation, and 300-metre-long high-power superconducting links with zero energy dissipation. Together, these upgrades help to advance and further refine the knowledge already gained from the Higgs boson and provide fresh insights into so-called \"New Physics\", a more fundamental and general theory than that of the Standard Model.*   "},{"title":"The International Linear Collider is completed","year":"2026","text":"This project is the culmination  of more than 25 years of concerted international efforts, with funding and research from Europe, Asia and the Americas. Over 300 universities and laboratories have taken part. It originated as a series of three separate collider proposals – the Next Linear Collider (NLC), the Global Linear Collider (GLC) and the Teraelectronvolt Energy Superconducting Linear Accelerator (TESLA) – all of which were combined into the International Linear Collider (ILC).*Located in Europe, the ILC is the successor to the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), building upon the work already done by that machine. Although its collisions are less powerful, it offers far more precise measurements. It also gives off less electromagnetic radiation. The ILC consists of two opposite-facing linear accelerators, together stretching  31 km (19.3 miles), that hurl particles and  anti-particles towards each other at close to the speed of light.* Along with the linear accelerators, the facility contains two dampening rings,  with a circumference of 6.7 km (4.2 miles). Energy levels of the collisions are initially 500 billion-electron-volts (GeV), but are soon upgraded to  a trillion-electron-volts (TeV).The extreme precision and exact recordings offered by the ILC help to reveal some of the deepest mysteries of the universe. Some experiments  are concerned with extra-dimensional physics and supersymmetric particles, while others provide research into dark matter.* Originally planned for completion in 2019, the ILC faced considerable delays due to funding, technical issues and international agreements. It is finally ready by 2026.*   "},{"title":"3-D printed electronic membranes to prevent heart attacks","year":"2026","text":"Following years of clinical trials* – initially in rabbits and later in humans – a new device is available that can dramatically improve the monitoring and treatment of cardiac disorders. This consists of an ultra-thin membrane, specially customised and 3-D printed to exactly match the patient's heart shape. Tiny sensors embedded in a grid of flexible electronics measure pulse, temperature, mechanical strain and pH level with far greater accuracy and detail than was possible using previous methods. Doctors can determine the heart's overall health in real-time and predict an impending heart attack before a patient has any physical signs – intervening when necessary to provide therapy. The device itself can deliver a pulse of electricity in cases of arrhythmia.This electronic membrane can be installed in a relatively non-invasive procedure, by inserting a catheter into a vein beneath the ribs and then opening the mesh like an umbrella. At present, it is restricted to the exterior surface of the heart. However, new and more advanced versions are now being developed that will go directly inside the heart to treat a variety of disorders – including atrial     fibrillation, which affects  2.5 million U.S. adults and 4.5 million people living in the EU,  accounts for one-third of hospitalisations for cardiac rhythm disturbances and is a major risk factor for stroke.Great progress is now being made in the monitoring, diagnosis and treatment of heart disorders, thanks to this and other breakthroughs emerging at this time, all of which are contributing to a rapid decline in mortality rates. By the 2040s, deaths from cardiovascular disease will reach negligible levels in some nations.*       Credit: Rogers et al, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.   "},{"title":"Youthful regeneration of aging heart muscle via GDF-11","year":"2026","text":"In the previous decade, researchers identified an obscure blood protein called GDF-11. This was shown to have regenerative properties upon the cardiac muscle in age-related diastolic heart failure. The substance was found to be present at high levels in youth, and lower levels in old age. When elderly mice were supplemented with increased GDF-11, it had a dramatic effect on their hearts – restoring heart size and muscle wall thickness to a much earlier state.This offered a potential way of treating heart failure and aging in people. A series of clinical trials, beginning in the late 2010s,* confirmed this. By 2026,* it's becoming fairly routine for doctors to repair cardiac damage and restore human hearts to earlier states, based on the GDF-11 protein. Along with stem cells and other advances  this decade, science is gradually chipping away at the factors which cause people to die.   "},{"title":"New         treatments for Alzheimer’s disease","year":"2026","text":"Alzheimer's         is the most common form of dementia. This incurable, degenerative and         terminal disease affects over 27m people worldwide, mostly aged over         65. The most common symptom is the inability to acquire new memories         and difficulty in recalling recently observed facts. As the disease         advances, further symptoms include confusion, irritability and aggression,         mood swings, language breakdown, long-term memory loss, and the general         withdrawal of the sufferer as their senses decline. Bodily functions         are gradually lost, ultimately leading to death.Until recently,         the precise mechanisms behind the illness were poorly understood. In         2011, however, genes were identified that played a key role in biological         pathways such as inflammation, cholesterol and cell transport systems.         These provided new targets for potential treatments in the form of drugs,         behavioral changes and other therapies. New ways of delivering drugs         to the brain were also found, such as using the body's own exosomes         as carriers.* After 15 years of research         and clinical trials, the risk of developing the disease has now been     cut by over 60%.*With a         better roadmap to guide progress with the remaining genes and biological         processes, there is now real hope of actually curing the disease in         the 2030s.       © Scott           Griessel | Dreamstime.com  "},{"title":"Rising         sea levels are wreaking havoc on the Maldives","year":"2026","text":"At an average         of just 1.5m above sea level, the Maldives is the lowest lying country         on the planet. Rising sea levels are now devastating its economy, one-third of which relies on tourism. The mere         talk of a possible submersion had been denting investor     confidence in recent years. By now, countless islands are being abandoned as the reality of global warming begins to bite.* A mass evacuation plan is  underway, with many of the nation's citizens resettling in Sri Lanka, India and Australia.*   "},{"title":"Global reserves of indium are running out","year":"2026","text":"Indium is a rare, soft and malleable post-transition metal, found primarily in zinc ore. It is mined almost exclusively in Canada, China, the US and Russia. Indium is used in various electronic applications such as LCDs and touchscreens, solar cells, LEDs and various batteries. It is also useful in making alloys, medical imaging, and in the control rods of nuclear reactors. Its role in electronic screens drives most of the production demand, which by now has resulted in global reserves being almost completely exhausted.** Recycling is one option being pursued to solve this problem, but it will only suffice in the short term. Fortunately, new alternative materials are being introduced, derived from carbon nanotube compounds that can take on the role previously filled by indium.*   "},{"title":"Italy hosts the Winter Olympics","year":"2026","text":"The 2026 Winter Olympics take place from 6th February to 22nd February 2026, in the Italian cities of Milan and Cortina d'Ampezzo. Italy had beaten another joint bid from Swedish cities Stockholm–Åre, by 47–34 votes, at the 134th Session of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) held in Lausanne, Switzerland, on 24th June 2019. This marks the fourth time that the Olympic Games have been won by Italy, the first time they are hosted in Milan, and is also the first Olympic Games featuring two host cities in its name. It occurs on the 20th anniversary of the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin and the 70th anniversary of the 1956 Winter Olympics in Cortina d'Ampezzo.   "},{"title":"Construction         of the Sagrada Família is complete","year":"2026","text":"The         Sagrada Família is a massive, privately-funded Roman Catholic         church that has been under construction in Barcelona since 1882. Considered         the masterwork of renowned Spanish architect Antoni Gaudí (1852–1926),         the project's vast scale and idiosyncratic design have made it one of         Spain's top tourist attractions, visited by millions of people each year. Construction       of the building is finally completed this year, the 100th anniversary of Gaudí's death.* "},{"title":"The BRICs         overtake the G7","year":"2027","text":"By         this date, the major emerging markets – Brazil, Russia, India and China,         a.k.a. the BRICs – have overtaken the combined GDP of the G7 nations.*   "},{"title":"Light-duty hydrogen fuel cell vehicles reach 1 million in annual sales","year":"2027","text":"The first vehicles powered by hydrogen fuel cells emerged during the Cold War Space Race. These were bulky, inefficient and expensive, however. It was not until the dawn of the 21st century that car manufacturers began to take the concept more seriously.In 2003, President George Bush proposed the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative (HFI), which was later implemented by legislation through the 2005 Energy Policy Act and the 2006 Advanced Energy Initiative. This aimed to further develop hydrogen fuel cells and infrastructure  with the goal of producing commercial fuel cell vehicles. By 2008, over $1 billion had been contributed to the project.However, the U.S. Department of Energy later shifted its interest from fuel cells to battery vehicles. High costs and the lack of infrastructure were major problems, compounded by the challenge of deploying fuel stations over such a large geographical area. This led U.S. automakers to delay their hydrogen vehicle rollouts. The situation was different in Europe, however – with less geography to cover – and where governments had serious plans to develop the required infrastructure.* Japan and South Korea, too, had similar initiatives getting underway.In addition to expanded infrastructure, further advances in technology  reduced the size, weight and cost of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.* By 2027,  global sales of these non-polluting vehicles have reached one million annually for the first time.* Although still only a tiny proportion of total, overall vehicle sales, the industry is now entering a period of explosive growth.*   "},{"title":"Tokyo and Nagoya are connected by high-speed maglev","year":"2027","text":"Two of Japan's largest cities – Tokyo and Nagoya – are now connected by the Chū� Shinkansen – a high speed maglev route. This 178 mile (286 km) line runs beneath  the Japanese Alps (Akaishi Mountains), at speeds of up to 313 mph (505 km/h), enabling journey times of just 40 minutes. Built by the Central Japan Railway Company, at a cost of 9 trillion yen ($115bn), the route will be extended to Osaka by 2045.**   "},{"title":"Carbon         sequestration is underway in many nations","year":"2027","text":"Following         years of research and development, various new techniquess         are now being utilised for trapping and removing CO2. This is offering         fresh hope for mitigating the effects of climate change. The most         significant technology is \"clean coal\", being fitted to power         plants. This is seeing widespread adoption, since it now costs less         than unsequestered coal-based power generation.* The carbon dioxide is stored in geological formations deep underground         (including some empty oil wells). Great care and precision must be taken         in choosing these sites, however, as dumping the gas in an unstable         location may cause it to leak back up to the surface or contaminate         aquifers used for drinking supplies.Another         method of carbon sequestration which is showing great potential is the         deployment of \"artificial trees\". These are shaped like giant         fly swatters around 10m high, and have become an increasingly common         sight along roads, freeways and other polluted areas.* The trees capture CO2 through a  filter system – thousands of times more efficiently         than real trees – which is then removed and stored.       Credit: Institution           of Mechanical Engineers Another project involves strips of algae, fitted to the sides         of buildings, which naturally absorb CO2 through photosynthesis. They         are most common in high-density urban centres, where tall buildings         offer a much greater surface area. These \"photobioreactors\" not only sequest carbon, but can also produce biofuel         and biochar as beneficial side effects. The biofuel can be used to generate         energy whilst keeping net carbon emissions to zero, while the biochar         can be used as a very good fertiliser.*Yet another         project is the addition of highly reflective panels on rooftops. These         reflect sunlight back into space, reducing the amount of solar radiation         being absorbed by the Earth.Although         efficient, the various techniques described above (and others) do not represent the ultimate solution to global warming. The         only effective, long-term process for stabilising the climate is the         adoption of solar, wind, hydro, nuclear and other renewable energy sources.Thankfully,         almost all developed countries now have legally-binding commitments in place         for reducing CO2 emissions and have begun large-scale practical measures.         Britain, for example, has cut its carbon dioxide pollution by 50% compared         to 1990 levels, thanks to legislation enacted in 2011.*   "},{"title":"The Venera-D mission arrives at Venus","year":"2027","text":"Venera-D is a Russian space probe sent to study the atmosphere and surface of Venus. The primary aim of the mission is to understand the history and evolution of the planet. Venera-D was first proposed to the Russian Academy of Sciences in 2003, with a planned launch date of 2013. The original design featured a large orbiter, sub-satellite, two balloons, two small landers and one larger, longer-lived lander. However, it was scaled down and delayed until the late 2020s. The  final configuration would have two components: one orbiter and one lander.The spacecraft is launched in 2026, arriving in 2027.* The orbiter includes several spectrometers, a plasma package and camera. Its radar remote-sensing equipment is far more powerful than the Venera 15 and 16 probes of the 1980s and the NASA Magellan in the 1990s. A wealth of new data is gathered to more accurately characterise the composition of the atmosphere, clouds and their structure, radiative balance and the nature of the greenhouse effect, ionosphere, magnetosphere and electrical activity, along with the gas escape rate in the upper atmosphere. This reveals new insights into the early history of Venus and the oceans of water it held in the ancient past.* Knowledge is also gained about the nature of \"super-rotation\" – a phenomenon in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days, far faster than the sidereal day of 243 days – but decreases at lower altitudes, so that wind speeds barely reach 10 km/h (6 mph) on the surface. In addition to the orbiter is a lander, which investigates one of the planet's tesserae. These are regions of very old, heavily deformed terrain characterised by intersecting tectonic elements, high topography and high radar backscatter. This becomes the first probe to successfully touch down on Venus's surface since the Soviet Union's Vega 2 mission, 42 years earlier in 1985. It features a high-resolution camera to obtain panoramic images of both its descent through the atmosphere and the surroundings at ground level. The lander investigates the structure and chemical composition of the atmosphere and performs chemical analysis of surface materials. The interaction between the surface and the atmosphere is studied. The lander also characterises the geology of local landforms at different scales.Due to the hellish conditions on Venus (temperatures of 462 °C, atmospheric pressure 92 times that of Earth, and clouds of sulphuric acid), the lander was originally expected to last for only one or two hours. However, with new materials and more robust electronic systems, it is redesigned to survive longer than any previous mission. This is helped in part by a collaboration with NASA, who supply a number of components.*Venera-D is the first in a new generation of Russian probes to Venus. The mapping data obtained by the orbiter is used to determine the location of potential future landing sites. These follow-up missions also include sensors designed to search for signs of life in the mid-level atmosphere, which is seen as a possible habitat for extremophile organisms.*       Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech      "},{"title":"The asteroid 1999 AN10 makes a close approach","year":"2027","text":"1999 AN10 is an asteroid of the Apollo group, a collection of Earth-crossing bodies, many of which are large enough and can drift close enough to Earth to be considered potentially hazardous. It was discovered by U.S. scientists on 13th January 1999. The object was estimated to have a diameter of up to 1,800 m (5,905 ft), or about a mile – enough to cause continent-scale devastation, should an impact occur on Earth.AN10 circles the Sun every 643 days and twice each year passes through the Earth's local neighbourhood. On 7th August 2027,* it makes a particularly close approach as it comes within just 0.0026 AU (390,000 km; 240,000 mi), about the same as the distance between the Earth and Moon. The asteroid reaches a peak apparent magnitude of 7.3, bright enough to be visible in binoculars. Its orbit remains dangerously close for the next 600 years.*   "},{"title":"The Square Kilometre Array begins science operations","year":"2027","text":"Humanity's         view of the universe is greatly expanded with the completion of a major         new observatory. The Square Kilometre Array (SKA) is a radio telescope         with a combined collecting area of approximately one kilometre. It operates         over a wide range of frequencies and its size makes it 50 times more         sensitive than any other comparable instrument. By utilising         advanced processing technology, it can survey the sky more than 10,000         times faster than ever before. With additional stations extending to a distance         of 3,000 km from a concentrated central core, it continues radio astronomy's         tradition of providing the highest resolution images in all of astronomy. First light is achieved in 2027* and the telescope is fully operational by 2030. Click         to enlarge        Image used with permission from Jo Bowler, SKA Program         Development Office, Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics.  "},{"title":"The Europa Clipper arrives in orbit","year":"2027","text":"Europa is a moon of Jupiter and the smallest of the four Galilean satellites. It is slightly smaller than Earth's Moon. Previous missions to the icy body have analysed its structure and composition, but have lacked sufficient detail and resolution to fully characterise its surface environment. This has made it very risky to deploy a lander.The Europa Clipper – launched by NASA in 2021 – intends to address this, paving the way for future missions to explore the surface.* After a six year journey, it reaches the Jovian system in 2027.* The probe carries an array of  instruments including ice-penetrating radar, a topographical imager, magnetometer, infrared spectrometer, neutral mass spectrometer and a high-gain antenna. These are powered by solar, which is much cheaper than radioisotope generators, allowing the mission to stay within its $2 billion budget cap.The Clipper spacecraft performs dozens of flybys over 2.3 years, at times coming within just 15 miles (25 km) of the moon's frozen surface. Close-up images are returned in breathtaking detail and clarity, along with  data confirming its crust thickness, as well as the saltiness and  depth of its ocean. Together with information from ESA's JUICE mission,* this helps guide the development of future landers in the 2030s and 2040s.   "},{"title":"The autopsy report for Elvis Presley is made public","year":"2027","text":"Elvis Presley was one of the 20th century's most iconic singers, often referred to as the \"King of Rock and Roll\", or simply \"the King\". After cementing his place among the legends of American music, his final years were marked by serious health problems. These were aggravated, and possibly caused by, drug dependence. On 16th August 1977, Presley  was found unresponsive on the bathroom floor of his Graceland home. Attempts to revive him failed, and death was officially pronounced at 3:30pm at Baptist Memorial Hospital, Tennessee.Controversy surrounded  the autopsy and its aftermath as the competence and ethics of two medical professionals  were questioned. One had his licence permanently revoked, after charges were brought by the Tennessee Medical Board. An overdose of prescription drugs (including codeine, Demorol, morphine and Valium, to name a few) had apparently caused Elvis' heart to beat irregularly and then stop. However, rumours of a cover-up were rife as the exact cause of death remained unclear. Vernon Presley, Elvis' father, had the complete autopsy report sealed for a period of 50 years.The controversy surrounding the autopsy – as well as various other questionable circumstances – led conspiracy theorists to proclaim that the King was still alive. After his funeral, there were numerous alleged sightings of Presley. A long-standing theory among fans was that he had faked his own death. Some fans noted apparent discrepancies in the death certificate, a curious different spelling of the middle name on his gravestone, him reportedly cutting family members out of his will shortly before he died, rumours of a wax dummy in his original coffin and numerous accounts of Presley planning a diversion so he could retire in peace.The full autopsy report is finally made public on 16th August 2027, exactly half a century after Presley's death.*   "},{"title":"Opening of the New Central Polish Airport","year":"2027","text":"The New Central Polish Airport (also known as \"Solidarity Transport Hub\") is a megaproject to construct a new, built-from-scratch airport located 40 km southwest of Warsaw, Poland. This replaces the aging and overcrowded Warsaw Chopin Airport.Initially opening with two runways and a capacity of 45 million passengers per year, a substantial upgrade occurs in subsequent years – boosting its capacity to around 100 million, with four runways. Alongside a major expansion of the surrounding rail network, this forms the largest transportation hub in central and Eastern Europe, serving as a gateway to and from Asia. In terms of total passenger numbers, it eventually rivals some of the busiest airports in the world, including the likes of Hartsfield–Jackson in Atlanta, Beijing Capital International Airport, and Dubai International Airport.More than 100 Polish cities throughout the country receive a direct rail link to the new airport, allowing for connections to the airport-rail hub from the most important urban centres in Poland. This includes high-speed routes, with trains running at 250 km/h (155 mph) on some sections.The project faces considerable opposition from local residents, as well as concerns over its financial viability, but is approved by the government. A series of design concepts by world-leading architects emerged in 2019, with a winning candidate selected in 2020.* Costing 35 billion złoty ($9.4 billion), the initial phase completes construction by 2027.*Other airports in Europe are undergoing major expansions in this decade, as global demand for air travel continues to increase. For example, a third runway opens at Heathrow Airport, London, in 2029. The New Central Polish Airport allows Poland to compete with western European countries on the aviation market and establish a greater share of international traffic. This generates an extra $7 billion in annual GDP and 65,000 new Polish jobs by 2035.   "},{"title":"The final Avatar movie is released","year":"2027","text":"After the success of his 1997 movie, Titanic, director James Cameron began a project that took almost 10 years to make: his science-fiction epic Avatar (2009). This was a landmark for 3D technology and CGI, with numerous accolades – winning Oscars for Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography and Best Visual Effects, and nominated for a total of nine, including Best Picture and Best Director. It also won the 67th Golden Globe Awards for Best Motion Picture – Drama and Best Director, and was nominated for two others. At the 36th Saturn Awards, Avatar won all ten awards it was nominated for.Numerous other awards, nominations and honours were received. With a worldwide box-office gross of more than $2.7 billion, Avatar became the highest grossing film of all time – surpassing Cameron's previous blockbuster, Titanic ($2.2 billion).Two sequels to Avatar were initially confirmed after the success of the first film. This number was subsequently expanded to four, with Cameron said to be directing, producing and co-writing all of them. Many of the stars from the original film would reprise their roles – including Sam Worthington, Zoe Saldana, Giovanni Ribisi, C. C. H. Pounder and Joel David Moore. Despite the deaths of their characters in the original film, Stephen Lang and Matt Gerald would also make an appearance. Sigourney Weaver was confirmed too, although playing a different character.New cast members included Kate Winslet and Cliff Curtis, portraying Na'vi \"reef people\", along with Oona Chaplin as Varang, described as a \"strong and vibrant central character who spans the entire saga of the sequels\". A number of child actors would also portray \"free-divers\" and become pivotal new characters through the sequels.The second Avatar movie, being set in marine environments, would feature heavy use of underwater scenes, actually filmed underwater with the cast in performance capture. Blending underwater filming and performance capture was a feature never accomplished before,* requiring a year and a half to develop a new motion capture system. The film would also be shown in \"glasses-free 3D\", another first in film history.Following acquisition by Disney, these sequels were pushed back. Avatar 2 was released in December 2021 (from its previous December 2020 date) followed by Avatar 3 in December 2023 and Avatar 4 in December 2025. The science fiction epic reaches its conclusion with a fifth and final film released in December 2027 (two years later than its original planned date).* Computing power is orders of magnitude more advanced than in 2009, making the visual effects in these subsequent films even more spectacular and impressive than the original, setting a new benchmark for CGI in movies. Credit: Supershine         "},{"title":"Completion of the Deep Space Gateway","year":"2028","text":"The Deep Space Gateway (DSG) is the successor to the International Space Station (ISS). Whereas the ISS was placed in orbit around the Earth, the DSG is close to the Moon. The partners involved in its construction are the same as for the ISS: the Canadian Space Agency (CSA), European Space Agency (ESA), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), NASA and Roscosmos.The Gateway is developed, utilised and maintained in collaboration with commercial and international partners as a staging ground for lunar surface missions (both robotic and crewed) and for eventual travel to Mars. By sending people and cargo to and from cislunar space, those involved in the project gain the knowledge and experience necessary to venture beyond the Moon and into deep space.Originally, NASA had intended to build the Gateway as part of an \"Asteroid Redirect Mission\", but this was cancelled. An informal joint statement on cooperation between NASA and Roscosmos was announced in September 2017. This was followed in November 2017 by NASA commissioning studies by private companies into affordable ways to develop the station's power and propulsion elements – these private companies were Boeing, Lockheed Martin, Orbital ATK, Sierra Nevada and Space Systems/Loral.The DSG would be built in stages, with each part delivered by the Space Launch System (SLS), a huge new rocket being developed by NASA. The first test launch of the SLS was in 2021, which sent a crewless Orion capsule around the Moon, while also deploying CubeSats. Additional SLS launches would carry the first pieces of the Deep Space Gateway.*The main construction phase of the DSG, spread over five years, involved the delivery of four components. These were as follows:• 40 kilowatt (kW) power/propulsion bus – to generate electricity for the station and ion propulsion  • Habitation module – living quarters for astronauts  • Logistics module – for experiments and logistics on board the station, including a robotic arm built by the CSA  • Airlock – for performing extravehicular activities outside the station and serving as a berth for another craft, the Deep Space TransportThe Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (shown in grey, below) would be capable of transporting up to four astronauts and docking with the DSG. A robotic arm would assist the astronauts in configuring the structure.       Adapted from \"Progress in Defining the Deep Space Gateway and Transport Plan\", based on latest known schedule(s).  Following this construction, the Deep Space Gateway moves to Phase 2. It becomes a staging point for the Deep Space Transport (DST), a reusable vehicle specifically designed for crewed missions to more remote destinations, such as Mars. The DST can dock with the DSG and is assembled there by a further series of SLS launches – beginning in the late 2020s and continuing into the 2030s.The DST has a larger capacity than the DSG, able to carry six astronauts on extended voyages, using both electric and chemical propulsion. It is returned to the DSG after each mission to be serviced and reused for a new mission.Overall, the Deep Space Gateway lives up to its name as a \"gateway\" to places beyond low-Earth orbit (LEO) and is arguably the logical next step for human exploration of space. As well as facilitating crewed missions to Mars, it can also be used as a platform for regular visits to the lunar surface and functions as a relay between the Earth and Moon. It also serves as a blueprint for additional future stations, both government and privately-operated.   Credit: NASA  "},{"title":"Launch of the European ATHENA X-ray observatory","year":"2028","text":"The Advanced Telescope for High ENergy Astrophysics (ATHENA) is a major new X-ray telescope launched by the European Space Agency.** This L-class (Large) project is the second of three missions in the \"Cosmic Vision\" programme which includes two other spacecraft –  the Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE) launched in 2022 and a gravitational wave observatory being deployed in 2034.X-ray observations are crucial for understanding the structure and evolution of  stars, galaxies and the Universe as a whole. These images can reveal \"hot spots\" in the Universe – regions where particles have been energised or raised to very high temperatures by strong magnetic fields, violent explosions, and intense gravitational forces. X-ray sources are also associated with  the different phases of stellar evolution such as  supernova remnants, neutron stars and black holes.ATHENA is designed to answer a number of important questions in astrophysics:• What happens close to a black hole?  • How did supermassive black holes grow?  • How do large-scale structures (i.e. galaxy clusters and superclusters) form?  • What is the connection between these processes?To address these questions, it can trace orbits close to the event horizon of black holes, measure black hole spin for several hundred active galactic nuclei (AGN), use spectroscopy to characterise the outflows and environments of AGN at their peak activity, look for supermassive black holes out to redshift z = 10, map the bulk motions and turbulence in galaxy clusters, find missing baryons in the cosmic web using background quasars, and observe the process of cosmic feedback where black holes inject energy on galactic and intergalactic scales.This enables astronomers to understand better the history and evolution of matter and energy – visible and dark – as well as their interplay during the formation of the largest structures in the Universe. Closer to home, observations constrain the equation of state in neutron stars, black hole spin demographics, when and how elements were created and dispersed into the intergalactic medium, and much more.To achieve these  goals, ATHENA requires a collecting area of 3 square metres with 5 arcsec angular resolution and 12 metre focal length, for unmatched sensitivities. Relative to previous X-ray missions, it offers a 100-fold increase in the  area for high resolution spectroscopy, deep spectral and microsecond spectroscopic timing with high count rate capability. It also features a large shield that blocks light from the Sun, Earth and   Moon, which otherwise would heat up the telescope and interfere with observations. The telescope remains operational until the late 2030s.   "},{"title":"China builds the world's largest particle accelerator","year":"2028","text":"Following the success of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in Europe,* the Chinese decided to build their own larger particle accelerator. Researchers at the Institute of High Energy Physics in Beijing announced plans for a machine 52 km (32.5 mi) in length –  twice the circumference of the LHC. This would allow the Higgs boson to be studied in greater detail, revealing new insights into the fundamental structure of matter and confirming whether multiple types of Higgs boson existed. Construction began in 2019, with completion in 2028.* It paves the way for an even larger project in 2035.**   "},{"title":"Printed         electronics are ubiquitous","year":"2028","text":"The         printed electronics market has seen exponential growth. By now, it has         ballooned to over $300 bn globally.* This technology         began with a small number of niche, high-end products. It expanded rapidly         in the 2010s, thanks to plummeting costs and improved production methods.         By the 2020s it had exploded into the mainstream – creating a new generation of ultra-thin electronics.Today,         these have such low fabrication costs that they are ubiquitous in countless everyday business and consumer applications.* Many         previously bulky or heavy devices can now be folded, stored or carried         as easily as sheets of paper. This includes flexible TV displays that         can be rolled or hung like posters. Also widespread are electronic         newspapers with moving pictures, \"smart\"         packaging and labels with animated text, along with signage in retail outlets that         can be updated shop-wide at the touch of a button.*Multimedia         players with expandable, fold-out touchscreens are especially popular.         Even low-end models are now the size and weight of credit cards and         can easily fit inside a wallet. With petabytes of storage, gigapixels         of screen resolution and superfast transfer speeds, they are orders         of magnitude more powerful than iPods of the previous decade. They are also         completely wireless – no cables or physical connections of any kind         are required, with music being enjoyed using wireless earphones.       Credit: University of Cincinnati  "},{"title":"The UK         population reaches 70 million","year":"2028","text":"Britain         will soon become the most populous country in Europe, overtaking both         Germany and France. This is mainly due to large numbers of immigrants.         Combined with a shrinking labour force, this is putting a major strain on public services – especially in London, which has born the         brunt of the increase.        Source: Office for National Statistics   "},{"title":"British newspapers are going out of circulation","year":"2028","text":"By the late 2020s, the last of Britain's national newspapers are being taken out of circulation.* Even once formerly major titles like the Sun, the Daily Mail and the Daily Mirror have ceased production. The surviving newspapers have now all transitioned to entirely digital formats.  The printing industry had a long history in Britain. The first printing press was invented by William Caxton in 1476. This led to further developments in mechanical movable type and a huge increase of printing activities over subsequent centuries. During the 1600s, various publications would spread both news and rumours – such as pamphlets, posters and ballads. The English Civil War (1642–1651) greatly increased the demand for news.Among the first real \"newspapers\" were the Oxford Gazette (1665), Berrow's Worcester Journal (1690) and Daily Courant (1702). By the 1720s, there were 12 London newspapers and 24 provincial papers. The first English journalist to achieve national importance was Daniel Defoe (1660–1731). During the 18th and 19th centuries, the Industrial Revolution allowed production methods to be improved, print runs to be greatly increased and newspapers to be sold at lower cost. Circulation of The Times rose from 5,000 copies in 1815 to 10,000 in 1834 and 40,000 by 1851; about 80% of the entire market.The period from 1860 to 1910 was considered a \"golden age\" of newspaper publication, with further technical advances in printing and communication – combined with a more professional style of journalism and the prominence of new owners. Socialist, labour and trade union papers began to proliferate. In 1896, The Daily Mail was first published and became the first daily newspaper aimed at the newly literate \"lower-middle class market resulting from mass education, combining a low retail price with plenty of competitions, prizes and promotional gimmicks.\" It was the first British paper to sell a million copies a day. Two other \"halfpenny\" papers to emerge included the Daily Express and the Daily Mirror. By the 1930s, over two-thirds of the population was estimated to read a newspaper every day, with almost everyone taking one on Sundays.Circulations continued to increase, reaching a peak in the mid-20th century. From the 1960s onwards, however, sales began to decline. In an effort to attract more readers, some tabloids – including The Sun, the Daily Mirror and Daily Star – began publishing images of topless women. The 1980s saw the introduction of computer-based typesetting and full-colour offset printing. The reporting of stories became ever more sensationalised and controversial as the fall in sales continued through the 1990s and into the 21st century.The rapid rise of the Internet – providing instant and free access to information – accelerated the decline of the newspaper industry. A major factor was the emergence of smartphones, tablets and other handheld, web-enabled devices, becoming cheap and widely available. By 2015, none of the remaining UK papers had a daily circulation above two million. The overall circulation of newspapers declined by 6.6% in 2014–15, with further declines in the following decade, resulting in the end of printed national newspapers in Britain.   "},{"title":"Launch of the ARIEL spacecraft","year":"2028","text":"The Atmospheric Remote-sensing Infrared Exoplanet Large-survey (ARIEL), is a space observatory launched in mid-2028* as the fourth medium-class mission of the European Space Agency's Cosmic Vision programme. It aims to observe 1,000+ known exoplanets using the transit method, studying and characterising the planets' chemical compositions and thermal structures, simultaneously in both visible and infrared wavelengths.*ARIEL is launched to the L2 Lagrangian point, in a position located at a distance of 1,500,000 km (930,000 mi) from Earth, where it benefits from the planet's blockage of light from the Sun to \"maximise\" the potential for exoplanet targets. The mission addresses fundamental questions about what exoplanets are made of and how planetary systems form and evolve.       Credit: ESA      "},{"title":"Launch of the Comet Interceptor","year":"2028","text":"Comet Interceptor is a mission by the European Space Agency (ESA) to rendezvous with a comet originating from the outer Solar System that has now begun to approach the Sun. This follows a similar effort – Rosetta – that visited 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in 2014. However, unlike that earlier probe, this new craft is designed to encounter a \"pristine\" comet with largely undisturbed material surviving from the dawn of the Solar System. The targeted body is therefore an 'Oumuamua-like interstellar object, or possible fragment from the Oort cloud, approaching the inner Solar System for the first time, as opposed to a short-period comet like 67P that orbits the Sun every six years.The mission is unusual, in that it launches before a primary target has  even been found. For a dynamically-new comet (DNC) or interstellar object, the time between discovery, perihelion and departure from the inner Solar System – typically a few months to a year – is too short for mission organisers to prepare and launch a new spacecraft. As such, these astronomical objects can only be encountered after being discovered inbound, with enough warning to direct an already operating spacecraft to approach. However, new observatories, such as the recently completed Large Synoptic Survey Telescope, are now improving this time by covering large areas of sky more deeply and rapidly.Launching on the same rocket as ARIEL (see previous entry), the spacecraft is separated and then delivered to Lagrange point L2 via its own propulsion system. Comet Interceptor consists of a mothership and two smaller \"daughters\", which perform simultaneous observations from multiple angles to generate a 3D profile. The daughter probes carry instruments on different trajectories through the comet's tail, while also getting close to the nucleus. Together, all three spacecraft greatly improve the understanding of pristine comets and their surrounding environment, revealing their structures and compositions in more detail and their dynamic nature as they interact with the solar wind. This, in turn, provides new insights into the conditions that existed at the birth of the Solar System and perhaps even further back in time.*   Credit: Brooks Bays / SOEST Publication Services / University of Hawaii  "},{"title":"Delhi becomes the most populous city in the world","year":"2028","text":"By 2028, Delhi has overtaken Tokyo to become the most populous city in the world. The Japanese capital had held the title since 1955, but during the early years of the 21st century it began to reach a plateau. After peaking at 37 million, the city actually went into decline from 2020 onwards. The Indian capital, by contrast, was surging ahead. Home to some 29 million people in 2018, Delhi expanded to reach 37.2 million just a decade later.** India as a whole has recently surpassed China to become the most populous country on the planet.There are many challenges associated with rapidly growing urban areas, especially in low-income and lower-middle-income countries. These include the provision of adequate housing, transportation, water, waste management and sanitation, energy and other vital infrastructure, as well as employment and basic services such as education and health care. However, India's workforce is young and dynamic; its economy is expanding fast and on course to rival the other major superpowers by 2040.One surprising area in which Delhi will soon benefit is the environment. For many years, the World Health Organization had ranked Delhi as the most polluted city on Earth. In the 2010s, poor air quality was causing 2.3 million deaths in India each year – almost the same as from tobacco use – costing 3% of the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP). However, towards the end of the 2020s, traditional petrol and diesel cars are being phased out, in favour of electric vehicles.* Widespread use of solar and other renewables is also making a difference now, with almost 60% of India's electricity being generated from non-fossil fuels.*Furthermore, as part of its commitment to the Paris climate agreement, India had pledged $6.2 billion to reforest 235 million acres (95 million hectares) of the country by 2030.* This vast project will soon increase India's forest cover from 21% of total land area to 33%.   Credit: Sean Hsu  "},{"title":"Los Angeles hosts the Summer Olympic Games","year":"2028","text":"From 21st July to 6th August 2028, the 34th Summer Olympics are held in Los Angeles, California.* This event is the fifth Summer Games to be hosted in the United States, and the third in Los Angeles – following St. Louis 1904, Los Angeles 1932, Los Angeles 1984 and Atlanta 1996. Los Angeles also becomes the third city after London (1908, 1948 and 2012) and Paris (1900, 1924 and 2024) to have hosted the Olympic Games on three occasions.The 2028 Games are spread across four areas, each highlighting the different geographical features of the city: Long Beach, South Bay, Downtown and Valley Sports Park.* Travel between venues is made easy thanks to L.A.'s extensive system of highways and public transport, with many improvements and upgrades having been made since the 1984 Games. By 2028, $88bn worth of expanded subway, light rail, rapid bus transit, and express lane projects are operational, connecting all sports parks, the airport, the Games Centre, and every corner of L.A. The Olympic and Paralympic Village is based at the centrally-located UCLA campus, close to the city's cultural and entertainment attractions. All Olympic and Paralympic sports parks are within 40 minutes of the Village.The opening and closing ceremonies are each, for the first time, staged across two different stadiums. The opening ceremony starts at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and finishes at the Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park (the latter forming part of a major new sports, entertainment, hotel and business district). The order is reversed for the closing ceremony.While most Olympic host cities have seven years to prepare, Los Angeles was given an additional four, for a total of 11 years. This was due to the unusual bidding process in 2017, which saw Paris and Los Angeles elected simultaneously for 2024 and 2028, respectively.* "},{"title":"Human-like AI is becoming a reality","year":"2029","text":"By the end of this decade, a milestone is reached in artificial intelligence, with computers now routinely passing the Turing Test.** This test is conducted by a human judge who is made to engage in a natural         language conversation with one human and one machine, each of which tries to appear human. Participants are placed in isolated locations.For  several decades,  information technology  had seen exponential growth – leading to vast improvements in  computer processing power, memory, bandwidth, voice recognition, image recognition, deep learning and other software algorithms. By the end of the 2020s, it has reached the stage where an independent judge is         literally unable to tell which is the real human and which is not.* Answers         to certain \"obscure\" questions posed by the judge may appear         childlike from the AI – but they are humanlike nonetheless.*       © Rolffimages | Dreamstime.com  "},{"title":"Increased automation of banking","year":"2029","text":"During the early 21st century, a wave of new technology swept the banking sector, as companies worked to improve costs and efficiencies. Online services, combined with mobile apps, automated chatbots, virtual telephone assistants,  increasingly sophisticated ATMs, and other features all made it quicker and easier than ever to manage one's personal finances. On the business and corporate side, the rise of cloud computing, big data and intelligent algorithms yielded significant time and cost savings in research, marketing, processing and other areas, while giving more power and insight to decision makers.By 2020, U.S. banks alone were investing more than $150 billion in new technology annually, spending more than any other industry.* While customers and clients benefited greatly from these improvements, automation reduced the need for human staff. By 2029, more than 10% of banking jobs have been eliminated compared to a decade earlier, adding up to some 200,000 roles in the U.S.* Retail branches and call centres are the hardest hit, where over a quarter of staff are no longer needed. Commercial and investment bank employees are less vulnerable for now, but even these jobs become threatened in subsequent decades as decision making is delegated to ever more powerful hardware and algorithms.   "},{"title":"Close approach of the near-Earth asteroid Apophis","year":"2029","text":"99942 Apophis is an asteroid with a diameter of 370m (1,214 ft) and an exceptionally close orbit to Earth. It caused a sensation in 2004 when initial observations indicated a 2.7% chance that it would hit Earth in 2029. This gave it the highest rating ever recorded on the Torino impact hazard scale, reaching level 4.*Depending on its composition, location and angle of entry, the asteroid would make atmospheric entry with up to 1,200 megatons of kinetic energy – approximately 21 times more than the Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear weapon ever tested – and six times more than  the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa.However, the orbital characteristics of Apophis were later refined, eliminating any chance of an impact. Nevertheless, the object remains on an alarmingly close path that skims within 31,000 km of Earth, which is 10 times closer than the Moon, and even closer than some man-made satellites.Apophis is triple the size of 2019 OK, another large object that passed by in July 2019 and comes even closer than that earlier asteroid. Its close passing sparks further debate about the need to defend Earth from potential impacts.       "},{"title":"The High-Definition Space Telescope (HDST) is operational","year":"2030-2039","text":"The High-Definition Space Telescope (HDST) is a major new space observatory that is placed at Sun-Earth Lagrange point 2, orbiting the Sun about a million miles from Earth. It was proposed in 2015 by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURU), the organisation running Hubble and other telescopes on behalf of NASA. Reviewed by the National Academy of Sciences in 2020 and subsequently approved by Congress, the HDST is deployed and operational during the 2030s.* With a diameter of 11.7 metres, it is much larger than both Hubble (2.4 m) and the James Webb telescope (6.5 m).The HDST is designed to locate dozens of Earthlike planets in our local stellar neighbourhood. It is equipped with an internal coronagraph – a disk that blocks light from the central star, making a dim planet more visible. A starshade is eventually added that can float miles out in front of it to perform the same function. Exoplanets are imaged in direct visible light, as well as being spectroscopically analysed to determine their atmospheres and confirm the presence of water, oxygen, methane, and other organic compounds.Tens of thousands of exoplanets have been catalogued since Kepler and other missions of the previous decades. With attention now focused on the most promising candidates for biosignatures, the possibility of detecting the first signs of alien life is greatly increased during this time.The HDST is 100 times more sensitive than Hubble. Peering into the deep universe, it can resolve objects only 300 light years in diameter, located at distances of 10 billion light years – the nucleus of a small galaxy, for example, or a gas cloud on the way to forming a new star system.* It can study extremely faint objects, up to 20 times dimmer than anything that can be seen from large, ground-based telescopes. The UV sensitivity of the HDST can be used to map the distribution of hot gases lying outside the perimeter of galaxies. This reveals the structure of the so-called \"cosmic web\" that galaxies are embedded inside, and shows how chemically enriched gases flow in and out of galaxies to fuel star formation. Individual stars like our Sun can be picked out from 30 million light years away.Closer to home, the HDST is capable of imaging many features in our own Solar System with spectacular resolution and detail, such as the icy plumes from Europa and other moons, or weather conditions on the gas giants. It can search for remote, hidden members of our Solar System in the Kuiper Belt and beyond. The total cost of the telescope is approximately $10 billion.       Image credit: D. Ceverino, C. Moody, and G. Snyder, and Z. Levay (STScI)  "},{"title":"Global         population is reaching crisis point","year":"2030","text":"Rapid         population growth and industrial expansion is having a major impact on food, water and energy supplies. During the         early 2000s, there were six billion people on Earth. By 2030, there         are an additional two billion, most of them from poor countries. Humanity's         footprint is such that it now requires the equivalent of         two whole Earths to sustain itself in the long term. Farmland, fresh water and natural         resources are becoming scarcer by the day.*  The extra         one-third of human beings on the planet means that energy requirements         have soared, at a time when crude oil supplies are in terminal decline.         A series of conflicts has been unfolding in the Middle East, Asia and         Africa, at times threatening to spill over into Europe. With America         involved too, the world is teetering on the brink of a major global         war.There is the added issue of climate change, with CO2 levels reaching almost 450 parts per million. As a result, natural feedbacks are kicking in on a global scale. This is most apparent in the Arctic, where melting permafrost is now venting almost one gigatonne of carbon annually.** There are signs that a tipping point has been reached, which is manifesting itself in the form of runaway environmental degradation. Nature's ecosystems are changing at a speed and scale rarely witnessed in Earth's history. This is also adding to food shortages,  crop yields falling by up to one third in some regions* and prices of  some crops more than doubling,* with devastating impacts on the world's poor.The urban population, which stood at 3.5 billion in 2010, has now surged to almost 5 billion. Resource scarcity, economic and political factors, energy costs and mounting environmental issues are forcing people into ever more crowded and high-density  areas. Many cities are merging to form vast sprawling metropolises with hundreds of millions of people. In some nations, those living in urban areas make up over 90% of the population.*By 2030, urban areas occupy an additional 463,000 sq mi (741,000 sq km) globally, relative to 2012. This is equivalent to more than 20,000 new football fields being added to the global urban area every day for the first three decades of the 21st century. Almost $30 trillion has been spent during the last two decades  on transportation, utilities and other infrastructure. Some of the most substantial growth has been in China which boasts an urban population approaching one billion and has spent  $100 billion annually just on its own projects. Much of the Chinese coastline has been transformed into what is essentially a giant urban corridor. Turkey is another region that has witnessed phenomenal urban development.       Global forecasts of urban expansion to 2030. Credit: Boston University's Department of Geography and Environment All of this expansion is having a major impact on the surrounding environment. In addition to cities, new networks of road, rail and utilities have been built, crisscrossing the landscape and cutting through major wildlife zones.* What were previously protected areas are now opening up for resource exploitation and food production. Numerous species are reclassified as endangered during this period as a result of human encroachment, pollution and habitat destruction.The accelerating         magnitude of these and other problems is leading to a rapid migration         from traditional fossil fuels to renewable energy. Advances in nanotechnology         have resulted in greatly improved solar power. In some countries, such as Japan, photovoltaic materials are being added to almost every new building.* Energy supplies in general         are becoming more localised and efficient. This transition is putting increasing strain on fossil fuel companies, since the proven reserves of oil, coal and natural gas far exceed the decided \"safe\" limit for what can be burned. Because most reserves had already been factored into the market value of these organisations, they now face the prospect of huge financial loss. In response, many companies are fighting tooth and nail against further regulation.*Another         issue which governments have to contend with during this time is the         aging population, which has seen a doubling of retired persons since         the year 2000. People are living longer, healthier lives. With state pension budgets under increasing strain, the overall effect is a decreased         income for senior citizens. Retirement ages are increasing:         in America, Asia and most European countries, many employees are forced         to work into their 70s. Stress         levels for the average person have continued to increase, as the world         adapts to these various crises.  "},{"title":"The 6G standard is released","year":"2030","text":"By 2030, a new cellular network standard has emerged that offers even greater speeds than 5G. Early research on this sixth generation (6G) had started during the late 2010s when China,* the USA* and other countries investigated the potential for working at higher frequencies. Whereas the first four mobile generations tended to operate at between several hundred or several thousand megahertz, 5G had expanded this range into the tens of thousands and hundreds of thousands. A revolutionary technology at the time, it allowed vastly improved bandwidth and lower latency. However, it was not without its problems, as exponentially growing demand for wireless data transfer put ever-increasing pressure on service providers, while even shorter latencies were required for certain specialist and emerging applications.*This led to development of 6G, based on frequencies ranging from 100 GHz to 1 THz and beyond. A ten-fold boost in data transfer rates would mean users enjoying terabits per second (Tbit/s). Furthermore, improved network stability and latency – achieved with AI and machine learning algorithms – could be combined with even greater geographical coverage. The Internet of Things, already well-established during the 2020s, now had the potential to grow by further orders of magnitude and connect not billions, but trillions of objects. Following a decade of research and testing, widespread adoption of 6G occurs in the 2030s. However, wireless telecommunications are now reaching a plateau in terms of progress, as it becomes extremely difficult to extend beyond the terahertz range.* These limits are eventually overcome, but require wholly new approaches and fundamental breakthroughs in physics. The idea of a seventh standard (7G) is also placed in doubt by several emerging technologies that support the existing wireless communications, making future advances iterative, rather than generational.*   "},{"title":"Desalination has exploded in use","year":"2030","text":"A combination of increasingly severe droughts, aging infrastructure and the depletion of underground aquifers is now endangering millions of people around the world. The on-going population growth described earlier is only exacerbating this, with global freshwater supplies continually stretched to their limits. This is forcing a rapid expansion of desalination technology.The idea of removing salt from saline water had been described as early as 320 BC.* In the late 1700s it was  used by the U.S. Navy, with solar stills built into shipboard stoves. It was not until the 20th century, however, that industrial-scale desalination began to emerge, with multi-flash distillation and reverse osmosis membranes. Waste heat from fossil fuel or nuclear power plants could be used, but even then, these processes remained prohibitively expensive, inefficient and highly energy-intensive.By the early 21st century, the world's demand for resources was growing exponentially. The UN estimated that humanity would require over 30 percent more water between 2012 and 2030.* Historical improvements in freshwater production efficiency were no longer able to keep pace with a ballooning population,* made worse by the effects of climate change.New methods of desalination were seen as a possible solution to this crisis and a number of breakthroughs emerged during the 2000s and 2010s. One such technique – of particular benefit to arid regions – was the use of concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) cells to create hybrid electricity/water production. In the past, these systems had been hampered by excessive temperatures which made the cells inefficient. This issue was overcome by the development of water-filled micro-channels, capable of cooling the cells. In addition to making the cells  themselves more efficient, the heated waste water could then be reused in desalination. This combined process could reduce cost and energy use, improving its practicality on a larger scale.*Breakthroughs like this and others, driven by huge levels of investment, led to a substantial increase in desalination around the world. This trend was especially notable in the Middle East and other equatorial regions;  home to both the highest concentration of solar energy and the fastest growing demand for water.  However, this exponential progress was dwarfed by the sheer volume of water required by an ever-expanding global economy, which now included the burgeoning middle classes of China and India. The world was adding an extra 80 million people each year – equivalent to the entire population of Germany.* By 2017, Yemen was in a state of emergency, with its capital almost entirely depleted of groundwater.* Significant regional instability began to affect the Middle East, North Africa and South Asia, as water resources became weapons of war.*Amid this turmoil, even greater advances were being made in desalination. It was acknowledged that present trends in capacity – though impressive compared to earlier decades – were insufficient to satisfy global demand and therefore a major, fundamental breakthrough would be needed on a large scale.*  Nanotechnology offered just such a breakthrough. The use of graphene  in the water filtration process had been demonstrated in the early 2010s.** This involved atom-thick sheets of carbon, able to separate salt from water using much lower pressure, and hence, much lower energy. This was due to the extreme precision with which the perforations in each graphene membrane could be manufactured. At only a  nanometre across, each hole was the perfect size for a water molecule to fit through. An added benefit was the very high durability of graphene, potentially making desalination plants more reliable and longer-lasting.Unfortunately, patents were secured by corporations that initially limited its wider use. A number of high-profile international lawsuits were brought, as entrepreneurs and companies attempted to develop their own versions. With a genuine crisis unfolding, this  led to an eventual restructuring of intellectual property rights. By 2030, graphene-based filtration systems have closed most of the gap between supply and demand, easing the global water shortage.* However, the delayed introduction of this revolutionary technology has caused  problems in many vulnerable parts of the world.In the 2040s* and beyond, desalination will play an even more crucial role, as humanity adapts to a rapidly changing  climate. Ultimately, it will become the world's primary source of freshwater, as non-renewable sources like fossil aquifers are depleted around the globe.  "},{"title":"\"Smart grid\" technology is widespread in developed nations","year":"2030","text":"In prior decades, the disruptive effects of energy shocks,* alongside  ever-increasing  demands of growing and industrialising populations, were putting strain on the world's power grids. Blackouts  occurred in the worst-hit regions, with consumers becoming more and more conscious of their energy use and taking measures to either monitor and/or cut back their  consumption. This already precarious situation was exacerbated by the relatively ancient  infrastructure  in many countries. Much of the grid at the beginning of the 21st century was extremely old and inefficient, losing more than half of its available electricity during production, transmission and usage. A convergence of business, political, social and environmental issues  forced governments and regulators to finally address this problem.By 2030, integrated smart grids are becoming widespread in the developed world,** the main benefit of which is the optimal balancing of demand and production. Traditional power grids had previously relied on a just-in-time delivery system, where supply was manually adjusted constantly in order to match demand. Now, this problem is being eliminated due to a vast array of sensors and automated monitoring devices embedded throughout the grid. This   approach had already emerged on a small scale, in the form of smart meters for individual homes and offices. By 2030, it is being scaled up to entire national grids.Power plants  now maintain constant, real-time communication with all residents and businesses. If  capacity is ever  strained, appliances instantly self-adjust to consume less power,   even turning  themselves off  completely when idle and not in use. Since balancing demand and production is now achieved on a real-time, automatic basis within the grid itself, this greatly reduces the need for \"peaker\" plants as supplemental  sources. In the event of any remaining gap, algorithms  calculate the exact requirements and turn on extra generators automatically. Computers  also help adjust for and level out peaks and troughs in energy demand. Sensors in the grid can detect precisely when and where  consumption is  highest. Over time, production can be automatically shifted according to the predicted rise and fall in demand. Smart meters can then adjust for any discrepancies. Another benefit of this approach is allowing energy providers to raise electricity prices during periods of high consumption, helping to flatten out peaks. This makes the grid more reliable overall, since it reduces  the number of variables that need to be accounted for. Yet another advantage of the smart grid is its capacity for bidirectional flow. In the past, power transmission could only be done in one direction. Today, a proliferation of local power generation, such as photovoltaic panels and fuel cells, means that energy production is much more decentralised. Smart grids now take into account homes and businesses which can add their own surplus electricity to the system, allowing energy to be transmitted in both directions through power lines.  This trend of redistribution and localisation is also making large-scale renewables more viable, since the grid is now adaptable to the intermittent power output of solar and wind. On top of this, smart grids are also designed with multiple full load-bearing transmission routes. This way, if a broken transmission line causes a blackout, sensors instantly locate the damaged area while electricity is rerouted to the affected area. Crews no longer need to investigate multiple transformers to isolate a problem, and blackouts are  reduced as a result. This also prevents any kind of domino effect from setting off a rolling blackout.Overall, this new \"internet of energy\" is far more sustainable,  efficient and reliable. Energy costs are  reduced, while paving the way to a post-carbon economy. Countries that quickly adapt smart grids  are better protected from oil shocks, while greenhouse gas emissions are  reduced by  almost 20 per cent in some nations.* As the shift to clean energy continues, this situation will only improve, expanding to even larger scales. Regions begin merging their grids together on a country-to-country, and eventually continent-wide, basis.*  "},{"title":"An interstellar message arrives at Luyten's Star","year":"2030","text":"Luyten's Star (GJ 273) is a red dwarf located about 12.4 light-years from Earth. Despite its relatively close proximity, it has a visual magnitude of only 9.9, making it too faint to be seen with the naked eye. It was named after Willem Luyten, who, in collaboration with Edwin G. Ebbighausen, first determined its high proper motion in 1935. Luyten's star is one-quarter the mass of the Sun and has 35% of its radius.In March 2017, two planets were discovered orbiting Luyten's Star. The outer planet, GJ 273b, was a \"Super Earth\" with 2.9 Earth masses and found to be lying in the habitable zone, with potential for liquid water on the surface. The inner planet, GJ 273c, had 1.2 Earth masses, but orbited much closer, with an orbital period of only 4.7 days.In October 2017, a project known as \"Sónar Calling GJ 273b\" was initiated. This would send music through deep space in the direction of Luyten's Star in an attempt to communicate with extraterrestrial intelligence. The project – organised by Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence (METI) and Sónar (a music festival in Barcelona, Spain) – beamed a series of radio signals from a radar antenna at Ramfjordmoen, Norway. The first transmissions were sent on 16th, 17th and 18th October, with a second batch in April 2018.This became the first radio message ever sent to a potentially habitable exoplanet. The message included 33 music pieces of 10 seconds each, by artists including Autechre, Jean Michel Jarre, Kate Tempest, Kode 9, Modeselektor and Richie Hawtin. Also included were scientific and mathematical tutorials sent in binary code, designed to be understandable by extraterrestrials; a recording of an unborn baby girl's heartbeat; along with poetry and political statements about humans.Due to the lag from light speed over a distance of 70 trillion miles, the earliest possible date for a response to arrive back would be 2042.*       Credit: Sonar      "},{"title":"Depression is the number one global disease burden","year":"2030","text":"When measured by years of life lost, depression has now overtaken  heart disease to become the leading global disease burden.* This includes both years lived in a state of poor health and years lost due to premature death. Principle causes of depression include debt worries, unemployment, crime, violence (especially family violence), war, environmental degradation and disasters. The on-going economic stagnation around the world is a major contributing factor. However, progress is being made with destigmatising mental illness.*   "},{"title":"Child mortality is approaching 2% globally","year":"2030","text":"Childhood mortality, defined as the number of children dying under the age of five, was a major issue during the late 20th century. In 1970, more than 14% of children worldwide never saw their 5th birthday, while in Africa the figure was even higher at over 24%. The gap between rich and poor nations was staggering, with a mortality rate of only 24 per 1,000 live births in the most industrialised countries, an order of magnitude lower.*Improvements in medicine, education, economic opportunity and living standards led to a fall in child deaths over subsequent decades. More and more children were being saved by low-tech, cost-effective, evidence-based measures. These included vaccines, antibiotics, micronutrient supplementation, insecticide-treated bed nets, improved family care and breastfeeding practices, and oral rehydration therapy. The empowerment of women, the removal of social and financial barriers to accessing basic services, new innovations that made the supply of critical services more available to the poor and increasing local accountability were policy interventions that reduced mortality and improved equity.The U.N.'s Millennium Development Goals included the ambitious target of reducing by two-thirds (between 1990 and 2015) the number of children dying under age five. While this goal failed to be met in time, the progress achieved was still significant – a drop from 92 to 43 deaths per 1,000 live births. Public, private and non-profit organisations, keen to build on their experience and ensure the continuation of this trend, made childhood survival a focus of the new sustainable development agenda for 2030. A new objective was set, which aimed to lower the under-five mortality figure to less than 25 per 1,000 live births worldwide.*With ongoing improvements in public health and education – aided by widespread access to the Internet in developing regions* – this new goal was largely met, with further declines in childhood mortality from 2015 to 2030. Although some regions in Africa still have unacceptably high rates, the overall worldwide figure is around 2% by 2030.*One recent development now having a major impact is the mass application of gene drives to control mosquito populations, greatly reducing the number of malaria cases.* Huge advances have also been made in the prevention and treatment of HIV, which is no longer the death sentence it used to be. Some diseases have been eradicated by now including polio, Guinea worm, elephantiasis, river blindness, and blinding trachoma.*However, the progress achieved in recent decades is now threatened by the worsening problems of climate change and other environmental issues, along with antibiotic resistance.* Even discounting these emerging threats, it is simply impractical and impossible to prevent every childhood death with current levels of technology and surveillance. As such, childhood mortality begins to taper off – not reaching zero until much further into the future.   "},{"title":"The Muslim population has increased significantly","year":"2030","text":"By 2030, the Muslim share of the global population has reached 26.4%. This compares with 19.1% in 1990.* Countries which have seen the largest growth rates  include Ireland (190.7%), Canada (183.1%), Finland (150%), Norway (149.3%), New Zealand (146.3%) the United States (139.5%) and Sweden (120.2%). Those which have experienced the biggest falls include Lithuania (-33.3%), Moldova (-13.3%), Belarus (-10.5%), Japan (-7.6%), Guyana (-7.3%), Poland (-5.0%) and Hungary (-4.0%).A number of factors have driven this trend. Firstly, Muslims have higher fertility rates (more children per woman) than non-Muslims. Secondly, a larger share of the Muslim population has entered – or is entering – the prime reproductive years (ages 15-29). Thirdly, health and economic gains in Muslim-majority countries have resulted in greater-than-average declines in  child and infant mortality rates, with life expectancy improving faster too.Despite an increasing share of the population, the overall rate of growth for Muslims has begun to slow when compared with earlier decades. Later this century, both Muslim and non-Muslim numbers will approach a plateau as the global population stabilises.* The spread of democracy* and improved access to education* are emerging as major factors in the slowing fertility rates (though Islam has yet to undergo the sort of renaissance and reformation that Christianity went through).Sunni Muslims continue to make up the overwhelming majority (90%) of Muslims in 2030. The portion of the world's Muslims who are Shia has declined slightly, mainly because of relatively low fertility in Iran, where more than a third of the world's Shia Muslims live.   "},{"title":"Full         weather modelling is perfected","year":"2030","text":"Zettaflop-scale         computing is now available which is a thousand times more powerful than computers of 2020 and a million         times more powerful than those of 2010. One field         seeing particular benefit during this time is meteorology. Weather forecasts         can be generated with 99% accuracy over a two week period.* Satellites can map wind and rain patterns in real time at phenomenal         resolution – from square kilometres in previous decades, down to  square metres with today's technology. Climate and sea level predictions can also be achieved with  greater     detail than ever before, offering greater certainty about the long-term outlook for the planet.   "},{"title":"Orbital space junk is becoming a major problem for space flight","year":"2030","text":"Space junk – debris left in orbit from human activities – has been steadily building in low-Earth orbit for more than 70 years. It is made up of everything from spent rocket stages, to defunct satellites, to debris left over from accidental collisions. The size of space junk can reach up to several metres, but is most often miniscule particles such as metal shavings and paint flecks. Despite their small size, such pieces of debris often sustain speeds of 30,000 mph – easily fast enough to deal significant damage to a spacecraft. Satellites, rockets and space stations, as well as astronauts conducting spacewalks, have all had to cope with the increasing damage caused by collisions with these particles.One of the biggest issues with space junk is the fact that it grows exponentially. This trend, along with the increasing number of countries entering space, has made orbital collisions happen almost regularly in recent years. The newest space-faring nations have been particularly affected.Events similar to the 2009 collision of the US Iridium and Russian Kosmos satellites have raised fears of the so-called Kessler Syndrome. This scenario is where space junk reaches a critical mass, triggering a chain reaction of collisions until virtually every satellite and man-made object in an orbital band has been reduced to debris. Such an event could destroy the global economy and render future space travel almost impossible.By 2030, the amount of space junk in orbit has tripled, compared to 2011.* Countless millions of fragments can now be found at various levels of orbit. A new generation of shielding for spacecraft and rockets is  being developed, along with tougher and more durable space suits for astronauts. This includes the use of \"self-healing\"  nanotechnology materials, though expenses are too high to outfit everything.Larger chunks of debris have also been impacting on Earth itself more frequently. Though most land in the ocean (since the planet's surface is 70% covered by water), a few crash on land, necessitating early warning systems for people in the affected areas.Increased regulation has begun to mitigate the growth of space debris, while better shielding and repair technology has reduced the frequency of damage. Increased computing power and tracking systems are also helping to predict the path of debris and instruct spacecraft to avoid the most dangerous areas. Options to physically move debris are also being deployed – including nets and harpoons fired from small satellites, along with ground-based lasers that can push junk into decaying orbits so it burns up in the atmosphere. Despite this, space junk remains an expensive problem for now. "},{"title":"India has begun phasing out hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)","year":"2031","text":"The Montreal Protocol, signed in 1987, was an international agreement to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of substances responsible for ozone depletion. These included chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs).CFCs and HCFCs had been used in a wide range of industrial applications – such as aerospace, agriculture, air conditioning, electronics, fire protection, flexible and rigid foam, laboratory measurements and refrigeration. Produced mostly in developed countries, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) began to replace CFCs and HCFCs. HFCs posed no harm to the ozone layer because, unlike CFCs and HCFCs, they did not contain chlorine. They were, however, greenhouse gases, with a very high global warming potential (GWP), thousands of times greater than carbon dioxide (CO2) when measured on a per-molecule basis. While their atmospheric concentration was initially very low, it began to grow rapidly in the years following the Montreal Protocol.       Credit: UNEP Known as \"super greenhouse gases,\" it was feared that soaring use of HFCs, combined with their high global warming potential, could undercut the benefits expected from the reduction of other greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane. If left unchecked, it was calculated that HFCs could add a potentially disastrous 0.5°C to global average temperatures by the end of the 21st century.*Unlike other greenhouse gases in the 2015 Paris Agreement, HFCs had other international negotiations. In September 2016, the New York Declaration urged a global reduction in the use of HFCs. In October 2016, negotiators from 170 nations meeting at the summit of the UN Environment Programme in Kigali, Rwanda, reached a legally-binding accord to phase out hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) in an amendment to the original Montreal Protocol.*While hailed as a major achievement for international diplomacy, there were significant differences on the timing and schedule of reductions. The final agreement would see the richest countries starting the process in 2019. Over 100 developing nations would follow in 2024. However, a small group of countries argued for and secured a later start, insisting their economies needed time to grow. Among this group was India, the world's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases and a region with surging demand for air conditioning, due to both rising incomes and increasingly extreme hot weather.The chemicals needed to replace HFCs were more flammable and toxic – requiring better-trained and better-paid people to design, install and maintain equipment such as air conditioners safely and correctly. In addition, new technologies were required to capture and store HFC in some applications. India's Council on Energy, Environment and Water estimated that the total cost of phasing out HFCs in all homes, workplaces and vehicles could reach up to $38 billion.India, along with Pakistan and a number of Gulf states, agreed to \"freeze\" their use of HFCs by 2028. This plateau would be followed by steep reductions from 2031 onwards,* leading to the vast majority of HFCs being eliminated by the late 2040s.*   "},{"title":"Much of Bangkok is being abandoned due to flooding","year":"2031","text":"Bangkok, with a population of over 12 million, has been sinking underwater for decades. By the early 2030s, it is facing a disaster of epic scale, with much of the city being abandoned.*This has occurred for various different reasons. First and foremost, the city is built on clay. When originally settled, the region was just swampy coastline, but today it is covered by skyscrapers, highways and  urban development. The  enormous weight of all this concrete and steel has been pushing down on the soft clay beneath, causing the soils to descend by up to 5.3cm per year. By 2010, part of the megalopolis was already under sea level, a trend that would only become worse in the following decades.The illegal tapping of groundwater has been another major factor. Many of the city's residents have been continuously pumping up groundwater – both for their own use  and to sell as a commodity – removing a natural layer and resulting in further destabilisation of the soil.Rising sea levels due to global warming have been yet another factor, eroding the coastline  at a rate of 4cm a year, while the increasing severity of monsoon rains has led to longer and more devastating floods.The explosive growth of Bangkok in recent decades (making it one of the fastest growing places in southeast Asia) has dealt a serious blow to the city's infrastructure. Areas of land that had in the early 20th century been used to absorb flood waters had vast suburbs and business districts built over them. Canals were filled in to make way for the rapid urbanisation of the Chao Praya River Delta. The weight of the city grew and grew, to the point where the soft soil it was built upon could simply no longer support it.By the early 2030s, large portions of the megalopolis are well below sea level. The government's response during this time has proven inadequate, a lack of clear policy doing little to help the overall situation,* while sea walls have been almost useless due to  increasing erosion of the shore. The lowering of the city, combined with rising sea levels (over 20cm higher than in 2000), has resulted in whole districts of Bangkok being permanently abandoned. Over a million buildings, the  majority residential, are rendered uninhabitable, forcing their occupants to move further inland.Many areas which have yet to be fully claimed by the sea have also been evacuated, as the regularity of flooding proved too costly for many. Shantytowns and refugee camps are forming outside  the city, while the government struggles to adjust as the capital sinks. Thailand as a whole is going through a period of almost unimaginable stress at this time, a result of such huge population displacement. The  political, economic and social upheaval in the region is having a significant impact on global GDP.Efforts are underway to save Bangkok's numerous historical monuments and artifacts, with some temples being moved inland and reconstructed in their entirety. Due to the scale of this disaster, however, much is lost.In the coming years, the situation for Bangkok will only worsen as more and more of the city is permanently flooded. By the end of this century,  the entire city will be abandoned.*   "},{"title":"Global reserves of lead are running out","year":"2031","text":"Lead is a carbon group element with high density, malleability, softness and ductility. Metallic lead is relatively rare in the Earth's crust, and so is usually processed from zinc, silver and copper ores. Like silver, lead has been in use by humans for thousands of years. It was widely exploited by the Roman empire and played a large role in the industrial revolution. World production doubled from 1850 to 1900,  doubled again from 1900 to 1950, then doubled yet again from 1950 to 2000.*Due to its high density, it has often been used as a weight or ballast, as well as radiation shielding. It is also used in firearms and other weaponry. The bulk of lead is used in producing car batteries and similar, as well as in electrodes and high voltage wires. The primary producers are China, Australia, the United States, Canada and Kazakhstan.Lead is also a pollutant and can be hazardous to human health,  being infamous for its older uses in  paint and fuels. From the 18th to  21st centuries, environmental levels  of lead  increased more than 1,000-fold.* In terms of numbers of people exposed and the public health impact, it became one of the largest environmental medicine problems. Although regulations from the 1970s began to reduce the lead content in products and greatly cut exposure in the developed world, many developing countries still allowed its use.By the early 2030s, most reserves of lead are beginning to be exhausted.** Much of the recent increase in demand has come from China's growing automobile sector. Because about half of the supply comes from recycled scrap, improved recycling programs are able to carry demand in the short term. Fortunately, lead has ready alternatives for most of its uses including zinc, copper, iron and tungsten. However,  some of these metals will soon be facing their own shortages too, necessitating the production of artificial replacements. Because of this, the 2030s sees an acceleration of global recycling efforts in order to avert a  resource crunch.   "},{"title":"Perennial wheat and corn are becoming profitable","year":"2031","text":"In traditional agriculture, all major grain crops have been \"annuals\", or short-lived perennials grown as annuals – surviving  for just one growing season. They die off once harvested, and then a brand new crop must be planted to take their place. This requires vast amounts of fuel, fertilizer, herbicides and pesticides – causing soil erosion, acidification and disrupting both the nitrogen and carbon cycles.Between 1600 and 2000 AD, the United States lost around one-third of its topsoil. Worldwide, soil erosion was putting the livelihoods of nearly a billion people at risk by the early 21st century.* More than a quarter of Earth's land surface had been converted for agricultural use, with more land converted since 1950 than in the previous 150 years. This situation was being exacerbated by rapid population growth,* demand for meat products in emerging economies, increased production of biofuels,* along with climate change and peak phosphorus* looming on the horizon.Genetic engineering had emerged as an important tool in crop management. Among the more notable advances occurred in 2017, when BioCassava Plus received regulatory approval, giving a huge boost to farming in Africa.* By the early 2030s,** this has been followed by an even greater breakthrough – perennial wheat and corn  – becoming profitable after many years of development.Perennial grain crops provide a revolution in agriculture. By growing continuously for two or more years, they are far more efficient than traditional annual crops, requiring less fuel,  fertilizer, herbicides and pesticides. They can store more carbon, maintain better soil quality and water content, and manage nutrients better, thanks to their deeper root systems.The deciphering of bread wheat's genetic code in the early 2010s* helped in paving the way towards a new generation of perennial crops. The rate of increase in wheat yields, having been in decline since 1980, is now beginning to increase again. However, agriculture will face a new set of challenges later this decade as the effects of climate change begin to accelerate markedly.*   "},{"title":"Web         4.0 is transforming the Internet landscape","year":"2031","text":"Further         convergence of the online and physical worlds has led to the emergence         of \"Web 4.0\" – the next generation of internet. Semantic analysing         programs, having evolved into stronger AI, now perform a huge range         of automated tasks for business, government and consumers. Running on         massively parallel networks, these applications hunt for textual and         visual data – combining the most subtle capabilities of humans (such         as pattern recognition) with ways in which machines are already vastly         superior (such as speed and memory).*In addition         to serving as highly advanced search engines, they are playing a major         function in the real world – gathering information from the array of         sensors, cameras and other tracking devices now present in the environment,         on vehicles, and even on people themselves.Although         privacy and civil liberties issues are being raised, this new generation         of IT promises to bring enormous benefits to society. Crimes are faster         and easier to solve thanks to these intelligent virtual agents; transport         and logistics are smoother and more efficient; resources can be managed         and distributed more accurately.In addition,         practically every physical document in existence has now been digitally         encoded, backed up and archived online. This includes full copies of         all books, journals, manuscripts and other literature ever published         – forming a complete repository of human knowledge going back         thousands of years. These documents can be retrieved and analysed using         real-time speech commands, translated from any of the world's 6,000         languages and accessed via 3D holographic imaging.Web 4.0         is also democratising the Internet more than ever before. News agencies         are finding themselves increasingly outmoded by bloggers and other social         media when it comes to speed and accuracy of information.   "},{"title":"Stem         cell pharmacies are commonplace","year":"2031","text":"Stem cell         pharmacies are now a fairly common experience in the developed world, offering walk-in         diagnosis, stem-cell collection and banking services for use in future         medical crises. Affordable, personalised and targeted treatments are becoming available         for regenerating various body parts and organs.*       © Paul           Fleet | Dreamstime.com  "},{"title":"Married         couples are a minority in the UK","year":"2031","text":"By now,         marriage in the UK has been reduced to a lifestyle choice         enjoyed by a minority, rather than an essential institution of society.         The married population         has shrunk from almost 50% of adults in 2009, to just 41% now.* This trend began in the 1980s. Increasing         pressures of work and money, together with the general stresses of the         outside world (geopolitical, social and economic), are putting          ever-greater strain on couples. The decline of religious institutions         has also played a part. Unmarried partnerships no longer carry         the stigma they once had.In addition,         increasing numbers of people either working at home alone, or living         with their parents, are making it difficult for some to meet potential         partners. Another         contributory factor is an explosion in the use of virtual reality and other technologies leading to increased          isolation of the individual. People of all ages spend increasingly large amounts of their         time engaged in highly immersive online experiences, requiring little         or no interaction with the outside world.Of those         who are married, the number of children per couple has declined – and not just in the UK, but other Western societies too. Combined with increasing numbers of Muslim immigrants         (who have  higher numbers of children), this is significantly         altering the demographic balance.   "},{"title":"Chocolate         has become a rare luxury","year":"2031","text":"By now,         chocolate has become as rare and expensive as caviar, with even a single         bar costing $10-15.Drought,         soil depletion and diminishing harvests in Africa – where two-thirds         of the world's cocoa is produced – have led to soaring prices. Cocoa           is also competing for agricultural space with other commodities like           palm oil, which is increasingly in demand for biofuels.Poor pay         and working conditions have also been a factor. Many young farmers are         now abandoning their lands and heading to the cities, in search of better         and more highly-paid jobs.*    "},{"title":"A giant artificial island project opens in Hong Kong","year":"2032 ","text":"Lantau Tomorrow Vision is a HK$500 billion (US$64 billion) megaproject in Hong Kong, developed in response to overcrowding and sky-high property prices. Located on reclaimed land covering an area of 1,700 hectares, it creates a third core business district – plus residential units for 1.1 million people, of which 70% is public housing. In total, this generates 340,000 new jobs.*A series of giant artificial islands are constructed between Lantau (in the west) and Hong Kong Island (in the east). The project is the largest of its kind ever attempted in Hong Kong and there is great controversy surrounding its cost.* However, the initial outlay is eventually recouped, with land revenue ultimately reaching almost HK$1 trillion (US$128 billion). Approximately half of the development costs go into transport and infrastructure. The project also benefits from close proximity to the world's longest sea bridge, completed in 2018, which connects Hong Kong with Macau further to the west. This allows it to serve as a gateway between the two autonomous regions.*The new islands are protected against climate change. They are elevated as high as the nearby Hong Kong International Airport – which opened in 1998 and also sits on reclaimed land – six metres (19 feet) above sea level and able to withstand super typhoons. Construction begins in 2025, with the first residents moving in by 2032.   "},{"title":"The majority of UK homes are rented","year":"2032 ","text":"By 2032, house prices in the UK have become so unaffordable that the majority of people are forced to take rented accommodation.* This trend first began to emerge during the Blair years of the late 90s and early 2000s. It could be argued, however, that the problem originated as far back as 1980,* when the Conservative government led by Margaret Thatcher passed the Housing Act. This led to a fall in socially rented housing – as council tenants were given the legal right to buy, at a large discount, the home they were living in – while councils were prevented from reinvesting most of the proceeds from these sales into building new homes.* Many tenants who had purchased these council flats later profited from them  as buy-to-let landlords* – effectively subsidised by taxpayers – or sold them to speculators, investors and property firms. About 1.5 million council homes were sold by 2003 and this figure had reached 2 million by 2015.A failure to construct enough new homes,** combined with rapid   population growth (especially from immigration),* resulted in a serious   lack of supply during the early 21st century. Other factors included   changes in the employment landscape, a rise in the number of students,   later marriage and rising separation rates. Having been relatively   stable for most of the 20th century, the average cost of a UK home rose   from £50K in 1995 to £184K by 2007.* During this same period, mortgage   payments as a percentage of income soared from 18% to more than 50%.* The problem was compounded by stagnant wage growth (below inflation), a   decline in the level of household savings (from 16% in the early 90s, to    just 6% within two decades) and tighter lending requirements in the   aftermath of the Great Recession.*Subsequent attempts to rectify the situation included policies such as the \"Help to Buy\" scheme, but these only exacerbated the problem by creating artificially inflated demand.* The fundamental issue was lack of supply – but government funding and policies came nowhere near close enough to addressing this point with only a tinkering around the edges to boost housing stock. Because of these failures, less than half – 49% – of UK households are homeowners by 2032 – the first time since the early 70s that a majority of people are renting. One-third of households are now renting privately, twice as many as in 2015. London and the southeast of England have been particularly affected, due to a massive influx of foreign billionaires pouring money into the region and pushing up land values. The gap between rich and poor – and between the younger and older generations* – has now grown to be wider than ever, creating an ever more polarised and unequal society.*   "},{"title":"Britain's ash trees have been wiped out by a fungal disease","year":"2032 ","text":"Ash dieback, caused by the fungus Chalara fraxinea,* killed huge numbers of trees from the mid-1990s onwards, particularly in eastern and northern Europe. Up to 90% of ash trees were affected in Denmark. The fungus was first scientifically described in 2006.It was  discovered in the UK during 2012, initially only on imported nursery stock, but in October of that year it was found on trees at two sites of established woodland in the East Anglia region. This occurred despite clear warnings from  ecologists and foresters that imports of  seedlings from the continent should be banned in case of infection.*Despite efforts to contain the disease, it was impossible to stop.* Within a few weeks, Chalara fraxinea was confirmed in dozens of other locations. Over the next two decades, it spread throughout the country, wiping out most of the 90 million ash trees in Britain.*Many plant species, birds and other animals dependent upon the trees for  survival were also lost,* at a time when their numbers were already in sharp decline.** With ash trees forming a significant proportion of the UK's woodland, an eerie silence is descending on many areas of countryside, with birdsongs and other wildlife becoming ever rarer.   "},{"title":"Leatherback sea turtles are on the verge of extinction","year":"2032 ","text":"Growing up to seven feet (two metres) long and exceeding 2,000 pounds (900 kilograms), leatherbacks are the largest turtles on Earth. They can dive to depths of nearly 4,000 feet and  make trans-Pacific migrations from Indonesia to the U.S. Pacific coast and back again. These ancient reptiles are the only remaining members of a family of turtles with evolutionary roots going back  100 million years.After mating at sea, females come ashore during the breeding season to nest. At night, they excavate a hole in the sand, depositing around 80 eggs. This is filled with sand, making detection by predators difficult, before the mother turtle returns to the sea.  Once common throughout the world, their population declined rapidly during the 20th century and into the 21st. At the Jamursba Medi Beach in Papua Barat, Indonesia –  accounting for 75 percent of  total sightings in the western Pacific – nest numbers plummeted from a peak of 14,455 in 1984 to a low of 1,532 in 2011.Several major problems faced leatherback turtles: nesting beach predators, such as pigs and dogs that were introduced to the islands, eating the turtle eggs; rising sand temperatures that  killed the eggs or prevented the production of male hatchlings; the danger of being caught by fisheries during migrations; and harvesting of adults and eggs for food by islanders.* Plastic debris, mistaken for their favourite food (jellyfish) was another problem. Some individuals were found to have ingested almost 11 pounds (5 kilograms) of plastic into their stomachs.   "},{"title":"China's space station is deorbited","year":"2032 ","text":"China's first space station has reached the end of its 10-year lifespan.* After a decade of onboard research, it is abandoned and sent into a decaying orbit. A new, larger and more advanced space station is now in the process of being constructed.   "},{"title":"4th         generation nuclear power","year":"2032 ","text":"By         this date, 4th generation nuclear power plants are commercially available.* They utilise a system of small balls, rather than large fuel rods. They         are a major improvement over previous generations, for the following       reasons:"},{"title":"Crewed         mission to Phobos","year":"2033","text":"In 2033, NASA conducts the first crewed mission to Phobos, the innermost and larger of the two natural satellites of Mars. This is the latest in a series of ambitious new targets to expand the human exploration of space. Previous missions in the 2020s had seen astronauts returning to the Moon and constructing a new space station in lunar orbit.* This latest mission – over 60 years after the Apollo era – involves orbiting Mars first, before landing on the surface of Phobos. While the average distance to the Moon is 384,000 km (239,000 miles), a journey to Mars is nearly 600 times further, at 225 million km (139 million miles) and poses major technological and financial challenges. However, going to Phobos before Mars itself is less expensive and lower risk, while allowing NASA to demonstrate key technologies for the more advanced missions later on.When used in near-Earth space, the Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (MPCV) is capable of carrying four astronauts on 21-day missions. For journeys to more remote destinations such as Mars – requiring months of travel – it is attached to other         modules with longer-term consumables and support capabilities. Astronauts are able to manoeuvre around the low gravity environment of Phobos using jetpacks and other equipment, while collecting samples and performing a variety of science experiments. This \"orbit first\" mission serves as a precursor to  landings on Mars itself in the late 2030s and again in 2043.*       Phobos 2033 crewed mission. Credit: NASA  "},{"title":"Peak phosphorus is reached","year":"2033","text":"Phosphorus is a basic building block of  life, playing a vital role in the structural framework of DNA and RNA. Found in the cell membranes of animals and plants, it is essential for the transfer of energy. A main component of fertilisers, it helps plants to survive temperature changes, water changes and water deficiencies. This chemical is fundamental to the modern growing of crops.Phosphorus is a scarce and finite resource on Earth, and due to its non-gaseous environmental cycle it cannot be replaced by anything else. For a long time, this problem was largely overlooked by governments – most of whom took a complacent attitude, assuming that this mineral would be around for centuries or more. It was rarely viewed as a political issue, with most talk about the chemical being focussed on its polluting effects, rather than its potential scarcity.New studies in the 2000s and early 2010s, however, revealed that supplies were dwindling much faster than had previously been thought. This trend was being accelerated by  emerging economies such as China and India – countries in which there was ever-increasing demand for  meat and dairy products, which correspondingly required more and more phosphorus to produce. By 2033, worldwide  production of phosphorus has peaked.**The immediate impact is an alarming increase in the price of food, as well as government nationalisation of phosphate reserves and the introduction of export tariffs. Some  regions undergo  famines, while others are forced to introduce  emergency rationing. Food prices have also doubled due to climate change, adding further woe.*Richer nations are better prepared for this crisis – but nevertheless, many have experienced a significant period of readjustment with new methods being mandated and deployed to capture, store and recycle phosphorus. Among the most widely-used short-term innovations  is  recycling of human urine (a phosphate-rich substance), although this is only a temporary solution.* The extracting of phosphorus from the seabed is another development being looked at, but presents major technological and financial challenges.With global population continuing to climb rapidly, the race is now on for longer-term fixes to provide genuine alternatives that can actually replace phosphorus.   "},{"title":"Hypersonic         airliners are entering service","year":"2033","text":"Following         decades of research and development, a new generation of aeroplanes         is entering commercial service.*  These aircraft         have a cruising speed of Mach 5 – or about 3,800 mph – enabling them         to fly from Europe to Australia in less than four hours. With a range         of more than 20,000km (12,000 miles) they can perform this journey without         refuelling and have excellent subsonic and supersonic fuel efficiency,       thus avoiding the problems inherent in earlier supersonic aircraft.Another         advantage is that, while the 150 metre-long designs are  bigger         than previous jets, they are actually lighter than Boeing 747s and can         utilise conventional  runways. They have moderate take-off noise,         too. In many         ways, they are the spiritual successor of Concorde.They lack windows, however. The heat generated by traveling so fast makes         it difficult to install windows that are not too heavy. One solution         to this problem has been the installation of flat screen displays, showing         images of the scene outside. "},{"title":"Ectogenesis is transforming reproductive rights","year":"2034-2044","text":"Ectogenesis – the growth of mammalian embryos in artificial environments – was first described in 1924 by British scientist J.B.S. Haldane. His essay, Daedalus; or, Science and the Future, was regarded as shocking science fiction at the time, but later proved to be remarkable in having predicted many scientific advances. Haldane was a friend of author Aldous Huxley, whose famous novel Brave New World (1932) anticipated similar developments in reproductive technology.In 1953, a transient biochemical pregnancy was reported by Australian researchers who extracted an intact fertilised egg. It was followed by in vitro fertilisation (IVF) six years later enabling the birth of a live rabbit. The first human pregnancy through IVF occurred in 1973 – though it only lasted for a few days. A major milestone was finally reached in 1978, when Louise Brown became the first \"test tube baby\" having been conceived on a petri dish. During the 1980s, IVF was condemned as immoral by religious groups, but public opinion shifted in favour of these procedures. The next few decades saw rapid development in the field. New drugs, better ovarian stimulation techniques, and improved ways to identify the best embryos, all helped in achieving higher success rates, while costs were lowered. The ability to freeze and subsequently thaw and transfer embryos also greatly improved the feasibility of IVF. By the dawn of the 21st century, it had become a mainstream medical technology. Half a million test tube babies had been born around the world by 2004 and this number increased ten-fold to reach five million by 2012.Other developments in reproductive medicine included the first baby born to a mother with a womb transplant, reported in 2014.* Three-parent babies became possible in 2016. An even more ambitious and challenging goal lay ahead. It was almost a century since Haldane coined the term \"ectogenesis\" and replacing traditional pregnancies with fully artificial wombs had now become a real possibility. A number of hurdles remained – including ethical and legal considerations – but genuine progress was being made. One study introduced a mouse embryo into a lab-created uterine lining, resulting in successful implantation and growth on these engineered tissues – held on a bio-engineered, extra-uterine \"scaffold.\" In another study, goat foetuses survived for ten days in a prototype artificial womb consisting of a machine with amniotic fluid in tanks. A third study achieved this with a human embryo, but regulations allowed only a 14-day timespan on research of this kind. These and other breakthroughs led to the first complete working animal wombs in the early 2020s.*A further decade of pioneering work, alongside a relaxing of regulations, led to a human version in the early 2030s.** This first model demonstrated an ability to supply both oxygen and nutrients from an external source to nurture a foetus, as well as dispose of waste material. The feed incorporated an interface to function as a placenta. During clinical trials, it was made available to a small number of parents, but quickly became widespread in the decade after its introduction.*With mainstream use having been achieved, rapid changes began to occur in society. Ectogenesis offered a new way of producing children without having to endure a lengthy, painful and potentially dangerous pregnancy cycle. Women no longer had the sole responsibility of childbirth and were free from worries about whether a certain lifestyle or environment (such as alcohol consumption) was harming the foetuses' development. Every aspect of the nine-month process could be monitored in perfect detail by the machines – ensuring a safe and efficient alternative to natural birth. For many women, their lifestyle and career prospects were transformed; a boon for gender equality. Those with damaged, diseased or removed uteri could also take advantage of the procedure. Homosexual couples and single men could also have children without having to use surrogate mothers. Yet another option now available was for pregnant women seeking an abortion to place their embryo in these artificial wombs, allowing somebody else to adopt it rather than killing off the foetus.Many conservatives and religious groups remained opposed to this process, just as they had been for IVF – but the influence of religion was declining as the world continued to become more secular. Feminists were divided over this new definition of \"motherhood\" and its effect on their role in society. Meanwhile some expressed concerns that children born in this way could lack an essential bond with their mothers that other children had. However, these machines were able to use vocal recordings, movement, and other sensations to accurately simulate a natural gestation. Even greater advances would emerge in the 2050s with extensive manipulation of DNA in these wombs allowing \"designer babies\" for the rich.*        Ectogenesis: artificial womb technology | © Sebastian Kaulitzki | Dreamstime.com  "},{"title":"Service robots number a billion worldwide","year":"2034","text":"By the mid-2030s, the number of service robots has reached one billion worldwide and continues to grow rapidly.* Service robots are generally divided into two separate groups: personal and professional. The former are used in non-commercial settings and usually by laypersons. Examples would include domestic units such as vacuum cleaners, lawn mowers, kitchen chefs, personal mobility assistants, toys and pet exercise robots. The latter group, professional service robots, tend to be used for commercial tasks and are normally operated or monitored by properly trained personnel. Examples can include medical robots performing surgical operations, fire-fighting robots, automated security patrols, machines to clean public places, delivery robots and others designed to assist with retail or leisure environments.Both personal and professional service robots are separated from another category of machines: industrial robots. This third group is nowhere near as numerous or visible in everyday life, though still growing at a rapid rate during this time.*The disruption caused by AI, automation and robotisation has accelerated in recent years,* creating a backlash among the general public. Some of the countries most affected include Germany, Italy, Japan, South Korea and Switzerland, where one-quarter of traditional work activities have been displaced.* While some employees are able to transfer into other industries, substantial numbers are unable to do so. This is leading to calls for increased support and intervention by both governments and businesses, such as providing retraining and education for those affected. More radical initiatives, such as universal basic incomes (UBI), have also seen increased public support, with an ever-growing number of countries and regions willing to experiment with the idea.One of the sectors under most pressure in 2034 is retail, with machines having recently surpassed humans in the majority of tasks.* Shop robots are now a common sight in large grocery, hardware and other stores, where they roam the aisles and restock or rearrange items, perform security functions and handle tasks such as cleaning floors. Unlike the \"dumb\" machines of earlier generations, robots of the 2030s are considerably smarter – highly adaptable to their surroundings and work situations, able to instantly recognise and interact with countless objects, while  providing real-time information to customers. This has come about through exponential improvements in machine learning, cloud computing, bandwidth, sensor technology and so on.The sparse numbers of human staff – especially when combined with cashier-less payment systems* – can be a rather dehumanising and impersonal experience compared to traditional stores of the past. Senior citizens find it hard to accept the changes.* However, the drive towards ever greater efficiency and productivity has made this trend unstoppable, with more and more businesses employing the use of robots. In some nations, such as Japan, China, South Korea and Taiwan, they are becoming a vital necessity due to aging populations and shrinking workforces.*       Image credits: Domino's Pizza / Kniff Projektagentur GbR / Fraunhofer IPA      "},{"title":"NASA's Dragonfly spacecraft lands on Titan","year":"2034","text":"Dragonfly is the fourth mission in NASA's New Frontiers program, chosen by the agency in June 2019. Launched to Saturn in 2026, it arrives on the surface of its large moon Titan in 2034.The probe, weighing approximately 450 kg (990 lb), lands by parachute in the equatorial \"Shangri-La\" dune fields, which are terrestrially similar to the linear dunes in Namibia in southern Africa and offer a diverse sampling location. NASA's mission planners analyse many years of earlier Cassini data to choose a calm weather period, along with a safe initial landing site and scientifically interesting targets.Dragonfly consists of a rotorcraft lander, much like a large quadcopter with double rotors –  an octocopter. Its redundant configuration enables it to tolerate the loss of at least one rotor or motor. The craft performs vertical takeoffs and landings (VTOL) and controlled flights between locations, powered by a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG). It can travel at 36 km/h (22 mph) or about 10 m/s and rise to an altitude of 4 km (2.5 miles). The craft is designed to operate at temperatures averaging −179.2 °C (−290.5 °F).Taking advantage of Titan's dense atmosphere and low gravity (requiring 38 times less power than Earth-based flight), Dragonfly explores dozens of locations across the icy world, covering a total of 175 km (109 miles) over a three-year period. It samples and measures the compositions of its organic surface materials to characterise the habitability of Titan's environment and investigate the progression of prebiotic chemistry. The primary mission target is the huge Selk crater, produced by an impact large enough to have melted Titan's water-ice crust and liberate oxygen in the distant past.The craft remains on the ground during Titan's nights, which last 192 hours, or eight Earth days. Activities during the night include seismological studies and meteorological monitoring, sample analysis and local microscopic imaging using LED illuminators. It communicates directly to Earth – more than a billion kilometres away – using a high-gain antenna, with a transmission delay of 79 minutes. In addition to spectrometers, meteorological sensors and a seismometer, the scientific payload includes high-resolution panoramic cameras to image Titan's terrain and scout for scientifically interesting landing sites. "},{"title":"The Very Large Hadron Collider is operational","year":"2035-2075 ","text":"By smashing particles together in high-energy collisions, it is possible to recreate the conditions in the earliest moments of the universe. The higher the energy, the further back in time researchers can simulate, and the more likely it is that exotic interactions will be observed.The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) was built by the European Organisation for Nuclear Research (CERN) from 1998 until 2008. Described as \"one of the great engineering milestones of mankind\", it allowed physicists to test the predictions of different theories of particle physics and high-energy physics – and most importantly, to prove or disprove the existence of the long-theorised Higgs Boson, as well as the large family of new particles predicted by supersymmetric theories. The Higgs was confirmed by  data from the LHC in 2013, and in subsequent decades the LHC would continue to address many unsolved questions, improving knowledge of physical laws. An upgrade was completed in 2015, doubling its energy from 3.5 to 7 tera-electronvolts (7 TeV) per beam. A further performance boost in the 2020s increased the luminosity of the machine by a factor of 10 – providing a better chance to see rare processes and improving statistically marginal measurements.The Very Large Hadron Collider (VLHC) is the successor to the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).* The detailed design and location choice were finalised in the mid-2020s, with construction taking a decade after that. With a tunnel measuring 60 miles (100 km), the VLHC is by far the largest particle accelerator ever built, dwarfing the LHC. Reaching from the Jura mountains in the west, to the Alps in the east, its diameter is so huge that it requires excavation under Lake Geneva. Its collision energy is over 50 tera-electronvolts (50 TeV) per beam, more than seven times that of its predecessor.*The VLHC leads to a revolution in particle physics – vastly improving our knowledge of dark matter, dark energy, string theory and supersymmetry (the latter is a theory that suggests a second, \"superpartner\"  may be coupled to each and every Higgs boson). New information is gleaned on the structure and nature of extra dimensions and how these influence the universe, giving credence to theories beyond the Standard Model.*Longer term, the VLHC helps in the development of picotechnology enabling new applications at scales that are orders of magnitude smaller than nanotechnology.* Particle accelerators continue to grow in size and power, eventually becoming too large for Earth to support them and requiring space-based locations. By the middle of the 4th millennium, the very earliest moment of the Big Bang can be simulated, demonstrating a state known as the Grand Unification Energy, in which fundamental forces are united into a single force.*       Map of the Very Large Hadron Collider (VLHC) and its location compared to the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). Credit: CERN  "},{"title":"The first definitive evidence of life beyond Earth","year":"2035-2045","text":"During this period, the number of confirmed exoplanets (i.e. planets around stars beyond our Solar System) begins to reach into the millions. The first exoplanet was announced in 1988 and a total of 50 had been catalogued by the year 2000. The rate of discovery began to accelerate dramatically following the launch of the Kepler Space Telescope in 2009, which uncovered thousands of new worlds, including 20 of two Earth sizes or less and in habitable zones. These were in addition to those found by ground-based observatories.Many more planet-hunting missions would follow in the years and decades ahead. Each new generation of telescopes brought orders of magnitude improvements in sensitivity, resolution and computational abilities. Most of the earliest discoveries had been so-called \"hot Jupiters\" – gas giants in extremely close proximity to their parent star. In subsequent decades, however, much smaller candidates were capable of being identified and seen at greater distances in their systems. Eventually it was possible to determine the atmospheric compositions and even weather patterns on these unimaginably distant worlds, 10 billion times dimmer than the stars they orbited. By 2040, optics were so powerful that continent-sized features on terrestrial exoplanets were being directly imaged and mapped.*Not only were these highly detailed scans emerging, vast numbers of them were being generated. Like many areas of technology, space observatories were advancing exponentially in terms of raw data. Moreover, their results were increasingly interpreted, not by humans, but by AI software algorithms – using new and ever more sophisticated methods to recognise patterns, avoid the \"false positives\" and spot the proverbial needle in the haystack.  Some of the criteria for evaluating candidate planetary biosignatures included the presence of  liquid water, oxygen, complex organic molecules, the ratio of certain chemicals like hydrogen and methane, and changes in the surface or atmosphere that could not be explained by abiotic (non-living) processes. Based on these various observations and datasets, researchers could form categories for gaseous, surface, or temporal biosignatures. For example, oxygen might be detected in sufficient amounts to be the waste product of photosynthetic organisms, while an exoplanet's colour might give away the presence of vegetation pigments. Meanwhile, carbon dioxide (CO2) levels that varied in a way resembling Earth's Keeling curve* might also suggest a carbon cycle influenced by life.*For many years, candidate planets had been observed with only one, or at most a few, of these biosignatures. Although interesting from a scientific and observational point of view, they lacked the weight of evidence required to prove the existence of life. During the late 2030s and early 2040s, however, the sheer volume of data being  acquired by telescopes, combined with revolutionary new ways of analysing the results, leads to a profound discovery. The first definitive evidence of life beyond Earth is uncovered during this period** with high levels of confidence based on a large and varied body of mutually supporting research. While some are cautiously sceptical initially, the observations are verified over and over again, to leave most people in little doubt that something incredibly special and unique has been found.The discovery of life on another world has enormous cultural impact, and even religious implications for many people. It is one of the biggest and most significant historical milestones of the 21st century, if not the millennium, reshaping the zeitgeist in numerous ways. One of the most obvious benefits is an immediate boost in support for space exploration funding, which helps in part to justify the crewed missions to Mars and the Moon that are coinciding around this time.Earlier studies had attempted to constrain the parameters of the famous Drake Equation and these suggested that primitive life was relatively common in our region of the galaxy.*** Indeed, many more planets with life are found in subsequent years. Later in the 21st century, however, the rate of exoplanet discovery begins to slow as most of the \"low hanging fruit\" in our galactic neighbourhood has been catalogued. The remaining candidates are to be found primarily in the core regions and beyond. These are much harder to observe, due to the combined brightness and density of so many stars in the galactic centre.   "},{"title":"The         final collapse of the European Union","year":"2035-2040","text":"Rising global temperatures are beginning to markedly increase both the frequency         and severity of climate disasters. Europe is now experiencing a wave of major political unrest, the         already fragile alliance having split along north-south lines.*Britain has withdrawn from the EU entirely, focussing on its own domestic ambitions that include self-sufficiency in food production. The EU has been reorganised as a \"Northern Union\" – which includes         France, Benelux, Germany, the Scandinavian countries and Poland. This has now split away from the southern nations, closing its borders to them after struggling to contain a surge in         migration.The famine-stricken         Mediterranean  has been overrun by refugees from even harder-hit         nations in North Africa.  Many refugees have died attempting to cross the sea in makeshift boats. Russia, meanwhile, is  benefiting  from its new-found status as a  food superpower.   "},{"title":"Russia is  a global food superpower","year":"2035-2040","text":"With a population inching towards 9 billion, the world now requires over 50% more food than it did at the beginning of the  century.* At the same time, however, many regions are faced with peak phosphorous* and the effects of climate change which are beginning to accelerate.*Africa's Sahel region – which transitions between the Sahara  in the north and  Sudanian Savannas in the south – is threatened by ever-worsening droughts and  desertification.  Indian and Southeast Asian crop yields, meanwhile, are being hit by increasingly violent and irregular monsoons. Pakistan is experiencing shortfalls of water due to receding snowcaps that  are the main source of its rivers.  Farms in South America, too, are being badly affected by ice loss. The once fertile plains of the  American Midwest have been ravaged by dust-bowlification, while  European nations in the Mediterranean are struggling with chronic drought.A number of regions, however, are actually prospering at this time – these include Canada, Russia and Scandinavia. Melting permafrost and a retreating polar icecap have opened up vast tracts of land in the north. Russia is benefiting the most of all, now that seemingly endless stretches of arable land are appearing in Siberia. The country is taking full advantage of this, with  areas being quickly bought up and divided for farms.       Credit: University Corporation for Atmospheric Research In previous decades, genetic engineering was viewed with suspicion. In today's world of increasing food stress, nations are readily adopting this and other methods. Russia is no exception, with GM crops being widely used throughout the country. Vertical farms, too, are  being deployed more rapidly in response to the warmer climate. Third-generation biofuels – such as genetically-engineered algae and halophyte plants – have also emerged. Aquaculture is being  expanded all along Russia's northern coast, due to  rapid warming and melting  of the Arctic. Climate change is  having another benefit here, since it is increasing the stock of herring, cod, capelin, and mackerel in the region, allowing the expansion of traditional wild-catch fishing. Changing currents and warming seas have resulted in a more north-eastward distribution of the fish stock located in the Barents Sea, at great benefit to the Russian exclusive economic zone. With the Barents Sea largely free of ice for many months,* production of cod alone has jumped by over 50%.*Besides food, Russia is now also secure in terms of fresh water. With much of Brazil affected by chronic droughts, Russia along with Canada  holds an increasingly large percentage of the world's available fresh water. Now that it is able to support itself, Russian food is in great demand, especially in Europe and Central Asia. Russia's influence on the world stage grows considerably during the 2030s.*In light of the unfolding crisis in  Europe, this constitutes a significant shift in power and resources, which inevitably results in friction with the other superpowers. One side effect of this, however, is the increasing flow of immigrants and refugees attracted by Russia's new-found abundance and wealth. Many are fleeing resource conflicts throughout Eurasia. Due to its sheer size, it is virtually impossible for Russia to fully close its borders. This is a particular issue with those fleeing the drought-stricken Tibetan Plateau of Western China.As a result of all  this, Russia's population  has begun to stabilise, having recently undergone a decline. This trend is due to both domestic food security and the growing numbers of immigrants fleeing  disasters at lower latitudes.  "},{"title":"Swarm robotics are reaching the nanometre scale","year":"2035-2040","text":"Swarm robotics is a relatively new field, having emerged in the first decade of the 2000s. It is based on the idea of controlling very large numbers of robots simultaneously, in order to perform tasks that an individual machine would be unable to accomplish alone. This is achieved using a combination of miniaturised computers and locomotive systems, ultra-light materials, compact sensors and wireless technologies.Early generations of these robots were comparatively large and bulky,  lacking the   necessary processing power to engage in any complex activities. Although capable of flight, they were mostly experimental, often bird-sized and relied on heavy components with poor battery life. The   technology improved greatly in the  2010s, however, leading to a new era   of spy drones the size of insects.** These could mimic the body structure, movements and  behaviour of real insects.Over   the next two decades, further improvements in AI and remote guidance    allowed these machines to operate in increasingly large and capable networks, while at the same time, electronic components were shrinking in size by two orders of magnitude per decade.**  Among their most important uses during this time was functioning as artificial pollinators in response to the collapse in honey   bee populations.** They could also serve in other environmental roles, such as monitoring the atmosphere, land and water – including urban areas – with unprecedented speed and detail. These devices were also useful in search and rescue missions, helping to improve real-time data acquisition.A more sinister application would be seen in military engagements. By 2030, the machines had been scaled down to match even the smallest known  insect, less than 0.15 mm (0.0059\") long.** Towards the end of this decade, they are so compact and miniaturised that some variants are now invisible to the naked eye. They can be manufactured in vast networks, numbering in the trillions and together resembling clouds of gas. This effectively is  a form of programmable matter, with each \"particle\" being a robot capable of flight. Released from capsules dropped by UAVs, the swarms perform advanced reconnaissance, coordinate cyber attacks and invade bases – taking down human targets and even disabling large vehicles. Like termites, they use specialised appendages to chew through electronics   and mess up defensive equipment, leaving enemies completely vulnerable. Even   those in  underground bunkers are not safe –   the swarms dissolve all but the most heavily reinforced armour and can   easily penetrate cracks, keyholes, air vents and the like.**As well as their offensive abilities, nanobots can   serve in defensive roles. Floating at low altitude, they   can provide cover to advancing ground forces, acting as shields or \"buffers\" to incoming projectiles, somewhat like the barrage balloons of World War II. They can also coalesce to form temporary structures, like simple bridges to cross a river, stretchers to carry injured personnel, ropes and ladders, and so on.*                Adoption   of military nanotech has accelerated in recent decades, as nations try to   gain the edge in warfare.** Nanobot swarms are   the latest and by far the most powerful step in this race. They are classified as weapons of mass destruction by the UN, placing them in the same   category as nuclear, chemical and biological weapons. International treaties are subsequently signed, limiting   their use. Safety mechanisms are  also introduced in order to minimise the potential for adaption.* Self-replicating variants, for example, are   flat-out banned, since these could consume the entire   biosphere. Fears are growing of a potential   terrorist attack (or \"grey goo\" incident).  "},{"title":"Establishment of the first manned lunar bases","year":"2035-2040","text":"By the latter half of this decade, a number of government and private ventures have created a permanent human presence on the Moon.*** This marks a significant milestone during a period of accelerated   development in space, which has seen major technological advancements and the increased   commercialisation of space flight. Despite the upheaval   being seen around the world as a result of climate change and other   concerns, public participation via the proliferation of information   technology and the promised resources of space have succeeded in   renewing public interest in human exploration.**Over the previous decade, a number of countries returned to the Moon, or   entered the final stages of planning for the first time in  half a   century.* By the late 2020s and early 2030s, NASA and other agencies had built a station in lunar orbit. Subsequently   constructed were a number of robotic platforms for remote surface   exploration.** This was finally followed by the first crewed bases   on the lunar surface in the mid-late 2030s. Construction was   made easier and cheaper thanks to advanced 3D printing. This made it possible to forge new tools, spare parts and even   components for entire buildings, using the lunar regolith as construction material.* The poles were the most favoured regions for settlement, having the twin advantages of both (a) permanently illuminated spots for near-continuous solar power, and (b) permanently shadowed craters known to contain water and other volatiles. This was a result of the Moon's axis of rotation.* The Moon's South Pole. Permanently shadowed regions appear black. Locations with highest average illumination – highlighted pink – are distributed in a few clusters. The best-illuminated spot is near Shackleton crater, shown by the arrow. Credit: NASA/GSFC Though much of this has resulted from international cooperation, it is also   the long-term culmination of individual national space programs.   Russia had been planning a lunar base since the early 2010s, for example.* Its success has been thanks in part to a series of heavy lift rockets   developed in recent years. After landing its first man on the Moon at   the beginning of the decade, Russia would go on to develop a   base just a few years later.*China, too, is now developing a base, following recent manned   missions.* Unlike other efforts, China's space program is   largely singular, without much international collaboration. This has led   to questions about the political, military and other consequences of a Chinese   lunar presence.*       Credit: ESA/Foster & Partners  NASA had contracted a number of private companies to research and develop habitation structures on the lunar surface, such as Bigelow Aerospace and its large   inflatable modules. However, the agency  itself is also playing a more active role now.* With completion of the   first human mission to Mars,* there has been a renewed focus in recent years on lunar   projects. Though a NASA base is not yet complete, crewed operations are underway at this time.* This is   done in conjunction with both private and international government partners and   utilises the infrastructure already present.The participation of other countries – such as Japan, India, Iran and the   nations of Europe – is largely limited to joint ventures. The cost of   going to the Moon is still considerable and faces major economic and   political barriers in many places. Though advances are being made, they   are still a few years away from independent programs. India is making the   greatest strides, largely thanks to the ongoing expansion of its   economy and its emergence as a major world power.*       Credit: ESA/Foster & Partners  "},{"title":"The RAF Typhoon is phased out and replaced by the Tempest","year":"2035-2040","text":"In 2035, a next-generation aircraft known as the Tempest enters service in Britain's Royal Air Force (RAF).* By 2040, it has superseded the aging Typhoon as the latter is phased out completely. The new fighter jet is developed and built by companies specialising in four key technology areas: advanced combat air systems and integration (BAE Systems); advanced power and propulsion systems (Rolls-Royce); advanced sensors, electronics and avionics (Leonardo) and advanced weapon systems (MBDA).Capable of being used either with pilots, or as a drone, the Tempest includes \"swarming\" technology that uses AI and machine learning to hit its targets, combined with directed energy weapons (DEW) firing concentrated bursts of laser, microwave or particle beam energy to inflict damage.* It is the first British-designed jet to carry such weapons.* The outline and shape of the aircraft makes it difficult or impossible for enemies to detect by radar. It also features a \"virtual\" cockpit with VR/AR options, distributed multi-spectral sensors, resistance to cyberattacks, a flexible payload configuration and automated support/maintenance on the ground. Click to enlarge      RAF Tempest, entering service in 2035. © Copyright BAE Systems        "},{"title":"Millennials are enjoying an inheritance boom","year":"2035","text":"In earlier decades, the Baby Boomers (defined as those born between 1946 and 1964) were vilified by younger generations. In the post-War period they had inherited a host of societal benefits – such as lower education costs, cheaper healthcare, affordable homes, wage increases that matched productivity gains and so on. During the late 20th century, however, as the Boomers became the dominant part of the electorate, their voting patterns supported and gave rise to the neoliberal economics of Reagan, Thatcher, et al. Policies introduced by these and subsequent governments began to strip away and reverse much of what the Boomers had once enjoyed, passing the costs on to Generation X and the incoming Millennials.*Following the economic crash of 2008 and ongoing stagnation across much of the West, it became clear that these younger generations would be faced with enormous debts, reduced social mobility, an environmental crisis and other problems. The very real prospect of being saddled with lower incomes and poorer living standards than their parents led Millennials, in particular, to accuse the Boomers of a selfish individualism and short-termism.However, the Boomers would not be around forever. By 2020, their influence was diminishing* as many began to enter their final years. In addition to waning electoral power, the Boomers were passing on record sums of wealth to their offspring. In some countries, inheritance figures more than doubled between the 2010s and 2030s, reaching a peak by 2035.* This would help in offsetting the decline of living standards that the younger generations had experienced earlier. However, it leads to greater inequality within the Millennial cohort (not all of whom had parents with large sums of money or property), while for many it arrives too late to be used during their expensive child-rearing years that require a larger home.*   "},{"title":"Lion populations in Africa have declined by half","year":"2035","text":"Between 1990 and 2015, lion populations throughout many parts of Africa declined sharply. The reductions were especially alarming in West* and Central Africa. In two national parks, the Mole and Comoé – located in Ghana and the Ivory Coast, respectively – the animals were found to be extinct.The main threats to lions were the spread of subsistence farming into woodlands, open plains and thick bush where lions hunted and bred. Being in close proximity to human settlements meant they were often killed in retaliation for attacks on livestock or humans. Alongside this, a thriving trade in bush meat was depleting the prey that lions depended on for survival. Trophy hunting was another problem, one notable example being the death of Cecil the lion, a major attraction at Hwange National Park in Zimbabwe, who was killed by a recreational big-game hunter.*Having once been found in southeastern Europe and throughout much of   the Middle East and India, lions had lost 85% of their   historic range by 2015.* Conservation efforts were impeded due to most African nations lacking the money and resources that were needed – so inevitably, lion populations underwent further declines. By 2035, their numbers have halved again, with about 10,000 surviving mostly in southern parts of the continent, which has better wildlife protection measures and a lower density of humans.*   "},{"title":"World tin reserves are running out","year":"2035","text":"Tin is a silvery-white metal that is soft, ductile and malleable. Among the oldest metals known to mankind, it was  discovered around 3000 BC during the bronze age, which is in fact named for an alloy of tin and copper. Its role in casting as an alloy created a valuable trade network that linked ancient civilisation for thousands of years.*Tin does not occur naturally in pure form, so it must be extracted from other ores. Because of tin dioxide's high specific gravity, tin is often mined downstream of a primary deposit – along river banks, in valleys, or at the bottom of the ocean. Therefore, the most economical extraction methods are dredging, open-pit and hydraulic mining. Historically, the largest producers of tin have  been China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Peru, Brazil and Bolivia.Tin is primarily used in soldering, metal plating, a wide range of alloys, superconducting magnets and PVC plastics. As China and other emerging nations continue to demand resources beyond what the Earth can provide, tin is among the metals now in critical decline. By the mid-2030s, most of the large economically recoverable deposits have been completely exhausted.**Local, individual and small-scale mines – not reporting their reserves in the manner of large mining corporations – have continued to supply the markets. Recent new discoveries  in Columbia* have also provided some temporary relief to demand. However, an adequate long-term solution can only be found with a complete replacement for tin.* Recycling has increased sharply as the market trends away from mineral sources.   "},{"title":"Distributed propulsion systems are revolutionising air travel","year":"2035","text":"During this decade,** a number of national militaries and commercial aerospace firms are adopting turbo-electric distributed propulsion systems for their aircraft, replacing the more traditional wing-attached engines. This is a result of recent advances in materials science, cryogenic cooling systems, novel fuels, high fidelity computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and experimental tools. Along with hypersonic engines,* this technology is contributing to an ongoing revolution in aircraft design.The basic concept of distributed propulsion is that the   thrust-generating components of an aircraft are now fully integrated   into the airframe of the vehicle. Instead of one or two large singular   engines attached to the outside of the wing or fuselage, thrust is   generated by a spanwise distribution of smaller engines or fans across   the width of the wing. These are also more seamlessly merged into the   body of the plane, offering major advantages in terms of   aerodynamics and thrust. This is usually combined with a blended wing   body design, creating a more streamlined, synergistic combination of all   aircraft components.Airflow around the plane is optimised – allowing for steeper climbs   during take-off, greater degrees of control and manoeuvrability, higher   bypass ratios and much greater fuel efficiency. In addition,   the majority of these systems utilise electrical propulsion.* Advances in energy storage, as well as a new generation of   ultra-lightweight superconductors, have finally paved the way for large-scale production of electric aircraft. These have the benefits of   lighter weight, less maintenance, a noise reduction of up to 70 decibels and lower carbon footprints. Construction of these   planes is also considerably cheaper in many cases.*   "},{"title":"Self-driving         vehicles dominate the roads","year":"2035","text":"Accelerating breakthroughs in the fields of artificial intelligence, sensors and telecommunications have led to a new generation  of self-driving cars. These vehicles are considerably safer and more reliable  than previous models and now dominate the mainstream markets, particularly in  developed nations.** Today, annual purchases of autonomous vehicles are  nearing 100 million worldwide, representing almost 75% of all light-duty  vehicle sales.* This compares with 60 million total light-duty vehicle  sales in 2012, and is largely due to soaring populations and the rapid  industrialisation of many countries.Simpler versions of this technology were seen in the 2010s in the form  of emergency braking systems,* connected vehicle networks,* self-parking and freeway cruising features. Now though, computing power and stronger AI mean that today's autonomous vehicles can outperform even the best human drivers. A combination of GPS, on-board sensors,  traction and stability control, and adaptive cruise control allow a car to  sense incoming objects from all directions, detect incoming crashes and  impacts, predict the movements of other vehicles on the road, and adapt to  changing road and weather conditions. Real-time updates are constantly received  by the car's on-board computer, giving up-to-date information on  traffic, allowing the vehicles to determine the optimal route to their intended  destination.       Credit: GM  A number of hurdles had to be overcome in order to reach this point. One  was the reluctance of automakers to take on responsibility for both the  construction and operation of their vehicles. Another was the disruption  autonomous vehicles posed to the insurance industry.* Shifting  responsibility from driver to  manufacturer added a whole series of  complications to the legal and financial proceedings of potential accidents.  Indeed, the early adoption period of self-driving cars was marked by a number  of high-profile lawsuits and court hearings, often hyped up by media outlets.  Alongside this were the ethical implications of putting the lives of passengers  and pedestrians into the hands of a machine.Despite these problems, the rapidly improving performance and inherent  safety of these vehicles succeeded in boosting demand substantially. The  efficiency offered by self-driving cars also helps to cut down on congestion  and pollution. As well as improving road safety, most of these cars are now  electric, or hybrid electric, reducing their CO2 impact.* These and other  factors mean that by the middle of this century, the vast majority of cars  on the road will be fully autonomous.*  "},{"title":"Holographic         recreations of dead people","year":"2035","text":"Throughout         this time many dead celebrities, presidents and historical figures from         the past are \"resurrected\" via the immense AI and         supercomputing powers now available. This phenomenon is aided by the         recent human brain simulations that have been made possible. Data mining of every single word ever         spoken, written, or otherwise recorded by the person is undertaken,         then analysed to recreate their character traits and emotions. This         allows the construction of a highly accurate \"shell\" personality,         surrounding a generic \"core\" program, run as an entirely independent         AI simulation.The project         sparks much controversy when first announced (especially among the religious         community) but soon gains momentum, as a whole host of actors, musicians,         artists, scientists, politicians and other individuals from the past         are made available.* Advanced holographic         techniques – combined with real-time audio-visual interaction – make     them appear as lifelike as any other person alive in the world today.This form         of computerised resurrection is soon extended and made possible for         ordinary citizens wishing to preserve a loved one in digital form; though         once again, it is more popular among the non-religious (and the process         is generally less accurate, since the average person tends to leave         behind less data, written words, video recordings and other information         for use in constructing the programs). The technology involved is also         expensive. It is used mainly by the rich for now – or in certain public         locations such as museums, galleries and other venues.   "},{"title":"Robots         are dominating the battlefield","year":"2035","text":"Highly mobile, autonomous fighting machines are appearing on the battlefield         now. Guided by AI, they can aim with inhuman precision* and         come equipped with powerful sensors, GPS and thermal vision. They can         be deployed for weeks or months at a time if necessary, without need         for rest or maintenance. They have other advantages too – such as a complete lack of remorse or fear; no need for training or retirement     payments or other such costs. However, debates are raging over the morality and ethics of these weapons systems.         Credit: Qinetiq  "},{"title":"London's population exceeds 10 million","year":"2035","text":"By 2035, the Greater London area has a population that exceeds 10 million people.* As humanity's first major \"world city\", the British capital had experienced phenomenal growth during the 19th and early 20th centuries, growing from 1.1 million people in 1800 to over six times that figure by 1900. London reached a peak in 1939 with over 8.6 million residents. This was followed by 50 years of decline after the ravages of the Blitz and World War II,* its population dropping to 6.4 million by 1990. In the early 21st century, the city saw a major resurgence and economic boom with vast amounts of immigration and construction activity. This continued in subsequent decades, London retaining its position as a leading centre of global finance, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, media, research and development, tourism and travel. It was not without problems, however, as growing demand placed ever greater pressure on public transport, housing, social services and other areas;* issues which had already caused residents considerable stress in earlier decades. To deal with its lack of space, the city was forced to build upwards, rather than outwards into the green belt. Having once been a traditionally low-rise city without much of a skyline, London had become more and more receptive to skyscrapers, with a relaxation of formerly protected views and planning regulations around historic buildings. As such, London by 2035 has a dramatic number of tall buildings in its urban core, but also around high density transport nodes in the outer boroughs. The ethnic diversity of the city has also expanded further. In 2015, just over 3.8 million of the 8.6 million residents (44%) were of black and minority ethnicity origin. This figure has increased to almost 50% by 2035. As a haven of economic, legal and political stability, London continues to attract people and draw talent from all around the world – its population will reach 11 million by 2050.*    "},{"title":"Norway's underwater suspended tunnels are completed","year":"2035","text":"A major feat of engineering is completed in Norway this year as the final in a series of submerged floating tunnels (SFT) is opened. This novel concept consists of parallel tubes measuring 1,200 m (4,000 ft) in length, each carrying two lanes of traffic across the Sognefjord – the largest and best known fjord in Norway and second longest in the world. Supported by their own buoyancy, the structures exploit the physics of hydrostatic thrust, or the Archimedes' principle. They are suspended at depths of 65 to 100 ft, below any possible contact with ships and withstanding any tidal movements or adverse weather effects.The initial phase of this project became the first underwater suspended tunnel to be operational anywhere in the world.* In subsequent years, it was joined by several others in nearby regions, together costing a total of $25 billion. This project is designed to ease the congestion of local ferry services and to slash travel times between the north and south of the country. For example, a car journey of 21 hours from Kristiansand to Trondheim is reduced by more than half. Most of the vehicles on the nation's roads are self-driving by now, which helps to further improve road travel times. Being underwater and out of sight (as opposed to highly visible bridges over land) also means the scenic landscapes of each region can be preserved.       Credit: The Norwegian Public Roads Administration  "},{"title":"The global airline fleet has doubled","year":"2035","text":"By 2035, the number of commercial airplanes in service has doubled compared to 2015 – going from 22,500 to over 45,000 with a total worldwide value of nearly $6 trillion.* Most of this growth has come from smaller, single-aisle planes, stimulating demand for low-cost carriers and providing replacements for older, less-efficient planes. Perhaps unsurprisingly, airlines in the Asia Pacific region comprise the largest share of new orders (38%), followed by North America (21%), Europe (19%) and the Middle East (8%).The customer base for airplanes has become increasingly diverse and globalised, thanks to emerging markets and new business models. In 1995, airlines in Europe and North America represented 64% of all traffic. By 2035, that share has fallen to 37%, with Asia Pacific and Middle Eastern airlines becoming far more prominent in global aviation.* Meanwhile, hypersonic travel is now possible on a number of routes, greatly reducing journey times and making the world feel smaller and more interconnected than ever before.However, all regions still face the challenges of fuel-price volatility, emission controls, and ever-increasing airport and airspace congestion. Biofuels and other low or zero-carbon technologies – including solar power for short to medium haul flights* – are used for many more planes than in earlier decades, but still account for only a fraction of the total number. With air traffic growth outpacing efforts to reduce pollution, the aviation sector has become an increasingly significant contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions.    "},{"title":"Breakthrough Starshot obtains images of Alpha Centauri","year":"2036-2060","text":"Breakthrough Starshot is a major scientific endeavour that aims to develop a fleet of \"nanocraft\" probes, able to reach the nearest star within 20 years and return images to Earth. The multi-billion dollar mission, developed over a period of 20 years, is launched in 2036 with an estimated journey time of two decades and a further four years required for data to be transmitted back.* This project, seemingly far ahead of its time, was considered by sceptics to belong in the realm of science fiction. However, it has backing from NASA* and is based on sound scientific principles, while taking advantage of the latest cutting edge technology.The mission consists of two main components:• Nanocraft probes.  Also known as StarChips, these are delivered by a \"mothership\" to a high-altitude orbit above the Earth. They are somewhat expendable as there are 1,000 of them and each is very small; centimetre-sized and weighing only a few grams. Designed to be extraordinarily compact, the StarChips carry highly miniaturised cameras, navigation gear, communication equipment, thrusters and a power supply. In addition, a \"light sail\" is fitted to each probe that unfurls before the journey begins, expanding to several metres in surface area. This fuel-less propulsion system is composed of ultra-lightweight yet extremely durable materials.• Ground-based lasers. An array of extremely powerful lasers is situated on the Earth's surface. Perfectly aligned with each nanocraft probe, these fire beams of light into space that are captured by the crafts' solar sails, pushing them to extraordinary speeds. The average acceleration is on the order of 100 km/s² with an illumination energy of 1 terajoule (TJ) delivered to each sail. Within 10 minutes, the target of 0.2c (20% light speed) is reached. This is almost 60,000 km/s (37,000 mi/s) – fast enough to reach the Moon in 10 seconds, or the Sun in 42 minutes and is over 600 times faster than Helios 2, which became the fastest ever man-made object in 1989.* It allows these probes to reach the nearest star system in about 20 years. "},{"title":"Total solar eclipse in Australia and New Zealand","year":"2037 ","text":"A total solar eclipse occurs on 13th July 2037.* It passes through the centre of Australia at 2:40 UTC (12:40 local time) with maximum eclipse occurring near the intersection of three states – Queensland, the Northern Territory and South Australia – before moving across the North Island of New Zealand. Totality has a duration of three minutes and 58 seconds.*   "},{"title":"The U.S. Air Force introduces a new stealth bomber","year":"2037 ","text":"By 2037, the number of bombers in the US Air Force has dropped below the minimum requirement of 170.* This is due to a combination of attrition, changes in operating procedures and decommissioning  of older aircraft.The B-52 has now been in service for 85 years – an unprecedented length of time for a military vehicle. The last of these planes will finally be retired soon. A next generation bomber, intended to serve as a stop-gap until  more advanced designs were available, was introduced from 2018.* This  is now being replaced by a new military aircraft known by the codename of \"2037 Bomber\".*The new bomber is the most advanced aircraft to ever fly. It has unparalleled stealth capabilities, a range that enables it to strike targets almost anywhere in the world, and a   payload which includes nuclear capability.It is \"manned optional\", with most missions being remote-controlled, or even entirely automated. It is used in a number of resource wars during this time – giving the US an impressive tactical edge on the battlefield.   "},{"title":"America's sixth-generation fighter jet enters service","year":"2037 ","text":"By 2037, deliveries of the F-35 Lightning II for the U.S. military have ceased.* Although the aircraft is scheduled to remain in service until 2070,* it is succeeded around this time by a sixth generation of planes that begins to be rolled out. The U.S. Navy's existing fleet of F/A-18 Super Hornets is also being retired now, necessitating a replacement. The new fighter jets are procured for both the U.S. Navy (a program known as F/A-XX) and Air Force (known as F-X). In terms of technology they are a major leap over the F-35 and also designed to outclass China's Chengdu J-20 and Shenyang J-31.The sixth-generation jets feature increased autonomy (with the option of being unmanned), orders of magnitude improvements in computer processing and algorithmic power, faster manoeuvring and sensing of the battlespace, hypersonic weapons, laser guns, advanced electronic warfare capabilities, better stealth technology and so-called \"smart skins\" where sensors are built into the side of the aircraft itself to reduce drag.* They incorporate a supersonic tailless design for the first time ever, made possible through advanced computer modelling and new materials.* "},{"title":"Older computers are at risk of experiencing major software malfunctions","year":"2038 ","text":"The Year 2038 problem (also known as \"Y2K38\" by analogy to the  Y2K Millennium bug) gains considerable public and media attention this year. It affects programs written in the C programming language. These were relatively immune to the earlier Y2K problem, but suffer instead from the Year 2038 problem. They use a library of routines called the standard time library. This takes a stored, 32-bit integer and interprets the current value as the number of seconds which have passed since 00:00:00 UTC on Thursday, 1st January 1970.Because of the limited number of possible values that can be derived from this 32-bit integer, the farthest time that can be represented in this way is 03:14:07 UTC on Tuesday, 19th January 2038. Any times beyond this point will \"wrap around\" and be stored internally as a negative number, which these systems  interpret as a date from 1901, rather than 2038. This is called integer overflow.For older computers that still use this system, major problems  begin to arise with file systems and databases, due to erroneous calculations.  Fortunately, most systems have been upgraded by now, and little overall damage is done.   "},{"title":"NASA's Trident spacecraft arrives at Neptune","year":"2038 ","text":"Trident is a mission to the outer planets, proposed in 2019 as part of NASA's Discovery program. Launched in 2026, the probe makes gravity-assist flybys of Venus (2027), Earth (2028 and 2031), Jupiter and its moon Io (2032), before reaching Neptune in 2038, with a focus on its largest moon, Triton.Voyager 2, the last mission to Triton, flew past in 1989 at a distance of 40,000 km (25,000 mi). It found evidence of geological activity, with a young surface and relatively few impact craters, several cryovolcanoes and a very thin atmosphere. Despite evaporation taking place during \"summer\" periods, the moon had the coldest average temperature in the Solar System at just 35.6 K (−237.6°C), only 35°C higher than absolute zero.After this fleeting glimpse by Voyager 2, the icy body would remain unvisited for another 50 years, leaving many questions unanswered. Trident would aim to solve these scientific mysteries, while obtaining a near-complete map of the surface (Voyager 2 only mapped 40%) and providing high-resolution images.The spacecraft performs a sole flyby, passing through Triton's thin atmosphere at 500 km (310 mi) altitude, sampling its ionosphere with a plasma spectrometer and performing magnetic induction measurements to assess the potential existence of an internal ocean. Its payload also includes an infrared spectrometer, narrow angle camera, and wide-angle camera.In addition to studying Triton, the probe reveals new insights into Neptune – and therefore advances the understanding of \"ice giants\", which are the most common type of exoplanet.A strong incentive to launch the mission is a rare and efficient alignment between Jupiter, Neptune, and Triton in 2038. Additionally, Neptune's orbit around the Solar System during this time offers the best opportunity to study Triton's ice plumes – missing this window means waiting for another century.**       Credit: ESO/L. Calçada        "},{"title":"The New Horizons probe is 100 AU from the Sun","year":"2038 ","text":"The New Horizons probe was launched in 2006, arriving at Pluto in 2015.* After surveying the dwarf planet and its five moons, the spacecraft headed towards the Kuiper Belt where it studied a small, icy body. This phase of the mission lasted until 2022,* after which New Horizons began journeying to a boundary known as the outer heliosphere, where the solar wind meets the local interstellar medium. By 2038, it has reached 100 astronomical units (AU) from the Sun* – equivalent to 100 times the distance between the Earth and Sun – and is moving in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius that includes the supermassive black hole at the centre of our galaxy.Even though it was launched much faster than any outward probe before it, New Horizons will never overtake Voyager 1 or Voyager 2 as the most distant human-made object. Close flybys of Saturn and Titan gave Voyager 1 an advantage with its gravity assist. When New Horizons reaches 100 AU, it is travelling at 13 km/s (29,000 mph), around 4 km/s (8,900 mph) slower than Voyager 1 at that distance.   "},{"title":"Capital punishment has greatly declined  in use","year":"2038 ","text":"At the start of the 20th century, capital punishment was used in almost every part of the globe – including the most developed nations. In the latter decades of the century, however, many countries  abolished it. The last guillotining in France was conducted in 1977, while in the UK, the death sentence for treason was ended in 1998.Americans' views on the issue  varied significantly,* but the number of executions performed in the US showed a consistent long-term decline. Peaking in the mid-1930s, they fell dramatically thereafter, briefly rising in the 1990s before  dropping again in the 21st century. Between 2000 and 2010,  executions in the US plummeted by over half.** It had also become far cheaper to imprison people for life.*By 2010, nearly 50% of countries had outlawed the death penalty for all crimes.* This reflected concerns over the possibility of executing the innocent, as well as the morality of such brutal punishments in modern civilised society. Public opinion continued to shift in favour of bans – a trend fuelled by  growing access to information brought by the Internet, media and technology in general. This included mistakes revealed by DNA evidence, for example, as well as high-profile media investigations, and the work of international human rights organisations such as Amnesty.Another factor sustaining this trend was the growing urbanisation and democratisation of the planet,* with  cities tending to favour more  liberal and progressive policies than smaller, traditional rural communities. Yet another factor was the ongoing influence of feminism  in society, with women tending to oppose it more than men.**However, capital punishment remained entrenched in some regions: notably China, which held more executions than the rest of the world combined, killing thousands of its citizens every year. Iran, North Korea, Saudi Arabia and Yemen were also notorious for their executions, sometimes carried out for highly dubious reasons (e.g. sorcery*).By the late 2030s, virtually all  nations in the developed world have abolished the death penalty  – while a minority of repressive and pariah states continue to practice it. Though its prevalence has fallen in Muslim society as a whole,* the global abolition of capital punishment remains elusive, for now.   "},{"title":"Teleportation         of complex organic molecules","year":"2038 ","text":"In the         early 2000s, scientists were able to transfer particles of light (with         zero mass) over short distances. Further         experiments in quantum entanglement led to successful teleportation         of the first complete atom. This was followed by the first molecules,         consisting of multiple atoms. By the           late 2030s, the first complex organic molecules such as DNA and proteins         are being teleported.*       © Yunxiang987 | Dreamstime.com  "},{"title":"The         FIFA World Cup trophy is replaced","year":"2038 ","text":"The current         trophy has been in use since the 1974 World Cup. There is only space         for 17 countries to be engraved on its base. In 2038, the final name         plaque is filled in, and a replacement cup is commissioned with a new       design. Like its predecessor, this is made of 5 kg (11 lb) of 18 carat gold.*   "},{"title":"Coal power has been phased out by Germany","year":"2038 ","text":"During the 20th century, Germany obtained its electricity predominantly from fossil fuels (particularly coal) and then later also nuclear power. As Europe's largest consumer of electricity, its carbon emissions were substantial,  ranking sixth in the world. At the dawn of the 21st century, however, a radical change began to occur as its supply shifted to new, less polluting forms of energy.In 2010, the German government published Energiewende (\"energy transition\") a key policy document outlining targets for increasing the share of renewables in power consumption, which included greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions of 80–95% by 2050 (relative to 1990). Following the Japanese Fukushima disaster of 2011, the government removed the use of nuclear power as a bridging technology and the decision was taken further to phase out nuclear altogether by 2022. This move triggered a brief rise in coal, to make up the shortfall. However, renewables were expanding rapidly, with solar and wind forming an ever-larger share of electric generating capacity. In 2019, a government-appointed coal commission introduced a proposed pathway to phase out all coal power within two decades.By the end of the 2010s, Germany had about 40 GW of installed coal power capacity, with 21 GW fired by bituminous coal – referred to as \"hard coal\" by Germany's Federal Network Agency – and 19 GW by lignite, or \"brown coal\". A bituminous coal plant, Dattaln 4, entered service in mid-2020, adding 1.1 GW at a cost of €1.5 billion ($1.6 billion), becoming Germany's last ever coal plant to be newly connected to the grid.Between 2020 and 2026,* hard coal capacity reductions – implemented using auctions organised by the Federal Network Agency – saw many plants voluntarily taken offline in the north, west and south of the country. As renewables continued to surge in capacity, forced closures occurred in the latter part of the decade and into the 2030s. Of the 84 sites operational during 2019 (when the strategy was first announced), just a handful now remained.The phase out had commenced in western Germany, to soften the impact in the economically poorer eastern side of the country. With bituminous coal disappearing from the energy mix, attention now turned to the softer lignite, concentrated mostly in the east.By 2038, the final plant shutdown has occurred.* A compensation plan of some €40 billion ($43.7 billion) is further helping the transition, which includes adaptation payments for older workers in lignite mines, hard coal and lignite power plants who lost their jobs due to the coal exit plans. This provides a maximum total of €5 billion ($5.5 billion) by 2048.*   "},{"title":"The space industry exceeds $1tn worldwide","year":"2038 ","text":"By the late 2030s, the worldwide space industry exceeds $1 trillion in size.* This represents a quadrupling compared to 2010* and a tenfold increase since the start of the 21st century. The rapid growth in this sector has been fuelled, in large part, by explosive demand for high-speed Internet services, including the recent establishment of a global, quantum-encrypted satellite network for ultra-secure communications.* However, a number of other areas have started to boom now, including space tourism (via space planes and  very high-altitude balloons) and resource extraction from near-Earth asteroids. The latter, while still accounting for only a tiny fraction of global commodities, is now considered a relatively routine activity as the industry is sufficiently mature in technology.In 1997, private investment in space overtook government spending for the first time. This trend continued into the 21st century, with space becoming more and more commercialised. Access to space was being made cheaper and easier by a new generation of launch vehicles. These and other technological innovations were enabling even small companies to compete and do what only big government agencies had done in the past. Some of the most famous entrepreneurs to emerge during this time included Elon Musk, Jeff Bezos, Peter Diamandis, Robert Bigelow and Richard Branson; but many less well-known individuals and groups were also taking advantage of the changing industry landscape. Crowd-funding, for example, meant that even casual Internet users could now have a stake in the development of space projects – like the new class of  \"CubeSats\". These tiny spacecraft could hitch a ride and piggyback alongside the larger and more expensive missions.While private commercial enterprises are the dominant driving force, government space agencies still have a role to play. NASA has been developing its manned Mars program and this decade sees its astronauts walking on the Red Planet for the first time. In addition, a number of huge telescopes are being built that dwarf any previous observatory. China, Europe, India, Japan, Russia and other agencies have also made progress in human exploration, with an international collaboration to establish the first base on the Moon.* Meanwhile, new countries are now appearing on the scene and establishing their own national space agencies, as their economies become advanced and rich enough to do so. The number of countries with independent launch capability has also continued to increase.    "},{"title":"Full         immersion virtual reality","year":"2039 ","text":"Computers are now sufficiently advanced and miniaturised that billions of them can be implanted within the brain. Advances in neuroscience, in parallel with these and other developments, have led to a new form of simulation known as full immersion virtual reality. By the end of this decade, it has been successfully demonstrated in a human volunteer.*Though still in its early stages, and yet to become fully mainstream, this technology provides astounding realism and detail. Users now have the option of actually \"being\" in a         game environment and experiencing its graphics, audio and other effects (e.g. tactile feedback) in a manner that is largely indistinguishable         from the real world.This breakthrough has been achieved through exponential trends in computing             over the previous decades – including a billionfold improvement in processing             power and price performance, combined with a 100,000-fold shrinkage   of components and circuitry.*For the         first time, human brains are actually being merged with computer intelligence.         Rather than viewing games on a screen, users can now experience the program         from within their own nervous systems, as though it were an extension         of their mind. A simple, minimally invasive procedure         inserts nanobots (blood cell-sized devices) into their bodies. These         microscopic machines are self-guided towards the neurons in their brain         responsible for visual, auditory and other senses. Here, they remain         in a dormant state, but in close proximity to the brain cells.When the         user wishes to experience a simulated reality, the nanobots immediately         move into place, suppressing all of the inputs coming from the real         senses and replacing them with signals corresponding to the virtual         environment. If the user decides to move their limbs and muscles as         they normally would, the nanobots again intercept these neurochemical         signals – suppressing the \"real world\" limbs from moving,         and instead causing their \"virtual\" limbs to move within the         game. This means a user can be sitting in a fixed position, while experiencing         a high degree of activity and movement.  Although         most people are  wary of microscopic nanobots, they have been around         in some form since the 2020s (eg. for medical purposes) with few, if any  issues. Many years         of testing and safety measures have gone into this latest         generation. Detailed regulations are being formulated to cover any possible         eventuality. For example, power cuts mean the nanobots will simply detach         from  neurons – automatically returning a user to the real world         – while checks are constantly performed to ensure there is no danger         of being \"trapped\" in a virtual environment.Furthermore,         the machines are not permanent and can be removed at any time         if desired. In any case, it is practically impossible for them to damage         nerve cells or cause any lasting damage, due to their small size and         limited functionality. In the coming decades, many people come to         accept them as a natural part of their bodies – just as bacteria         and other small objects are part of their stomach, digestion and other         internal processes.Full immersion         VR isn't just limited to games. With such huge creative scope, it can be used for a whole range of applications: from business to education,         training, healthcare, engineering, design, media and entertainment.Tourism         is revolutionised, since people no longer have to travel great         distances or spend large amounts of money to explore the sights and         sounds of another location – they can simply go online. For this         reason, a number of travel firms go bust in the 2040s, or         else drastically alter their business models to account for this         new medium.  Of course,         that’s not to say these online holidays are intrinsically better         than the real thing. Although on a different scale of technical wizardry         compared to graphics of earlier decades, they are still somewhat limited         in their accuracy of towns and cities. At this stage, many of them lack         sufficient AI, are often sparsely populated, and miss out vital details         or subtle characteristics of foreign culture... things which make real-life         travel such an enriching, worthwhile experience. Decades of refinement         will be needed before VR is entirely convincing.Nevertheless,         this new phenomenon is so profound in its depth of interactivity –         as well as sheer convenience, accessibility and ease of use –         that it presents a serious threat to old-line travel agencies.One way         that the industry adapts to this is by offering more detailed, advanced         and sophisticated holiday environments, for a fee. However, this becomes         only a temporary solution, as certain users find a way to pirate these         programs, which are then duplicated and shared online. The problem is         exacerbated by groups collaborating to form their own free/open source         programs, which combine the best elements from these and others, and         are easy to customise by the casual user. In some cases, \"hybrid\"         versions of holiday destinations are  created which offer wholly         new, surreal and dreamlike experiences. One such example might         be a recreation of Manhattan with a tropical coastline, populated by         characters from Star Wars.Just as         the Internet caused a shakeup in the music industry, the same phenomenon occurs in the travel industry. From the 2040s onwards there is a         marked decline in air travel and overseas holiday bookings. The effects         of climate change are also playing         a part here. Growing numbers of people are choosing to stay at home,         with most communication and interaction  done online. The same         is true of businesses in general – especially with regard to meetings and         conferences, which are increasingly being held in virtual settings.  "},{"title":"The world's first trillionaire","year":"2039 ","text":"The gap between the richest and poorest has now reached astronomical proportions. By the late 2030s, a well-known American business magnate has achieved a net worth exceeding $1 trillion.* This is 12 times as much as the highest figure reported at the turn of the century and is equivalent to the entire GDP of Mexico in 2015. A major growth area in terms of innovation and wealth creation is now the exploitation of space resources* – such as the metals, minerals and volatiles found in asteroids, which are driving a boom in space commercialisation. By the 2070s, there are more than ten trillionaires in the world.*   "},{"title":"Manufacturing jobs have largely disappeared in the West","year":"2039 ","text":"In the United States and most other developed nations, manufacturing has gone the same way as agriculture – vitally important, yet employing very few people. Robots, automation and 3D printing, now sufficiently perfected after decades of development, have taken over a wide range of roles once performed by humans.*** As China and other emerging nations make the transition to service-based economies, they too will experience this trend in the not-too-distant future.   "},{"title":"Australia's         national symbol, the koala, faces extinction","year":"2039 ","text":"By this         date, the koala population in Australia has dwindled to almost nothing,         due to the combined impacts of drought, disease, climate change and  and loss of natural habitat.* Only those in captivity now remain.   "},{"title":"Five-year survival rates for leukaemia are approaching 100%","year":"2039 ","text":"Leukaemia is a cancer of the blood or bone marrow, characterised by an abnormal increase in the number of immature white blood cells, called \"blasts\". In 2008, there were  350,000 new cases worldwide, and 257,000 deaths from the disease, placing it within the top 10 most common type of cancer deaths.However, treatments improved greatly over the decades, with survival rates showing a consistent upward trend. Gene therapy was among the most successful new approaches. One such method turned a patient's own T-cells into cancer-targeting attackers. In one study, conducted between 2010 and 2011, two of  three patients remained cancer-free after a year.* By 2039, five-year survival rates in many  countries are reaching 100%.**   "},{"title":"Extreme         heatwaves are commonplace in the U.S.","year":"2039 ","text":"The previous         five decades were all the hottest on record – each surpassing the last.         Extreme heatwaves are now having a serious impact on agricultural yields         and human health. This is a particular problem in the American West.         From 2030 to 2039, most areas of Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico         have at least seven summers equal to the hottest season ever recorded         between 1951 and 1999. The hottest daily temperatures of the year from         1980 to 1999 have become twice as frequent. There are persistent, drier       conditions around the country, with substantial reductions in soil moisture and an accompanying rise in forest fires.*       Credit: dl91m   "},{"title":"China's space program is rivalling NASA","year":"2040-2045","text":"During the late 2010s, China revealed a number of long-term plans to significantly expand its national space program. The country was already making progress towards a new space station, but had even greater ambitions for the decades ahead. This roadmap included two new generations of rockets to be introduced in the 2020s and 2030s, followed by a fleet of crewed spacecraft in the 2040s.The Long March family of rockets had been used since 1970 and made China the fifth nation to achieve independent launch capability. Over the decades, subsequent versions offered more versatility and greater payloads. A new series, the Long March 8, was planned for the early 2020s. It would become the most advanced version yet – allowing China to catch up with NASA in terms of conventional rocket technology and to provide commercial launch services for a number of other countries. In addition, a reusable suborbital carrier was being developed. This space plane, with a scheduled first launch date of 2025, would allow China to begin offering space tourism and a rival to the likes of Virgin Galactic.During the 2030s, a much more advanced and powerful rocket – Long March 9 (CZ-9) – would be introduced. With a payload of 140 tons to low-Earth orbit (LEO) and more than 50 tons for trans-lunar injection (TLI), this could provide support to crewed lunar landing missions. Its cargo capacity, 18 times more than the earlier Long March 8, would place it within the \"super heavy-lift launch vehicle\" category along with the Falcon Heavy, the retired Saturn V and Soviet Energia, the Space Launch System and other large rockets under development in the United States. A fully reusable version was planned for 2035. The Long March 9 was to be instrumental in establishing a Chinese presence on the Moon.       Long March 9 (CZ-9). By Thorenn [CC BY-SA 4.0], from Wikimedia Commons       By 2040-2045, China has further expanded its space program, to such an extent that it now rivals NASA.* The latter had seen its budget decline as a percentage of GDP for several decades. Launch vehicles for multiple, interplanetary round-trips are being introduced with even lower costs. In addition to these large and reusable rockets, a fleet of nuclear-powered space shuttles is becoming operational. These provide crewed, deep space capability for Moon and Mars missions, without the need for solar or chemical propulsion.*With an expanded budget and improved technology, China has taken the lead in many areas of space. Probes are being launched on a regular basis to explore the Solar System and return samples, while various new telescopes have been deployed. However, entirely new capabilities have also emerged – space resource utilisation through asteroid mining, for example, and the construction of space-based megaprojects, such as orbital solar power stations.China is also among a group of countries now making the first serious attempts to develop a space elevator, though it will be some time before this is fully built and operational; not just because of technical challenges, but in part due to safety and insurance considerations and the international laws required. Additionally, China's growth rate has begun to cool off, allowing nations like India to gain an increasing share of the space sector. Alongside an explosion of privately-owned and crowd-funded ventures, this is creating a more evenly distributed and multipolar space industry, now worth over a trillion dollars.         "},{"title":"India's economy is rivalling that of China and the U.S.","year":"2040","text":"By 2040, rapid economic growth has enabled India to catch up with China and the U.S. These  three countries – the G3 – now have by far the largest share of world GDP.** India has benefitted from a number of cultural, economic and demographic trends in recent decades.* This includes a youthful, growing and economically productive population,* now the world's largest at 1.6 billion,* with an average age of just 34. By comparison, China's average age is 46 and its working population has been declining.*Expansion and development of India's service sector – adding greatly to the global knowledge-based economy – has occurred in parallel with a slowdown in China's growth rate as its economy matures. India has also managed to avoid many of the disruptive challenges experienced by China, since its market-based economy is already part of a liberal democracy, unlike the planned economy of its rival.India's currency, the rupee, is now challenging the renminbi as the world's strongest. Due to its global influence and military capabilities, India has also gained a permanent seat on the UN  Security Council. Later this decade, on 15th August 2047, the nation will celebrate its 100th anniversary as an independent state.*However, climate change and other ecological impacts are converging with increasing speed. In particular, neighbouring Bangladesh requires ever more financial support and humanitarian aid, as flooding worsens.* Widespread automation and technological unemployment are also emerging. By the 2050s, India's growth has begun to stagnate, as the world faces a crisis unparalleled in history.**   "},{"title":"Fusion         power is nearing commercial availability","year":"2040","text":"A         prototype commercial fusion reactor is nearing operation.* DEMO (DEMOnstration Power Plant) is the successor to ITER and is designed to build on the success of that project, achieving a number of new breakthroughs. Among the earlier problems being tackled are: containing the plasma at high enough temperatures, maintaining         a great enough density of reacting ions, and capturing high-energy neutrons without melting the walls of the interior. Constructed in the 2030s and early 2040s, DEMO is now close to being perfected. Later this decade,         it will produce a sustained output of 2 gigawatts (GW),     making fusion commercially available for the first time.*   "},{"title":"Deep ocean mining operations are widespread","year":"2040","text":"Exploitation of the ocean for its resources had for centuries been   confined to fishing and coastal developments. Limits in technology made ventures into deeper waters both impractical and economically   unviable. Interest in deep sea mining first appeared in the 1960s,   but consistently low prices of mineral resources at the time halted   any serious implementation. By the 2000s, the only resource being mined   in bulk from the ocean was diamonds, and even then, just a few hundred metres below the surface. Large-scale efforts continued to be   hindered in the first decades of the 21st century. By 2040, however,   advances in robotics and telepresence have led to a fully mature industry – opening   up the vast and previously unobtainable wealth of fuel and mineral   reserves along the ocean floor.***       Credit: Nautilus Minerals Inc.  In the past, retrieval operations were limited to manganese nodules (resource-rich rock concretions found on the ocean   floor) and metal-rich sediments around hydrothermal vents. Now,   thanks to new extraction methods and processing techniques, even   the low concentrations of elements found in mud layers are   economically viable. Today, prospecting and undersea   construction is done using fleets of automated and   remote-controlled robots. Once ships or mining platforms are in place,   resources are brought to the surface through hydraulic suction or   continuous bucket line systems.The primary focus of these current efforts is rare-earth metals. The   rapid growth in demand for these elements, used in a wide range of electronics and other hi-tech applications, has been stymied in recent years by increasingly dire   shortages.* This has turned them into resources of  strategic   importance on the level of oil and natural gas in earlier decades.   It has become particularly apparent in Asia, with nations such as India,   Japan, South Korea and Indonesia ramping up efforts to free themselves from the near-monopoly that China holds.Another valuable, though hazardous, target of deep ocean mining is   methane hydrate deposits.* This so-called \"fire ice\" consists of concentrated methane trapped within a crystal of frozen water.   It is found throughout the deep ocean in sedimentary structures and   outcroppings, with some of the largest known deposits found in the seas   of the West Pacific and along the coasts of North America. By itself,   methane hydrate far outweighs the total amount of recoverable natural   gas. Several nations have established mining operations, with   Japan, China, and the United States among the largest producers.*  Traditional forms of ocean exploitation still exist. While the number of oil drilling platforms has declined overall,   deepwater (500-1500 metres) and ultra-deepwater operations (1500 metres or further) continue to expand as   easily-recoverable reserves become scarce.* Following recent spills and ecological disasters, some on the scale of the   Deepwater Horizon spill of 2010, such operations remain highly   controversial.In general, most ocean mining and drilling operations are targets of   criticism. Concerns over the environmental impact of ocean floor   dredging and prospecting have led to stricter regulations in many   countries, as well as the development of protected ocean zones.   Nevertheless, the impact of deep ocean mining is still considerable in   many regions. Even more polarising is methane hydrate drilling, which   threatens to further accelerate the pace of global warming.* Despite   efforts to eliminate leakage and minimise its impact, methane hydrate   mining is still a risky business, with a number of countries flat-out   banning it.       Credit: Nautilus Minerals Inc.  "},{"title":"Less than two-thirds of the original Congo jungle remains standing","year":"2040","text":"The Congo region is a sedimentary basin for the drainage of the Congo River in west equatorial Africa. At the turn of the 21st century it contained a quarter of the world's tropical forests, with a total area of 2.5 million sq km.* It held some of the largest undisturbed portions of tropical rainforest on the planet, second only to the Amazon in Brazil. Spanning across six countries, it was home to over 10,000 unique species of tropical plants, 30% of which could not be found anywhere else on Earth. There were over 1,000 bird species, 700 fish species and 400 mammal species. Some noted examples included the Bonobo (humanity's closest living relatives), the Forest Elephant, the okapi, Congo Peafowl, and various species of gorilla. Rare and unique frogs, bats, rodents and birds, together with plants such as orchids, could also be found.Despite efforts to slow deforestation in the developing countries of Africa, the rainforests of the Congo Basin and elsewhere continued to recede over the decades. As early as the late 2010s, Nigeria's forests had shrunk down to essentially nothing,* while the situation in Central Africa had worsened too. Alongside the  bush meat trade impacting fauna, the largely unregulated logging industry continued to chip away at the flora.   Interest in foreign markets  led to massive mining operations being conducted in the region, dealing severe damage to its ecosystem. Untapped deposits of raw minerals and metals – estimated to be worth in excess of US$24 trillion* – attracted companies in droves. The expansion of cities and construction of  new dams  also played a role in harming the fragile environment, while slash-and-burn farming practices began to run rampant as the population soared. Ever-increasing resource demands and the need for economic growth  led governments to look the other way during much of this exploitation. This was despite an outcry from the international community and environmentalists.By 2040, climate change is  having an impact too. Since the vast majority of rainfall is generated in the region itself, the resulting isolation makes it more vulnerable to global warming. A large proportion of  moisture in Central Africa is produced  by evapo-transpiration of trees in the Congo Basin. Substantial reductions in rainfall are  now occurring. Loss of forests, especially through fires started by farmers, is pumping   huge amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere. The rainforest is now transitioning from a carbon sink to a carbon source. With 66 gigatonnes of \"volatile\" carbon – and a further 50 gigatonnes in the rest of tropical Africa – the equivalent of five years' worth of global emissions will eventually be released.*These factors have converged so that, by 2040, less than two-thirds of  the original Congo remains. Prior to the arrival of human civilisation, rainforests covered somewhere between 80-85% of  the total land area in the region – around 3.29 million square km (1.27 million square miles).** By the mid-20th century, one-fifth had disappeared. Deforestation began to accelerate   in the 21st century, due to  rapid population growth and economic development. By 2020, the rainforests were declining by 0.3% each year; by 2030 this had risen to 0.5% per year* and by 2040 the rate is 0.7%.In addition to  extinctions of animals and plants, numerous indigenous tribes are being uprooted, their cultures disrupted and in some cases lost forever. There is much social and political upheaval in the region. On top of this, local resource conflicts are beginning to break out, primarily over food. This is only serving to exacerbate the environmental damage. Many areas of forest have become battle grounds, while civilian populations are forced to become more self-sufficient, turning to their surrounding local environment for resources.   "},{"title":"Virtual telepathy is dominating personal communications","year":"2040","text":"First generation brain-computer interfaces reached the consumer market         in around 2010. This technology was crude and limited to begin with:         more of a novelty than a serious application. Devices could perform         only the simplest of operations, such as directional commands.** Some university         experiments successfully created text messages using thought         power alone,* but were slow and required   bulky equipment to do so.Advances   by 2020 enabled the translation of thoughts into intelligible, recognisable speech by combining speech synthesisers and artificial intelligence* – but the process remained slow and inefficient.*By 2030,         however, exponential progress had been made in mapping and understanding         the brain and its neuroelectrical signals.* This was filtering down rapidly to the consumer market. Detailed, real-time         messages were becoming possible, using non-invasive methods. The graphical         interfaces used in composing messages had also been much improved, with     more intuitive navigation and features.By 2040,         the technology is largely perfected for everyday use. It works well         and is cheap enough to have spread to even developing countries. Privacy         and security issues have been resolved, with personal firewalls able         to restrict any unwanted intrusion or hacking attempts. The headsets,         visors and earphones necessary for users have been miniaturised and         made more comfortable. Some are even fully implantable. Whether for         business or personal use, people everywhere are now enjoying a faster,         more sophisticated, more private way of communicating.This form         of \"virtual telepathy\" – and the convergence of other         network-based technologies – is radically reshaping society and culture         during this time. A speculative bubble is formed on the stock markets,         with investors everywhere forecasting a revolution in telecoms. This         temporarily overheats the economy, resulting in a crash similar to that         of the dotcom collapse of         early 2000.   "},{"title":"Biorepository and genomic information systems         are transforming healthcare","year":"2040","text":"By         now, most countries have established a national biorepository and genomic         information system, with mandatory entry for all citizens.         In other words, governments have a genetic sample of every person.         This is needed for a variety of reasons – from national security, to public         health, citizen ID, immigration control, resolution of crimes and more         – but the most common use is in healthcare.These genomic         information systems are integrated with electronic health records and         personal health records, allowing identification and treatment of disease and healthcare issues at the earliest opportunity. Hard data from         these systems allow doctors and surgeons to better treat their patients,         while government and researchers can target time and resources more         efficiently. By utilising such a broad spectrum of information, medical         schools and healthcare providers can train and employ the best possible mix of         specialists for their patient population.The focus         of healthcare has shifted  in recent years – to preventative         methods, as opposed to reactionary methods after         a disease  state has occurred. As well as saving more lives, this         has major economic benefits too.By now, the average person is using at least one biotechnological implant.* Once again, these devices are tailored to  their exact personal health         requirements. For example, they         can be programmed to monitor specific conditions and to dispense         medication when needed while simultaneously notifying a doctor. They can identify a patient who         is unconscious or unable to communicate for whatever reason, providing vital         clinical information during an emergency.  They       can also be used as tracking devices for mental patients or those suffering from neurological conditions.   "},{"title":"Pollen counts have more than doubled","year":"2040","text":"In 2000, pollen counts for the US averaged 8,455 per cubic metre of air. By 2040, this figure has risen to 21,735 – largely due to climate change which has caused major alterations in weather, precipitation and temperature.* Alongside this, the hay fever season has shifted to earlier in the year, with pollen counts  now peaking on 8th April, compared to 1st May at the start of the century. Similar changes have taken place in  countries around the world. Thankfully, new treatments are now available to prevent allergic reactions. Recent years have seen major advances in gene therapy, for instance. These drugs can \"repair\" the DNA of hay fever sufferers.   "},{"title":"Tobacco         has been largely eradicated","year":"2040","text":"In         the USA, tobacco use peaked in the early 1960s with nearly 45% of adults         smoking regularly. As the health risks became more apparent, efforts were         made by government, public health advocates, grassroots organisations         and others to raise awareness. These campaigns were remarkably successful         in stemming the rates of smoking and tobacco-related disease and death.         Smoking was banned in aeroplanes, office buildings and later in public         locations such as bars and restaurants. Strict laws on the advertising         of tobacco products and their use in movies and television were also introduced.         In addition, improvements were made in the availability and efficacy of         smoking cessation aids and pharmaceuticals.By the early         90s, the number of US adult smokers had plunged to 25% and by 2010 the         figure was down to 20%. By 2020, smoking in public was banned across every         US state and in many other countries around the world, with smoking rates         continuing to decline.Efforts continued         over the following two decades and once again proved to be highly successful.         The costs of government interventions were surprisingly small, less than         50 US cents per person per year in countries such as India and China.       By 2040, less than 5% of the global population is smoking.*   "},{"title":"Life expectancy for cystic fibrosis reaches 70","year":"2040","text":"Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disorder that affects most critically the lungs, and also the pancreas, liver, and intestine. It is characterised by abnormal transport of chloride and sodium across an epithelium, leading to thick, viscous secretions.The name cystic fibrosis refers to the characteristic scarring (fibrosis) and cyst formation within the pancreas. Difficulty breathing is the most serious symptom and results from frequent lung infections that are treated with antibiotics and other medications. Other symptoms, including sinus infections, poor growth, and infertility affect other parts of the body.When the disease was first described in 1938, survival beyond infancy was rare. In 1952, Paul di Sant' Agnese found abnormalities in sweat electrolytes; a sweat test was developed and improved over the next decade. Despite new treatments – including lung transplants – life expectancy for those affected by the condition remained low throughout the 20th century. By the  1980s, it was still in the twenties.A major breakthrough was achieved in 1989, however, when the trans-membrane conductance regulator gene was discovered. Subsequent research uncovered thousands of different mutations affecting the gene. As our knowledge of the underlying molecular causes and ways of treating the illness continued to improve, so too did life expectancy. Following several milestones in research, it has reached 70 by 2040.*   "},{"title":"Breakthroughs         in carbon nanotube production","year":"2040","text":"After         decades of research, new processes have been developed for synthesising         carbon nanotubes,  promising to revolutionise the fields of engineering,         architecture and materials science. Having         been limited to a few centimetres, these structures can now reach potentially         thousands of miles in length.* Purification         techniques ensure maximum tensile strength, making them hundreds of         times stronger than steel. Among the         many applications, the technology for a space elevator is now available.         Political and financial will are the only remaining obstacles for such     a project.*   "},{"title":"Submarine exploration of Titan","year":"2040","text":"The first probe to Saturn was Pioneer 11 in 1979, which confirmed that its largest moon Titan was probably too cold to support life. This was followed by Voyager 1 and 2, in 1980 and 1981, respectively. Cassini–Huygens was launched in 1997, arriving in 2004, with a lander that returned the first pictures of Titan's surface in 2005.In subsequent years, a number of conceptual missions were proposed for returning probes to Titan. Of particular interest were the moon's hydrocarbon lakes and oceans, thought to have conditions similar to those on Earth during its early history. Most of NASA's budget and objectives had already been assigned for the next two decades. However, the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts was established for longer term, visionary goals. Among the projects to emerge from this program was an unmanned submarine intended to explore the subsurface environment of Titan. This began to progress from initial feasibility studies to more detailed and practical designs.As the years went by, mission capabilities were being enhanced by a new generation of robotics – some aspects of which could be seen in the deep ocean mining operations now appearing on Earth* – while access to space was now a fraction of the cost it had once been. A launch was timed to coincide with Titan's summer during the early 2040s, maximising the period of ice melt and ease of manoeuvrability. The vessel would be delivered to Kraken Mare, a huge lake of methane and ethane approximately 1,000 ft (300 m) deep. This unpiloted submarine features onboard realtime navigation, hazard avoidance systems, an exploration sensor suite, and autonomous science investigation software system. Stunning high quality videos and a plethora of data are returned from this strange alien environment, where temperatures reach below -179°C (-290°F).*       Future Titan mission of the 2040s. Credit: NASA  "},{"title":"China's HSR network has been greatly expanded","year":"2040","text":"China's rapid economic growth  in the early 21st century was aided by its massive investments in infrastructure. Highways, bridges, tunnels and airports quickly spread throughout the country, linking nearly every major city and regional province, while 15,000  new cars were  added to the nation's roads each day. Above all, however, it was high-speed rail that proved to be the driving factor in much of China's rise.** Similar to the industrial revolution of 200 years previously, rail provided growth and increased prosperity to every area it connected to. Between 2010 and 2020, China invested $300 billion* in constructing over 17,600 km (11,000 mi) of  additional rail lines, giving 90% of the  population access to the network.* From the 2020s onwards, there was further expansion of high-speed rail, the surge in passenger numbers making HSR a lucrative industry.*  Along with being more energy efficient and cheaper, advances in design and technology  boosted train speeds by hundreds of miles per hour, making them competitive with flight schedules in many cases. The very fastest routes now included trains travelling at  over 1,000 km/h (625 mph).* Maglev routes were expanded significantly, especially along the coast. Along with internal connections, plans were formulated to link the Chinese rail system with those of Europe, India, Russia and Japan. With such a huge rail network, the cities of China were more closely connected than ever before. In a sense, high-speed rail created a 1.2 billion person \"single city\" effect, with much of the population only a few hours away from each other.* Along with growth in commerce, rail has driven – and in turn been driven by – China's unprecedented urbanisation. By 2040, over 70% of the population  lives in urban areas.* Vast megacities, each with more than 100 million people, have formed out of the gradual merging of smaller metropolises.* The largest examples today are the three main economic zones: the Yangtze River Delta (Shanghai, Nanjing, and Hangzhou), the Pearl River Delta (Guangzhou, Shenzhen, and Hong Kong) and the Bohai Economic Rim (Beijing, Tianjin, and Tangshan).Despite all this, China's economy has begun to weaken significantly in recent years.** With a declining workforce and with most of its growth fueled by debt, the country is now embroiled  in political, economic and social strife. Restructuring and artificial inflation had managed to sustain the situation temporarily, but could only do so much. Worsening climate change is now an additional factor. This is  a particular problem in Shanghai, which has been woefully unprepared for sea level rises.* Though still experiencing moderate local growth, the country as a whole is now approaching crisis point. By the end of this decade, it will have largely stagnated, becoming one of the last major powers to do so.*  "},{"title":"Completion of the Northeast Corridor high-speed rail route","year":"2040","text":"By 2040, work is nearing completion on a major upgrade of the Northeast Corridor (NEC). America's busiest rail line, the NEC runs from Boston in the north to Washington in the south, via New York. Like many  rail services in the US, it had seen decades of underinvestment. Much of the infrastructure was poorly managed and in need of renovation. Tunnels, for example, had speed restrictions due to their obsolete designs, while electrical components dating from the   1930s  would routinely fail. There were engine breakdowns, conflicts among trains and frequent delays costing tens of millions of dollars in lost productivity.Between 2000 and 2010, intercity ridership on the NEC jumped from 8.2 to 13 million passengers a year. In an effort to address future capacity needs, improve service reliability and reduce travel times, Amtrak formulated plans for a $150 billion, 30-year investment program. This would see  construction of a dedicated high-speed route, with trains running  up to 220 mph (354 kph).       Credit: Amtrak The plans include fully upgraded tracks and signals,  new tunnels,  new bridges and  expanded stations. Tracks follow the existing NEC and transport networks whenever possible to minimise impacts. Implemented in three main phases, the Newark   to New York section is completed by 2025; the Washington to Newark   section is completed by 2030 and the final section between New York and   Boston  is completed by 2040.Journey times are dramatically reduced. A trip from Boston to New York that previously took 3 hours and 34 minutes can now be completed in just 1 hour and 34 minutes. A trip from New York to Philadelphia is reduced from 1 hour and 10 minutes to just 37 minutes, while a trip from Philadelphia to Washington is cut from 1 hour and 33 minutes to just 54 minutes. For passengers travelling the entire 438 miles (705 km) from Boston to Washington, this means a total reduction in journey time of more than 50% – from 6 hours and 17 minutes, to 3 hours and 5 minutes. Following many years of neglect, this region of the United States finally has a world class rail system.*       Credit: Amtrak  "},{"title":"All civil domestic aviation in Norway is electric","year":"2040","text":"In the late 2010s, Norway's state-owned airport operator Avinor proposed an upgrade of the country's short-haul airline fleet – intended to transition it from traditional jet fuel to electric planes. This idea received further attention in 2020, when Avinor and the Civil Aviation Authority released a report exploring these long-term plans in more detail.Norway already had more than 200 research and development projects underway for electric or hybrid-electric passenger aircraft, with a particular focus on smaller planes of less than 20 seat capacity. The aviation authorities, collaborating alongside  domestic airlines, used their knowledge and experience of the region to develop zero-emission aircraft suited to Norwegian winter conditions and runway lengths on the short-haul network.Advances in battery technology offered the potential to fly aircraft longer distances on a single charge. This included a new generation of solid-state batteries with 650Wh/kg of energy density, compared to 250Wh/kg for conventional lithium-ion cells.* These devices, embedded in the fuselage and wings, led to a first fully electric domestic flight by 2030.   Credit: Eviation Further progress in the 2030s resulted in  additional range extensions, opening up new routes. By 2040, these are sufficient to cover Norway's entire short-haul domestic network and form connections to neighbouring Scandinavian cities.*Prior to this transition, air travel on domestic routes accounted for 2.4% of Norwegian greenhouse gas emissions. Other benefits of these new planes include a halving in the level of noise pollution, along with lower operational and maintenance costs.Norway serves as a model for other countries and airlines. In subsequent decades, even greater energy densities become possible, enabling larger aircraft with higher seating capacities and longer routes to incorporate purely electric systems.   "},{"title":"Japan experiences a major volcanic eruption","year":"2041-2046","text":"In the early 21st century, Japan was among the most geologically energetic regions on Earth, with frequent earthquakes and 110 active volcanoes – nearly 10% of the total number in the world. This country was 70% mountainous and positioned on the so-called \"Ring of Fire\" in a zone of extreme crustal instability at the junction of four tectonic plates: the Pacific, Philippine, Eurasian and North American plates.At the southwestern corner of Japan was Sakurajima, an active composite volcano (stratovolcano) and former island. The lava flows of an earlier eruption in 1914 had caused the former island to be connected with Osumi Peninsula. This eruption was the most powerful in Japan of the 20th century and generated substantial lava flows that lasted for months. The island grew, engulfing several smaller islands nearby, and eventually became connected to the mainland by a narrow bridge of land. Parts of Kagoshima Bay became shallower, and tides were affected, becoming higher. At least 58 people were killed by the disaster.Sakurajima lay inactive for the next 44 years. In 1955, it started to become more prominent, with small explosions on a regular basis. This continued into the early 21st century. A number of more significant eruptions began to occur during the 2010s. In August 2015, Japan's meteorological agency issued a level 4 emergency warning, urging residents to prepare for evacuation. This happened again in February 2016.Less than four miles from the base of the volcano lay Kagoshima, the largest city in the prefecture by some margin. There was increasing concern that a much bigger eruption was due, posing a serious threat to the 605,000 inhabitants of Kagoshima. Research published in September 2016 combined GPS deformation measurements with other geophysical data and  3D computer models, to reconstruct the magma plumbing system under the Aira Caldera – the  enormous cauldron-like depression surrounding Kagoshima Bay. This study found that magma was being supplied to the system at a faster rate than was being erupted from Sakurajima, causing the ground to swell as the reservoir expanded below the surface. A volume of 14 million cubic metres was being added each year, equivalent to 3.5 times the size of London's Wembley Stadium.Based on the rate and volume of magma supply and accumulation below ground, it was calculated that a major eruption would take place at some point between 2041 and 2046.* Sure enough, Sakurajima undergoes a spectacular explosion during this time, the biggest since the 1914 event, with a major lava flow and substantial amounts of ash and debris raining down on the city. Thankfully, preparations have been made for this, minimising casualties and allowing the city to recover more easily.*       Credit: Sakurajima Volcano Research Centre   "},{"title":"Global average temperatures have risen by 2°C","year":"2041","text":"At the UN Climate Change Conference of 2009, a rise of 2°C was agreed as the maximum \"safe\"         limit for the global average temperature, beyond which it would start to become uncontrollable and catastrophic. In the early 2040s, this danger point is passed.* This occurs despite the ongoing decline in fossil fuel production, since emissions         from earlier decades are yet to have their full effect on the climate system.* In other words, while a transition         to clean energy is being achieved, global warming remains a deadly         threat to civilisation. The cumulative impact of greenhouse gas emissions is enormous, with hundreds of gigatons requiring sequestration from the atmosphere and oceans.It should         be noted that 2°C is merely the average global increase.         In some regions, such as the poles, the rise has been far greater already. The Arctic is now completely free of sea ice for most of the year,* while Greenland will soon be approaching         a tipping point of irreversible melting.In America,         the arid conditions in the Southwest have continued to worsen. They are now spreading to Southeastern         states, where soybean production has been slashed by half, and a similar         yield decrease has occurred for sorghum.* Meanwhile, invasive species of insects are migrating to new latitudes,         driven by the increasing temperatures. Bark beetles, for example, are moving north         and killing off huge areas of forest that provide food to grizzly bears         and other fauna.In Europe,         the Alps are becoming largely devoid of snow, for the first time in millions         of years.* Having served a role as the         \"water towers of Europe\", this is having a serious impact         on water supplies. Major rivers, like the Rhine, Rhone and Danube, have         until now relied on snow and glacial melt from these mountains. Switzerland         is being especially hard hit, with much of its electricity based on hydroelectric         power. In addition, record heatwaves are causing gigantic wildfires the         likes of which have never been experienced before. The Mediterranean has         lost a fifth of its rainfall and now has an additional six weeks of heatwave         conditions each year. At the foot of the Alps, rockfalls triggered by         melting permafrost have caused widespread destruction to villages and         towns. With skiing impossible in many areas, tourism is being hit hard.In South         America, a similar situation has occurred. Melting glaciers in the Andes Mountains have led to water shortages for tens of millions of people, resulting in large-scale displacements.* These refugee movements are now a major issue for the region. In Columbia, there         has been a marked decline in coffee production – one of the country's         main exports – accounting for a significant percentage of world harvests.*Asia too has a water crisis. Pakistan's major rivers – the Indus, Jhelum and         Chenab – are delivering under half their historic supply. The nuclear-armed         country is now at war with neighbouring India, after conflicts over         territory and resources.* Monsoon rainfalls have become         increasingly unpredictable in the region. Meanwhile, sea level rises have caused        further devastation to Bangladesh, which has yet to recover from the disasters         of earlier years.Developing         regions are disproportionately affected by climate change, and Africa         is the worst-hit location of all. Biblical-scale droughts are becoming         the norm here, with much of the continent hit by serious declines         in agricultural yields. In Mali, three-quarters of the population is starving.*In the Western         Pacific, Tuvalu is now sharing the same fate as the Maldives: much of         the island nation has been inundated. The evacuations from here and other low-lying regions are now a regular feature on the news.*   "},{"title":"Annual deaths from cardiovascular disease have reached negligible levels in the U.S.","year":"2041","text":"Cardiovascular disease refers to any disease affecting the cardiovascular system, principally cardiac disease, vascular diseases of the brain and kidney, and peripheral arterial disease. The causes are diverse but atherosclerosis and/or hypertension are the most common. Additionally, with aging come a number of physiological and morphological changes that alter cardiovascular function and lead to subsequently increased risk of cardiovascular disease, even in healthy asymptomatic individuals.In the early years of the 21st century, cardiovascular disease was the leading cause of mortality worldwide – responsible for nearly 30 percent of total deaths annually. In low- and middle-income countries it was increasing rapidly with four-fifths of cases occurring in those regions.In  high-income nations, however, cardiovascular mortality rates had been falling since the 1970s, due mainly to public health efforts and improved medical treatments. A dramatic reduction in tobacco use (which included smoking bans) – alongside recommended limits on alcohol, fat and sugar intake – as well as recommended minimum daily exercise, were among these prevention methods.This trend began to accelerate as a range of new treatment options became available in the 2010s and 2020s. These included stem cells* and heart muscle regeneration,* microRNA inhibitors to prevent heart enlargement,* gene therapy and drugs to treat obesity,  3D printed organs and vessels,* nanoparticles and  nano-robotics. By the early 2040s, mortality rates for cardiovascular disease have dropped to negligible levels in the U.S. and many other countries.*   "},{"title":"Oil spills in the Niger Delta have been cleaned up","year":"2041","text":"The Niger Delta is the delta of the Niger River that drains into the Gulf of Guinea off the coast of Nigeria. For millions of years, organic sediments were deposited from the river into the Atlantic, which became crude oil. During the early 21st century, this region was among the world's top oil and gas exploration hotspots.The first drilling operations began in the 1950s, undertaken by multinational corporations that provided Nigeria with the necessary technology and financial resources for extraction. In 1971, Nigeria joined the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). From 1975 onwards, the Delta region accounted for more than 75% of the country's export earnings. Nigeria became Africa's biggest producer of petroleum and was ranked among the top 10 nations globally in terms of proven reserves. At its peak, nearly 2.5 million barrels were being extracted a day.* It was estimated that 35 billion barrels lay waiting to be discovered, enough to last several decades.However, the Niger Delta became a centre of controversy over pollution, corruption and human rights violations. Many citizens of Nigeria felt exploited and unable to see the economic benefits of oil companies in the state. Production was affected by political instability and sporadic supply disruptions, attacks on infrastructure and crude oil theft, as local groups sought a share of the wealth. Most of the oil fields were small and scattered. Nearly 160 were found across Nigeria – of which 78 (almost half) lay in the Delta. As a result of the numerous small fields, an extensive pipeline network had been engineered to transport the crude oil and this was vulnerable to sabotage. Many sections of pipeline were also poorly maintained and badly aging. Pipeline explosions killed thousands of people and left many others with serious burn injuries in the 1990s and 2000s.Oil spills were frequent in the region and often devastating to communities based around fishing and farming. A report by the United Nations (UN) found that in one community, families were drinking from wells containing benzene, a known carcinogen, at 900 times the recommended levels. The Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation reported an average of 300 individual spills annually. However, as this amount did not take into account \"minor\" spills, the World Bank argued that the true quantity of petroleum spilled into the environment could be as much as ten times the officially claimed amount.In addition, gas flaring was a major issue and contributed vast volumes of air pollution and greenhouse gases. Much of the excess waste from the Delta was immediately burned, or flared, at a rate of approximately 70 million m³ per day – enough fuel to provide the combined annual natural gas consumption of Germany and France. Despite regulations introduced to outlaw this practice, it continued for decades at many drill sites.  As the largest wetland in Africa, the Delta was an incredibly rich ecosystem containing one of the highest concentrations of biodiversity on the planet and supporting abundant flora and fauna, arable terrain and a wide variety of crops. The numerous oil spills and gas flaring in much of the Delta were taking a heavy toll on the environment. Pollution was affecting the air, water, soils, animals, vegetation and even physical structures.Ken Saro-Wiwa – a Nigerian writer, TV producer, and environmental activist – brought attention to these problems by leading a nonviolent campaign against the degradation of land and waters by the multinational petroleum industry, especially Royal Dutch Shell. He was also an outspoken critic of the Nigerian government, which he viewed as reluctant to enforce regulations on foreign companies operating in the area. He led the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP), an indigenous group living in the Delta. In 1993, MOSOP organised peaceful marches of 300,000 Ogoni people, more than half of their population, drawing international attention to their plight. Shell withdrew from Ogoniland, in a major victory for the local residents. However, Nigeria's government had recently occupied the region militarily and took decisive action against what it saw as an increasing threat. Thousands of Ogoni people were tortured and killed, and dozens of villages destroyed. Ken Saro-Wiwa himself was tried by a special military tribunal at the peak of his non-violent campaign and charged with masterminding the murder of Ogoni chiefs at a pro-government meeting, in a trial widely criticised by human rights organisations.*In 1995, he was hanged, along with eight other activists, by the military dictatorship of General Abacha. Many of the supposed witnesses later admitted they had been bribed by the government to support the criminal allegations. Two witnesses who testified that Saro-Wiwa was involved in the murders later recanted, stating that they were offered money and jobs with Shell to give false testimony, in the presence of Shell's lawyer. The executions provoked international outrage and resulted in Nigeria's suspension from the Commonwealth of Nations.Saro-Wiwa's death was a major setback for the environmental movements, but their efforts to seek justice and compensation would continue over the subsequent two decades with ongoing lawsuits and other actions. While social and political unrest persisted into the early 21st century, Nigeria moved to a more democratic, civilian federal system. In 2011, a UN report was funded in part by Shell after a request by Nigeria's government. This stated that Nigeria's Ogoniland would take 30 years to fully recover from the damage it had sustained, at a cost of $1bn.* Then, in 2013, a Dutch court ruled that Shell was liable for pollution in the region. The company was sued repeatedly by local communities with claims running into many millions of dollars.  A major breakthrough in resolving the situation was finally achieved when the  Nigerian government – in partnership with oil companies – agreed to act on the recommendations of the UN report. In 2016, a full-scale cleanup and restoration plan was officially launched by President Buhari. This initiative, lasting for approximately 25 years,* would start with $200m of funding over a period of five years, focussed on a 1,000 sq mile (2,600 sq km) area of land and water near Port Harcourt, the capital and largest city of Rivers State. A factory would be constructed to process and clean tens of thousands of tons of contaminated soil. Alongside this, a mass replanting of mangroves would be undertaken.After this initial phase, the project would gradually expand over the next 20 years with more funding and resources. This would fully restore all of the remaining land, creeks, fishing grounds, mangroves, swamps and other areas devastated by Shell, the national oil firm and other fossil fuel companies. Thousands of jobs would be created for engineers, manual workers, project managers and inspectors. In addition to ecological repair, a side benefit would be that young people in the Ogoni region (many of whom had  rebelled against and sabotaged the oil infrastructure) could now be put to work doing productive and rewarding tasks. In the medium to longer term, it was hoped that a healthier environment would create a more socially and politically stable region – leading to economic progress and sustainable development. This would improve the overall living standards of Nigeria, one of the most rapidly growing countries in terms of population.The plan was not without its problems, of course, with ongoing conflicts in the region, alongside concerns over corruption. However, there was a certain momentum and inevitability to the process, as oil production was declining regardless of any cleanup operations. Solar was becoming so cheap and widespread that it rapidly gained a foothold in many African nations including Nigeria, forming a substantial percentage of energy capacity within just a few decades. By the early 2040s, restoration efforts in the Niger Delta have been largely completed, while economic diversification has allowed Nigeria to transition away from its older fossil fuel industries and to attract foreign investment in new areas. Nigeria is now facing an even greater threat, however, in the form of climate change. Between the years 1900 and 2000, average annual rainfall in the country declined by 10%, from 1400mm to 1255mm. This trend continued in the 21st century and has dropped another 5% to below 1200mm by 2041. The next challenge for Nigeria – and indeed much of Africa – is to increase its access to water. Thankfully, new technologies such as nanofiltration and other extraction techniques are now making this easier. Although Nigeria still faces environmental problems and overpopulation, its outlook is less doom-laden than some had previously feared. Africa as a whole is becoming an increasingly important part of the global economy.  "},{"title":"Orbital solar power is commercially feasible","year":"2041","text":"After decades of development, energy generated from space-based solar power is now being added to many grids. This concept has been around since the 1970s – but advances in nanotechnology and transmission efficiency have only recently made it both commercially and technically  feasible.**The system involves placing several large satellites into geosynchronous Earth orbit. Initially, this is financed and carried out jointly by  government agencies and private corporations. Very large, nanotech-based surfaces on each satellite's solar array (typically 1 to 3 kilometres in size) capture the energy of sunlight, which is then beamed down to Earth via microwaves or lasers. Large collecting dishes on the ground receive the energy and convert it to useable electricity. There are several benefits to this approach:• Higher collection rate: In space, transmission of solar energy is unaffected by the filtering effects of atmospheric gases. Consequently, collection in orbit is  144% of the maximum attainable on Earth's surface.• Longer collection period: High above the Earth, orbiting satellites can be exposed to a consistently high degree of solar radiation, generally for 24 hours per day, whereas ground-based panels are restricted to around 12 hours per day at most.• Elimination of weather concerns: Orbiting satellites reside well outside any atmospheric gases, cloud cover, wind, rain and other potential weather events.• Elimination of plant and wildlife interference.• Redirectable power transmission: Satellites can direct power on demand to different surface locations based on geographical baseload or peak load power needs.The climate benefits from orbital solar power as well, since there are no greenhouse gas emissions (though the energy  beamed down to earth is eventually lost as heat). These projects are initially expensive though, due to the hostility of the space environment. Panels require high-strength shielding to protect against  space junk* and their huge surface areas can make them vulnerable to incoming debris. Some of the more hi-tech stations feature nanotechnology-based composites that can self-heal. Degradation of the solar panels comes close to making them uneconomical at first, though further advances in technology later solve this issue.Though far from a perfect beginning, space-based solar power grows to become a hugely successful industry in the late 21st and 22nd century. Satellites also begin to appear in orbit around the Moon and Mars, greatly boosting the energy available on manned bases. It continues to grow around Earth for almost two centuries, until  virtually all of the sunlight falling on the planet is being captured and harvested in some way.*       © Mafic Studios, Inc  "},{"title":"Supercomputers reach the yottaflop scale","year":"2041","text":"By the early 2040s, the world's most advanced supercomputers have reached the yottaflop scale – a magnitude of processing power that enables a trillion trillion floating-point operations per second. This is 1,000 times faster than a zettaflop machine of 2030 and a million times faster than the exaflop machines of 2019.In earlier decades, experts had expressed concerns that Moore's Law – the trend of exponentially increasing computer speeds – was beginning to slow. However, these fears proved to be overstated. While it was true that a slowdown occurred in the 2010s, this was only a temporary blip, as new breakthroughs were being achieved in a number of areas. For example, traditional silicon microchips would soon be replaced by a new paradigm in the form of carbon nanotubes, able to be scaled down to even smaller sizes while greatly improving the speed and energy efficiency of transistors.*Other novel concepts were emerging – such as optical computers,* based on photons instead of electrons, creating a new generation of dramatically cooler and more energy efficient systems. Quantum computers and related technologies** were also providing new ways to overcome barriers to speed and power. All of these innovations paved the way to exaflop, zettaflop and eventually yottaflop computers.By 2041, the available processing power is sufficient to model thousands of human brains, in real time, at the neuron level. In recent years, the level of simulation model scale has also reached into electrophysiology, with metabolomes and proteomes soon to follow, and the states of protein complexes during the early 2050s.* This produces major insights with regards to the study of mental illness, for example, and other aspects of human neurology.These advances continue to increase by orders of magnitude through the remainder of the 21st century – culminating in truly accurate brain simulations and mind uploading in the early decades of the 22nd century.   "},{"title":"Completion of the W350 tower in Tokyo","year":"2041","text":"The W350 tower is a 70-storey, 350m (1,150 ft) skyscraper built by Sumitomo Forestry in Tokyo, Japan. The building is highly unusual in that its structure consists largely of wood. It is the tallest such building of its kind in the world and over six times taller than Brock Commons – the previous record holder at the time of its announcement – a 53m (174 ft) wooden residence in Vancouver, Canada.* The W350 is also taller than Tokyo Tower (one of the city's most famous landmarks that opened in 1958) and is therefore a major addition to the skyline. The building contains a mix of hotel, office, residential and retail space. It is covered in greenery, flooded with natural light and features open-air balconies that continue around all four sides, creating a healthy living environment for the occupants. Unlike concrete and steel buildings (which are responsible for 8% and 5% of carbon emissions, respectively), wooden buildings store carbon. The W350 tower removes 100,000 tons of CO2 from the atmosphere.W350 is part of an emerging trend in eco-architecture that is becoming far more prominent around this time, now that environmental considerations are being brought to the fore.* At the time of its announcement, the total cost was about 600bn yen ($5.6bn), twice that of a conventional skyscraper of the same size. However, advances in technology led to reductions in the project's cost, along with improvements in fire resistance. Its completion date is 2041 – timed to coincide with the 350th anniversary of Sumitomo Forestry.**       Credit: Sumitomo Forestry      "},{"title":"Cases of lung cancer have spiked in New York","year":"2041","text":"During the terrorist attacks in New York on 11th September 2001, the twin towers of the World Trade Centre collapsed into a pile of rubble. A huge volume of debris was pulverised and scattered over the surrounding area. This included 400 tons of asbestos within each tower. Asbestos was banned in New York in 1972, shortly after the construction of each tower. Mid-way through their completion, it was known that a ban would be coming into force in the near future. Nevertheless, the decision was made to retain the hazardous material throughout 20 floors of the buildings.It was estimated that 410,000 people – more than one in twenty of the city's population – were exposed to asbestos and other toxic substances embedded in the towers' drywall, insulation, fireproofing and steel structures. The massive cloud of smoke, dust and debris released from Ground Zero affected mainly emergency crews and other rescuers, along with those responsible for clearing the site. However, many others were exposed too, including those in the immediate vicinity who were unable to flee the clouds in time, and local residents living or working nearby.In the months and years following the attacks, growing numbers of New Yorkers reported symptoms of Ground Zero respiratory illnesses. The dust and debris  had been \"wildly toxic\", according to one air pollution expert. Studies found more than 2,500 contaminants from the towers: 50% in non-fibrous material and construction debris; 40% from glass and other fibres; 9.2% in cellulose; and 0.8% from the deadly asbestos, as well as lead and mercury. There were also unprecedented levels of dioxins and PAHs from the fires which burned for three months. Many of the dispersed substances (asbestos, crystalline silica, lead, cadmium, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) were carcinogenic; others led to kidney, heart, liver and nervous system deterioration. A case report funded by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) identified carbon nanotubes in dust samples and in the lungs of several 9/11 responders.This led to increasing numbers of debilitating illnesses among the surviving rescue and recovery workers, as well as some residents, students and workers of Lower Manhattan and nearby Chinatown. In 2006, it was reported that dozens of recovery personnel had developed cancer – with doctors and epidemiologists confirming these cases as linked to the Ground Zero exposure. The following year, the pulmonary fibrosis death of NYPD member Cesar Borja was reported.In 2010, a study of 5,000 rescue workers found that all had impaired lung functions, with an average impairment of 10%. Up to 40% of these workers were reporting persistent symptoms and 1,000 of the group studied were on \"permanent respiratory disability.\" Another study in December 2012 showed that  incidences for prostate cancer, thyroid cancer, and multiple myeloma were significantly elevated among  the rescue and recovery workers. More and more deaths were being reported as linked to 9/11, along with lost pregnancies numbering at least ten. Many people were filing lawsuits to seek monetary compensation. There were psychological effects too, in addition to physical problems: studies were finding that exposure to the attacks was a predictor for the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).Longer term, new health impacts emerged. For some illnesses related to asbestos exposure, the full effects and symptoms would not be felt for decades. This was the case with certain types of cancer, such as mesothelioma and lung cancer. By 2021, a significant uptick in cases was being observed and this trend continued to worsen, reaching a peak in 2041 – a full four decades after the 9/11 attacks.* Although some advances have been made in treating lung cancer by now, survival rates have improved at a slower pace than most other types of cancer.*    "},{"title":"The majority of primate species are disappearing from the wild","year":"2042-2067","text":"During this time, most of the world's primate species are finally going extinct in the wild, despite many decades of conservation efforts. This includes the majority of prosimians, monkeys, lesser apes (i.e. gibbons) and great apes such as gorillas. More than 300 of the 504 known species are lost by the end of this period,* surviving only in zoos or private collections.The relentless expansion of the global economy and the pressures to achieve ever more \"growth\" resulted in severe depletion of primates' habitat. Demand for palm oil, rubber and other commodities – along with a general increase in urban sprawl, road building, mining and other activities – led to millions of square kilometres of forest being cleared. In addition, climate change rendered vast areas more vulnerable to drought, fire and other damage. Poaching and the trade in body parts were yet more factors.With a population now exceeding 9 billion, humanity's ecological footprint was growing so large and so rapidly that it was impossible to preserve these fragile environments on the timescales required. Although some conservation successes are achieved, they are few and far between; the overall outlook for primates remains poor. Preservation of DNA material is now being prioritised in the hope of resurrecting these species at some future date.    "},{"title":"Tanzanite reserves are depleted","year":"2042-2045 ","text":"During the mid-Ediacaran – the geologic period immediately preceding the Cambrian – massive plate tectonic activity occurred in the area that would later become Mount Kilimanjaro, the tallest mountain on the continent of Africa. Occurring about 585 million BC, this process created intense heat and pressures, resulting in sedimentary strata being compressed and shaped into extremely tight, isoclinal folds. Within the \"hinges\" of these folds, small amounts of vanadium produced a blue and violet variety of the mineral zoisite. In the late 20th century, humans discovered this mineral – which they named tanzanite – in a very small  area just 7 km (4.3 mi) long and 2 km (1.2 mi) wide near the Mererani Hills in Tanzania, East Africa. The deposits appeared to be unique, located nowhere else on Earth, and found exclusively within this geologically complex part of Tanzania.Following its discovery in 1967, two million carats (400 kg) were extracted over a four-year period before nationalisation of the mines. Production then declined with most work  done by small-scale, artisanal miners. In 1990, the government split the mines into four sections: Blocks A, B, C and D. Large operators were awarded Blocks A and C, with Blocks B and D reserved for the local miners.With Tanzania shifting away from socialism and into a market economy, investment grew rapidly. Between 1995 and 2000, the production of tanzanite increased more than ten-fold, with a resulting drop in prices.  In 2001, rumours emerged of Al Qaeda using the gemstone to raise funds for terrorist activities. Some retailers announced they would no longer sell it, and this led to a further decline in prices. However, a CIA report in 2002 cleared the industry of any links to Al Qaeda, and sales growth returned. For the next several years, prices surged – reaching as high as $600+ per carat for the highest grades. While the Great Recession affected the gemstone at medium and lower grades, it remained in high demand at the finest grades. Prices began returning to pre-recession levels in the early 2010s.Tanzanite had become highly popular in jewellery items. Its rarity and beauty made it the fifth leading gemstone in worldwide sales value – behind only diamond, emerald, ruby, and sapphire. However, Tanzania's new and incoming President, John Magufuli, identified serious problems in the region and took a hardline approach to the industry.Rampant smuggling, tax evasion, and other illegal activity had plagued the mining operations for some time. Amid a decline in production, Magufuli ordered the military to build a 24 km perimeter wall, checkpoints, and CCTV cameras, to improve security and surveillance. His actions led to a drastic decline in smuggling and a major boost in tax revenue.In June 2020, a new record for the world's largest rough tanzanite was set, after a small-scale miner found stones of 9.7 kg (21.3 lbs) and 5.1 kg (11.2 lbs) and sold them to the government for 7.74 bn Tanzanian Shillings (US$3.35 million),* shattering a previous record set in 2005.Tanzanite continued to grow in popularity, fuelled by demand from China, India, and other emerging markets. An additional, longer-term factor now began to influence the price trend: scarcity, particularly of the finest grades. In 2018, Tanzania's National Bureau of Statistics estimated the total reserves of tanzanite at 109 million carats (21,800 kg).* Block C, by far the largest of the mining sites, had an estimated 87.1 million carats (17,420 kg) according to a separate report published in the same year.While some flexibility remained in terms of further prospecting, the overall situation now appeared obvious – at projected extraction rates, tanzanite production would be nearing its end soon. Block C had been given a Life of Mine (LOM) until 2042,* while Blocks A, B and D had a similar outlook.*   "},{"title":"Global population reaches 9 billion","year":"2042 ","text":"For the vast majority of human history, the Earth's population stayed below 100 million, and life expectancy was short. Between the mid-19th  and early 21st century, however, it mushroomed exponentially. From 1812 to 1930, the number of people  on the planet doubled from one to two billion. It took just 30 years to reach the next billion and a mere 14 years to reach the billion after that. Population growth  hit its maximum rate in 1963 when it peaked at 2.2% per annum.* All around the world, there were unprecedented improvements in mobility, personal income  and general quality of life.The global population   continued on its upward trajectory in the 21st century, reaching 9 billion by 2042.** However, a  raft of new social, political, financial, demographic, environmental and other problems were now having serious impacts on economic growth and prosperity. Automation had made vast swathes of jobs redundant, for example.* Many countries had built up enormous debts, particularly in the West. Furthermore, humanity's ecological footprint was too large, and the Earth too small, to support the kind of materialistic lifestyles and throwaway culture  that many  had taken for granted in the past. The days of rampant consumerism were coming to an end, with people forced to adapt and evolve to new systems, often with heavy government intervention. It was  almost as though civilisation was feeling a \"hangover\" from the boom times.*Though life became hard for many, and plagued with uncertainty, people and communities learned to live through each  new crisis. Britain, for example, took on a \"Blitz spirit\"  and improved its self-sufficiency in food production – emulating what Cuba had achieved in the 1990s. This involved a combination of land conversion (with unused sites commandeered for crop growing) and urban agriculture. Extensive recycling of metals, plastics, glass, electronics and other useful materials  became mandatory, with strict penalties for wastage. The rationing of water became the norm in some regions, as droughts became ever more frequent. Amidst a surge in  refugees, tight immigration quotas were enforced, with Britain pulling up a drawbridge and admitting only the most highly skilled foreign workers.Similar programs were enacted in nations around the globe. These measures were the only way to ensure society's survival, in light of the accelerating environmental and resource decline. Social media, communications and information technologies   aided  in the transition – helping to organise people and community efforts. From the economic wreckage of earlier decades, new forms of socio-economic progress were beginning to evolve. The world was gradually becoming more localised and decentralised.Though Britain was successful in  this transition,* many other nations were not so lucky. By 2042, resource wars have plunged some regions into chaos. Parts of southern Europe, Africa and the Middle East  are dependent on ever-increasing levels of foreign support. Thankfully, population levels begin to plateau in the latter half of the century. Together with ongoing technology advances, this offers  hope for longer-term solutions to humanity's problems. Data sources: Wolfram Alpha, US Census Bureau  "},{"title":"White people are a minority in the USA","year":"2042 ","text":"America is a country founded on immigration.* Today, its population is more diverse and multicultural than ever. Following the 1965 immigration reform (which grew from the civil rights movement), the  number of non-white people increased dramatically. This was particularly true of Latinos, who went from 6.3m in 1960* to over 50m by 2010.*By the early 2010s, non-whites had already begun to outnumber whites in California, Hawaii, New Mexico,  Texas and Washington DC, while nearly half of all children in the nation were non-white.* This trend continued over subsequent decades. By 2042, white people themselves are a minority.**This rapid change in the demographic makeup has significantly altered the political disposition of the country. Latinos,* blacks* and other minorities tend to be left-leaning.* Other factors have influenced voters' preferences – such as the growing urbanisation of the country, with cities tending to favour more liberal and progressive policies than smaller, traditional rural communities. Generation X and Generation Y (the latter now entering their middle age) have also reshaped the political stage, most of them favouring the Democrats.*This and other factors have converged to make the old-style Republican Party  unelectable. By now, the GOP has been forced to drastically moderate its policies and rhetoric compared to earlier decades.*         "},{"title":"The Ross Sea has lost 50% of its summer ice cover","year":"2043 ","text":"The Ross Sea is a large bay of the Southern Ocean in Antarctica. Like much of the frozen continent, it had been gaining ice at the start of the 21st century. This was due to various factors including changes in wind speed, precipitation, salinity, ocean currents, air and water temperatures.In subsequent decades, however, a rapid reduction of ice cover began to occur during the summer months as temperatures in the region soared, with corresponding changes in wind patterns and ocean currents. By 2043, half of the summer ice cover has been lost and is continuing to decline, now on track to decrease 56% by 2050 and 78% by 2100.**The Ross Sea is critically important in regulating the production of Antarctica's sea ice overall. The decline now being witnessed therefore has long-term implications for the continent as a whole. This comes at a time when commercial interests are beginning to eye the potential for resource extraction, as the Antarctic Treaty is due for review in 2048.*Marine life in this productive and once unspoiled ecosystem is also being negatively impacted. A number of important species are dependent on the ice during their life cycles, including crystal krill and Antarctic   silverfish. Krill are a major food source for the Ross Sea's top predators – minke whales, crabeater seals, Adélie and Emperor penguins (the latter may go extinct by 2100, if trends continue).   "},{"title":"Slovenia closes down its only nuclear power plant","year":"2043 ","text":"The Krško Nuclear Power Plant is located in Krško, Slovenia. It was built between 1975-1983 as a joint venture by Slovenia and Croatia, which were at the time both part of Yugoslavia. With 730 megawatts of  generation capacity, it provided more than one-quarter of Slovenia's and 15 percent of Croatia's power.In 2008, a coolant leak was reported, triggering fears of a Chernobyl-style disaster and prompting an EU-wide alert. However, this turned out to be a false alarm. The incident resulted in a relatively large amount of media attention for what was a minor malfunction.The planned retirement date for the plant was 14th January 2023. The decommissioning plan that was ratified by the Slovenian and Croatian parliaments scheduled the start of disassembly shortly after that, and the taking apart of the plant would last until 2036. An extension for 20 years – extending the plant lifetime to 14th January 2043 – was subsequently made to the Slovenian regulatory body (URSJV).*   "},{"title":"The Chang'e-3 lander is shutting down","year":"2043 ","text":"Chang'e-3 was a Chinese spacecraft launched in 2013. It was the country's first unmanned probe to touch down on the Moon's surface and included both a lander and rover. The landing site, in Mare Imbrium, was determined   by topographic data from the previous Chang'e 1 and 2 orbiters.On the surface, Chang'e-3 deployed a 140 kg (310 lb) rover named Yutu, which was designed to explore an area of 3 square kilometres (1.2 sq mi) during a three-month mission. Equipped with a digging tool, it performed analysis of soil samples. Using a radar on its underside, it also obtained the first direct measurements of the structure and depth of lunar soil down to 30 m (98 ft) and studied the lunar crust at several hundred metres' depth.The lander, meanwhile, featured the first automated and remotely operated telescope to be deployed on another world. The thin exosphere and slow rotation of the Moon allowed for extremely long and uninterrupted views of targets and their light variation, improving a number of astronomical models. These observations included galaxies, active galactic nuclei, variable stars, binaries, novae, quasars and blazars, as well as the structure and dynamics of the Earth's plasmasphere. Three cameras installed on the lander – each facing in different directions – provided high-res panoramic imagery of the Moon's surface.* NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) took a photo of the landing site, in which the rover and lander were both clearly visible.*With  solar panels and a radioisotope heater unit (RHU) designed to last 30 years, Chang'e-3 was a very long-running mission. For comparison, NASA's Mars Science Laboratory had a lifespan of 14 years. While the rover stopped working in March 2015, the telescope on the stationary lander had enough power to operate until 2043. By this date, Chang'e-3 is finally shutting down.* Like the Apollo landing sites of the late 1960s and early 1970s, it earns a historic status and eventually becomes a tourist attraction when civilians are able to visit the Moon. Given the lack of atmosphere or weather conditions on the surface, it remains in a pristine state into the distant future.       Credit: Chinese Academy of Sciences    "},{"title":"The works of J.R.R. Tolkien enter the public domain","year":"2044","text":"Copyright law has remained largely unchanged over the years. Accordingly, the English writer J.R.R. Tolkien's books and writings – including his famous Lord of the Rings trilogy and The Hobbit – are entered into the public domain on 1st January 2044. The law states that this occurs \"at the end of the period of 70 years from the end of the calendar year in which the author dies\", which in this case was 1973.*A work entering the public domain means that anyone is free to do whatever they want with it. Film and stage adaptations, re-prints, assorted varieties of fanfiction, video games and much more besides, can all be created, for profit, without the approval of the Tolkien Estate. Lord of the Rings had regularly appeared in lists of the most read books of all time.   "},{"title":"A tipping point for permafrost melting","year":"2044","text":"Scientists had warned that a global average temperature rise of 2°C was the maximum safe limit, beyond which climate change would race out of control. In earlier decades, tipping points were already being reached, such as the Arctic becoming ice-free during summer.* By 2044, an even greater and more serious threat is  emerging in the form of greenhouse gases  from melting permafrost.*  The quantity and extent of permafrost – defined as soil at or below the freezing point of water 0°C (32°F) for two or more years – had been well-documented. It was known that enough carbon  lay trapped in Arctic ice to effectively double the level already in the atmosphere.* Vast stores of methane, a greenhouse gas over 25 times more potent than CO2 and 72 times more potent during the first 20 years,* were also present, with potential to drastically alter the climate.Studies found that  in many places, long-frozen soils were  collapsing  as they melted, forming erosional holes and landslides that revealed larger areas  of permafrost beneath. This was accelerating the process of melting and greenhouse gas release, since these larger areas were then exposed to direct sunlight (pictured below).* Alongside this finding, evidence from Siberian caves suggested that a global temperature rise just 1.5°C (2.7°F) above  current levels would see permanently frozen ground beginning to thaw over a vast area, representing a major tipping point.*In addition to climate destabilisation, disastrous impacts on infrastructure are now being felt in the region with natural gas facilities, roads, railways and buildings in general all built upon permafrost vulnerable to thawing. Adjoining regions are witnessing significant changes, with Mongolia’s Gobi   Desert becoming far wetter. In the decades ahead, this   extremely arid area will come to resemble the present-day Asian steppes.With large-scale permafrost melting underway, global   temperatures are now on track to reach 3°C (5.4°F) above the 20th century average by the mid-2050s.* A genuine catastrophe is looming, threatening billions of lives.**       Credit: George Kling  "},{"title":"The         last veterans of WW2 are passing away","year":"2044","text":"During         this decade, the last surviving veterans of World War II are passing         away. A small number of them reach their 120th year, allowing them to         attend the 100th anniversary commemorations of D-Day, on 6th June 2044. On this         date, a time capsule is opened at the American Cemetery at Colleville-sur-Mer,         close to the site of the Normandy landings which claimed so many lives.         This contains press articles from the time – including a message from         President Eisenhower to future generations.*   "},{"title":"A transglobal highway and rail network has emerged","year":"2044","text":"Midway through the 2040s, practically all major continents are connected to each other by road, rail and tunnel. This transglobal highway, as it comes to be known, was never a definite goal nor an individual project. It was instead formed by long-term, incremental steps, as countries around the world reached across their borders and waterways to formerly distant neighbours. Over the years, from the mess of highways and railways criss-crossing the globe, a specific route began to emerge, uniting every populated continent with the exception of Australia.*Arguably one of the first steps in this process was the Trans-Siberian Railway, which began construction in 1890. This was a  network of railways connecting Moscow with the Russian Far East and  Sea of Japan. It became the world's longest railway, stretching 9,300 km (5,800 mi), with expansion continuing more than a century later.*  Another major transport network to emerge during the 20th century was the Pan-American Highway. This linked the mainland nations of the Americas – extending from Prudhoe Bay in Alaska to the lower reaches of South America.* With a total length of 48,000 km (30,000 mi), it became the world's longest \"motorable road\". However, because of the Darién Gap, it was not possible to cross from Central America to South America   by traditional motor vehicle.  The Channel Tunnel (an idea first proposed in 1802), was officially opened in 1994. This provided the first direct physical link between Britain and mainland Europe since the Ice Age. This megaproject included the longest undersea portion of any tunnel in the world, at 37.9km (23.5 mi) in length.*  In 2000, the Øresund Bridge was completed.* This became the longest combined road and rail bridge in Europe and connected the major road networks of Scandinavia to those of Central and Western Europe. It was followed by the Fehmarn Belt Fixed Link, providing a   more direct route from Germany to Sweden and Norway.*  By the 2020s, several major new connections were being completed around the world. One notable project was the Sunda Strait Bridge, linking the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java.* This crossing utilised    islands  in the strait as stepping stones. It carried a six lane highway and a double-track railway and cost upwards of $12bn. The most extensive portion – a suspension bridge – had a central span of 3,000 m (9,800 ft), making it the second longest suspension bridge in the world at the time.  By 2025, another major link was completed – this time in the Mediterranean. The Strait of Gibraltar Tunnel had been  in the planning stages for decades, but  in the mid-2010s  it finally got off the ground. Negotiations between Spain and Morocco were drawn out, but an agreement over costs and economics was finally reached. Building the tunnel posed serious engineering challenges, mainly because of the deep seabed found in the strait: around 300 metres in the shallowest areas. A car tunnel was ruled out, since removing exhaust fumes from that depth proved infeasible. The engineers behind the project also determined that, in order to graduate the slope, the entrances on either side would need to be almost 3km away from the coast. Despite rising costs, the  project continued to move forward, construction technology overcame the structural challenges, and, midway through the 2020s, the first trains made the journey from one continent to another.*  Meanwhile, road and rail projects were growing outwards on both sides, with new routes expanding through Africa and existing routes being strengthened in Western Europe.* The 2020s also saw development of a bridge linking Africa with the Middle East.*As it became more developed, China   greatly expanded its infrastructure, with hundreds of miles of railtrack being added each year.* Major new transport links began to unify Southeast Asia as a whole. In the 2030s, Japan was  connected to the mainland  by rail for the first time. This was achieved via the new Sakhalin–Hokkaid� Tunnel, running between the Japanese island of Hokkaid� and the Russian island of Sakhalin. A shorter tunnel connecting Sakhalin to mainland Russia had been completed years before which, coupled with the new 42 km long rail tunnel, opened new trade routes between Japan and continental Asia. Like Gibraltar, many issues had to be overcome, primarily political ones. For years, there was debate as to the economic usefulness of the tunnel, until the demand for such a crossing  manifested itself, at which point it was finally agreed that  construction would be productive.* Thanks to the long-existing Seikan Tunnel, all four of the main Japanese islands were then connected to Russia.Another huge project of this time was the Malacca Strait Bridge.* This connected Sumatra (the largest island entirely within Indonesia) to western Malaysia and mainland Asia, with a sea-crossing bridge spanning almost 50 km (31 miles). Combined with the Sunda Strait Bridge (see above), this greatly expanded the Indonesian economy – providing new markets and   access to China.By the 2040s, Japan saw completion of its second mainland connection, this time between it and South Korea. This project had by far the most problems of any major link, due to the differing political and cultural climates of the two countries. Trade and travel necessity ultimately pushed the project along, after considerable delays.*One of the most ambitious  of all the transglobal highway projects – the Bering Strait Crossing – was also completed early in this decade. A joint venture between Russia and the United States, it was the first direct infrastructure link between the two countries. It would consist of three tunnels, connecting the continents via the   Diomede Islands.* During its development,  rising global temperatures actually benefited the project, having made construction easier in the warming Siberian landscape. Coupled with the crossing was a series of road and rail projects branching out through Eastern Russia – eventually joining up with China, Japan and all the way through to Europe. In other words, it was now possible to board a train in London and travel directly to New York City, via Moscow and Yakutsk.*Ironically, the last connection of the transglobal highway to be completed was actually the shortest. For decades, the Darién Gap in Panama, a near-impenetrable wall of jungle and brush, had blocked road connections between North and South America. Demand was slow to materialise for the connection, and environmental protection prohibited a land crossing. In the early 2040s, a compromise was reached, as the influx of climate change refugees from  drought-stricken South American countries demanded an easy path northwards. A bridge was constructed across the Gulf of Urabá between Panama and Columbia, bypassing the Darien Gap.*By 2044, people can travel to all corners of the globe using direct road or rail links. However, geopolitical stresses are beginning to slow the expansion of new connections. Resource wars have made  the opening and closing of national borders increasingly frequent and unpredictable, at times cutting off  sections of the network. Despite this, it continues to be largely operational as a whole, due to its sheer size and extent. In a world wracked by environmental catastrophe, it serves as a lifeline for many countries – since food, water, metals, minerals and other natural resources can be easily and quickly moved  from more prosperous regions. Although the transglobal highway is  stagnating in growth,  it remains a vital piece of infrastructure for decades to come.  "},{"title":"Five-year survival rates for bowel cancer are approaching 100%","year":"2044","text":"In the early 21st century, bowel cancer was the third most common cancer in the world. As of 2008, there were over 1.2 million new cases and 608,000 deaths globally each year. It was more common in developed countries, where around 60% of cases were diagnosed. The highest rates were found in Australia, New Zealand, Europe and the US and lowest rates in Africa and South-Central Asia.Risk factors for bowel cancer were known to include older age (50+), male gender, high intake of fat, alcohol or red meat, obesity, smoking and a lack of physical exercise. Approximately 10% of cases were linked to insufficient activity. The risk for alcohol appeared to increase at greater than one drink per day.  Treatment for bowel cancer would depend on how advanced a particular case was – but generally included surgery, chemotherapy and radiation. For those with incurable cases, a range of palliative care treatments were available for reducing pain and improving quality of life.Research into bowel cancer led to a marked improvement in survival rates during the late 20th century, a trend which continued into the 21st. Rapid falls in genome sequencing costs,* together with increasingly sophisticated mouse models,* provided ever more valuable insights into the nature and mechanisms of the  illness.New treatments and earlier diagnoses were made possible using targeted nanoparticles** and eventually nanorobotics for delivering medicines with greater precision and fewer side effects. Five-year survival rates are now approaching 100% in the US,* with many other countries not far behind.*    "},{"title":"Humans         are becoming intimately merged with machines","year":"2045 ","text":"In some         fields, the pace of technology has become so fast that humans can no         longer comprehend it without augmenting their own intelligence. This         is particularly true of computing, nanotechnology, medicine and neuroscience, all of which have seen exponential progress.*The typical         home PC of today has an integrated AI  equivalent to over a billion         human brains.* This machine can think         for itself, communicate with its user and suggest new ideas in ways         that surpass even the greatest minds on Earth. Due to the flood of data         being exchanged on the Internet and elsewhere, these computers receive         literally millions of emails and other communications each day.The only         way for a user to interpret this avalanche of information is to merge         their consciousness with that of the machine. A growing segment of society is         now turning to on-person hardware to achieve this. The most advanced         method involves the use of microscopic, wireless, implantable devices         linking neural activity directly to electronic circuitry. These \"nanobots\"         have already been used in full           immersion VR and medical         procedures. The latest versions are capable of marrying AI with         human intelligence in ways that combine the best aspects of both. No monitor           or projector of any kind is required for the latest generation of computers.           The nanobots can instead produce a virtual image of the screen which is           augmented in the user's field of vision.  This operating         system is controlled by their thoughts – and those of the AI – running         at speeds vastly greater than a real time physical version would allow.         Many individual actions can be performed at once,         thanks to robust wireless connections between the nanobots and neurons.If necessary,         a user's entire sensory experience can be instantly shifted to full         immersion virtual reality. This is a popular choice for gaming and entertainment,         but also has many practical applications in the world of business. Meetings         and conferences can be hastily scheduled between vast numbers of participants         from around the globe –  with barely a few second's notice         – often lasting only a few seconds in duration. Communicating at this         speed is not possible using conventional means, creating         a significant divide between those who have the technology and those without.For many         people, nanobot implants are becoming permanent and essential – rather         than temporary and optional – due to the sheer speed and level         of information now being encountered in day-to-day situations together         with the explosive growth of AI. Military personnel, scientists and         medical staff were among the first to take advantage of them, but mainstream         society is now following.People         are merging with machines in various other ways, too. Nanobots can boost         immune systems, for example, helping to exterminate pathogens. They         can also regulate blood pressure, or repair some of the damage caused         by the aging process, or accelerate the healing of wounds. Cybernetic         organs are now available that almost never fail and can filter deadly         poisons. Brain-computer interfaces are increasingly used in middle class         homes to open doors, control lighting and operate everyday appliances.The most         extreme cases of enhancement involve people opting for decentralised circulatory systems, as well as a form of synthetic blood, reducing         physical vulnerability still further. This particular option is only available to the wealthy at this stage, as it involves a highly complicated procedure         that radically alters their internal anatomy. The end result is that         a person can survive multiple gunshot wounds and other internal damage relatively         easily. Politicians and a number of famous celebrities are taking advantage of this. It is also popular with gangsters and career criminals. The line         between man and machine is starting to blur. Later this century, there         will no longer be a clear distinction.   "},{"title":"Homosexual discrimination has declined substantially","year":"2045 ","text":"In 1800, more than 120 countries had laws against homosexuality. This number increased over the next century, peaking at 160 in the 1920s.* The mid- to late-20th century saw great progress in human rights, culminating in the first gay marriages during the early 2000s.*With the floodgates now opened, many more nations began to allow same-sex couples to form civil partnerships, or full marriages, including the United States.* This trend was reinforced by the continued spread of democracy and the rule of law,* better education and rapid societal changes wrought by the Internet and social media. Younger generations in particular were more open, liberal and willing to support such policies.**By the 2040s, more than half of the world's countries allow same-sex marriage, while the overwhelming majority have decriminalised homosexuality. Only a handful of hard-line, authoritarian regimes – mostly in Africa and the Middle East – continue to outlaw the practice.   "},{"title":"Air accident fatalities have been  eliminated","year":"2045 ","text":"Recent decades have seen an explosion in the level of computer control in vehicles of all types, greatly reducing the need for human involvement.* This includes the aviation industry, which has become highly automated.** Although manned crews may still be present, their roles are limited and supervisory, with only minimal if any need for intervention during the flight process. On the ground, airport infrastructure and navigation systems have seen major overhauls, leading to vastly improved traffic management and safety.*Revolutionary new materials (such as graphene) – in combination with self-healing, nano-sensors and other systems embedded throughout the wings and body – have largely eliminated the structural failure issues that plagued earlier generations. Most aircraft now run on purely electric systems, without the need for dangerous and combustible liquid fuels.*Hijacking and violent incidents, meanwhile, are now practically impossible, due to the sheer level of surveillance and security in place. Quantum encryption has made hacking of navigation systems difficult if not impossible.Consequently, air crashes involving passenger deaths in large commercial aircraft are now almost unheard of in the news.** The age-old phobia of flying will soon become a thing of the past. In addition to safety, the rise of computer intelligence in aircraft design is leading to improvements in overall comfort experienced by travellers.*   "},{"title":"The Chū� Shinkansen high speed maglev route is complete","year":"2045 ","text":"Tokyo and Osaka are now connected by a direct high-speed maglev route – the Chū� Shinkansen. This megaproject began construction in 2014, at a cost of over 9 trillion yen ($115bn). By 2027, the first trains were running between Tokyo and Nagoya,* and by 2045 the route has been extended to Osaka,** with trains travelling  beneath  the Japanese Alps (Akaishi Mountains). The first generation of these vehicles reached 313 mph (505 km/h), but newer and even faster designs are now in use.   "},{"title":"Gulf         Coast cities are being abandoned due to super hurricanes","year":"2045 ","text":"The rapid growth of CO2 emissions has led to rising sea levels, a warming         of coastal waters and a more volatile climate system. In the Gulf of         Mexico, a new category of \"super hurricane\" has emerged. This         is becoming a regular occurrence by now. These extreme         weather events are nightmarish in scale and intensity. At their peak,         winds of 200mph bring untold devastation. Trees are uprooted and hurled         like matchsticks, while skyscrapers visibly sway. Storm surges         and flash floods travel up rivers with  surreal speed, overwhelming         defences and bringing waves tens of metres high. Damage from these and various other disasters has run into hundreds of billions of dollars. A number of Gulf coast cities are being permanently abandoned during this time, including Houston and New Orleans.**   "},{"title":"Apollo 12's third stage returns to Earth","year":"2045 ","text":"In November 1969, the Apollo 12 Saturn V blasted off towards the Moon. This rocket consisted of a three-stage launching system. While the first and second stage dropped back to Earth after launch, the third stage (S-IVB) was used to propel the docked Apollo Command Module and Lunar Module into a lunar trajectory.In 2002, amateur astronomer Bill Yeung discovered what appeared to be a 30-metre (100 ft) asteroid in orbit around the Earth. Initially, it was believed to be a second natural satellite of Earth (the Moon being the first). However, later measurements of the electromagnetic spectrum were consistent with titanium dioxide paint used for the Saturn V rockets. Back-tracing its orbit showed that the object had been orbiting the Sun for 31 years and had last been near Earth's vicinity in 1971. This seemed to suggest it was part of Apollo 14, but NASA knew the whereabouts of all hardware used for that mission – the third stage, for instance, was deliberately crashed into the Moon for seismic studies. Another explanation emerged that it could be the S-IVB third stage for Apollo 12. NASA had originally planned to dump this spent component into a solar orbit, but an extra-long burn of the ullage motors meant the remaining propellant could not provide enough energy to escape the Earth–Moon system. Instead, this stage ended up in a highly erratic orbit around the Earth, after passing by the Moon.Sure enough, this  antique space junk, with an empty weight of 9,600 kg (20,000 pounds), would return to Earth during the mid-2040s, after drifting for over 75 years.* Objects with similar mass tend to impact Earth's surface about once every 10 years.   "},{"title":"Total solar eclipse in the USA","year":"2045 ","text":"A total solar eclipse occurs on 12th August 2045; the fourth longest of the 21st century. It is visible throughout much of the continental United States, with a path of totality running through California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama and Florida. The eclipse is greatest over the Bahamas, before continuing over the Virgin Islands, Hispaniola, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and Brazil.The path of totality is witnessed over many major cities – including Reno, Salt Lake City, Colorado Springs, Oklahoma City, Tulsa, Fort Lauderdale, Miami, Orlando, St. Petersburg, Tampa, Nassau, and Santo Domingo. It lasts for at least six minutes along the part of the path that starts at Camden, Alabama, crossing Florida and ending near the southernmost Bahama Islands. The longest duration of totality is six minutes and 5.5 seconds, located at the coordinates 25°54.594'N 78°32.19'W, which is over the Atlantic Ocean east of Fort Lauderdale and south of Freeport, Bahamas.* A solar eclipse with a very similar path occurs in 2017.   "},{"title":"The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress is retired from service","year":"2045 ","text":"The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress was an American long-range, subsonic, jet-powered strategic bomber. Designed and built by Boeing, it was operated by the United States Air Force (USAF), with official introduction in 1955. Capable of holding up to 32,000 kg (70,000 lb) of weapons, it had a typical combat range of more than 8,800 miles (14,080 km) without aerial refuelling. A total of 744 of the aircraft were built, with the last one delivered in 1962.The strength, reliability and versatility of the B-52 allowed it to become the backbone of the U.S. Air Force and a veteran of numerous wars. It played a key role during the Cold War – carrying nuclear weapons for deterrence and standing on alert, ready to conduct \"doomsday missions\" if necessary; though it only ever dropped conventional munitions in combat. During the 1960s, it performed large numbers of conventional strikes in Southeast Asia, pounding enemies with massive firepower. While some variants were retired, the B-52 continued to see active service for many more decades, undergoing a series of upgrades and modernisations with new avionics, equipment and weapons. B-52 strikes were an important part of Operation Desert Storm (1991) and Desert Strike (1996), the latter including a 34-hour, 16,000-mile round trip from Guam – the longest distance ever flown for a combat mission. B-52s also contributed to Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan/Southwest Asia (2001) and Operation Iraqi Freedom (2003).Superior performance at high subsonic speeds and relatively low operating costs continued to keep the B-52 in service, despite the introduction of more advanced aircraft. As of 2015, 58 were in active service with 18 in reserve. After being upgraded again, it would serve until 2045 before finally reaching the end of its life, an unprecedented 90 years after introduction. The B-52  is replaced by the Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider.*       Credit: Allen J.M. Smith   "},{"title":"Major         extinctions of animal and plant life","year":"2045-2049","text":"By the         end of this decade, many well-known animal species are going extinct,         or have declined in such numbers that only those in captivity         are now remaining.Off the         eastern coast of Australia one of the world's greatest natural         wonders – the Great Barrier Reef – has been almost completely destroyed, with less than 2% of coral remaining.* Rising levels of greenhouse gases have made the water too acidic for           calcium-based organisms to grow.* Dumping of dredged sediment to help create the world's largest coal port has caused further damage.* Most           of the colourful fish for which the reef is famous have also disappeared.           On land, 50% of the continent's 400 butterfly species have     died out, as well as numerous reptiles including Boyd's forest dragon,             a rare and colourful lizard.In Europe,         an astonishing 50% of amphibians have disappeared due to pollution,         disease and loss of habitat including many previously common species of frogs, toads, salamanders, newts and       caecilians.* More than 20% of bird species have been lost, and around 15% of plants.In South         Africa's Kruger national park, a major conservation area, nearly 60%         of the species under its protection have been lost. In the same region,       35% of proteaceae flowering plants have disappeared including the country's national flower, the King Protea.*In South         America, nearly half of the Amazon rainforest has been destroyed, with         more than 2,000 native tree species becoming extinct.In Mexico,         nearly 30% of animal species are either extinct, or critically endangered.In Southeast         Asia, the Indian elephant is on the brink of extinction. Once a common         sight in this part of the world, it has declined in huge numbers due         to poaching for the ivory of its tusks, loss of habitat, and human conflict.In the         Arctic, nearly 70% of polar bears have disappeared due to the shrinking         of summer ice caused by global warming. By 2080 they will disappear         from Greenland entirely, and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving         only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.Many other         well-known species of fish, bird and mammal become critically endangered         around this time.This period         is often referred to as the Holocene extinction event. As a         direct result of human influences, the rate of species extinctions this         century is between 100 and 1000 times the natural \"background\"         or average extinction rates in the evolutionary time scale of Earth.       Credit: Elisei Shafer   "},{"title":"Japan's population falls below 100 million","year":"2046","text":"For most of the 20th century, Japan experienced high population growth. The post-war \"miracle\" saw its booming economy catapulted into second place behind only the USA by the 1980s. This period of rapid expansion ended with the bursting of the asset price bubble in 1991 and was followed by the \"Lost Decade\", which persisted into the 21st century. Japan experienced stagnation both financially and demographically.By 2010, the country's population had peaked at 128 million.* From this point onward it would undergo a long, slow decline.* This net loss was caused by falling birth rates and almost no net immigration, despite the highest life expectancy in the world at 84.6 years of age. The rising costs of childbirth and child-raising, later average age of marriage, the increasing number of unmarried people and greater numbers of women in the workforce were all  contributing factors. Japan's \"total fertility rate\" (defined as the average number of children born to a woman over her lifetime) was now 1.43, far below the 2.07 replacement-level fertility needed to sustain a country in the long term. In some isolated rural areas, this trend was so damaging that entire communities were already disappearing.The shrinking segment of productive workers aged 15 to 64 began to seriously impact on Japan's GDP, affecting pensions and social welfare in particular. As  the overall standard of living fell, calls were made for radical policies, but the low birth rate could not be fundamentally reversed. By the 2040s the population was falling by over a million each year. By 2046, it has dropped below 100 million,* a level last seen in the 1960s. This trend will continue for the rest of the century, with Japan struggling to achieve a \"managed decline\" as it deals with the inevitability of its situation and its waning influence on the world stage. Among the solutions being introduced is greater use of robots to keep society running. Japan's  love for and experience of robotics (perhaps more than any other country) and its already well-established industry is helpful in this regard, mitigating some of the impacts it would otherwise have felt.   "},{"title":"The UK state pension age has risen to 70","year":"2046","text":"Due to increases in life expectancy, and unsustainable levels of age-related spending, the UK's state pension age has  risen from 65 in 2012, to 70 now.* This provides a net benefit to  the public finances of around 0.7% of GDP.   "},{"title":"Carbon pricing is ubiquitous worldwide","year":"2046","text":"By the mid-2040s, carbon pricing initiatives have been implemented by practically every government around the world, via policies such as carbon taxes and/or a requirement to buy permits to emit, generally known as cap-and-trade. This has finally solved the economic problem of CO2 and other known greenhouse gases being negative externalities – detrimental products lacking any market mechanism responsive to the costs of their emission.In the 1990s, only a handful of countries had these measures in place, all of them in Europe. The number grew steadily in the early 21st century amid mounting concern over environmental impacts. International agreements, such as the Paris climate accord of 2016, gave added impetus.There were, of course, a number of setbacks along the way. In Australia, for example, the Labor Party led by Julia Gillard implemented a carbon tax from 2012-2014 (priced at $23-24/tonne). This was later revoked by the Liberal Party, led by Tony Abbott, who insisted that coal was \"good for humanity\" and would be the \"world's main energy source for decades to come.\" In the USA, meanwhile, President Trump announced his intention to withdraw from the Paris Agreement and introduced a slew of policies aimed at rolling back regulations.Momentum continued to build, however, as the impacts of climate change became more and more obvious. Alongside this, a demographic shift was undermining the Baby Boomer generation, who had supported many traditional conservative policies. Their influence was waning in favour of Generation X and the Millennials, who preferred stronger action on the environment. Not only were national governments taking steps, but smaller regions and individual cities were introducing policies too. As the years rolled by, public opinion showed increasing support for carbon taxes and emissions trading. Studies were finding that a price on carbon – combined with tax cuts for businesses, and rebates to low-income families most affected by the scheme(s) – could be an effective and bipartisan way to curb emissions of greenhouse gases.*By 2020, China had introduced a national cap-and-trade scheme for its power sector, boosting the share of global emissions with a pricing system in place from 15% to around 20%.*  As progress in carbon (and other greenhouse gas) pricing continued, a substantial economic shock lay on the horizon. The installed capacity of renewables like solar and wind power had increased exponentially,** thanks to dramatic improvements in cost and efficiency, alongside major advances in batteries, smart grids and other low carbon technology. When combined with a rapid uptake of electric vehicles (and the outright phasing out of traditional internal combustion engines by many countries),* fossil fuel companies now had trillions of dollars' worth of stranded assets.A sudden drop in the value of fossil fuels – and the bursting of this \"carbon bubble\" – became apparent in the early 2030s,* by which time, around 50% of worldwide greenhouse gas emissions had a pricing mechanism in place. While many investors had recognised the scale, speed and inevitability of this energy transition and taken steps to limit their exposure, a significant amount of economic disruption nevertheless occurred. The losses, centred on the U.S. and Canada, were greater than those seen during the financial crisis of 2008.*By the 2040s, the world has largely recovered from this earlier shock – although new economic risks and uncertainties abound, with technology and society now changing faster than ever before, alongside a frantic race to ameliorate the effects of climate change.   "},{"title":"\"One country, two systems\" is renewed in Hong Kong","year":"2047","text":"In 1842, Hong Kong was acquired by the British Empire following the Treaty of Nanking. In 1860, the Kowloon Peninsula was gained, and in 1898, Lantau Island and the adjacent northern lands (which became known as the New Territories) were also ceded. The latter was established under the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory, granting Britain a 99-year, rent-free lease on the region.In 1984 – as the expiration date neared – the governments of the United Kingdom and the People's Republic of China (PRC) concluded the Sino-British Joint Declaration on the Question of Hong Kong, under which the sovereignty of the leased territories, together with Hong Kong Island, would be handed back to the PRC. This transfer took place on 1st July 1997, officially ending 155 years of British colonial rule.  As part of this handover, a principle known as \"One country, two systems\" would be implemented. This was proposed by Chinese paramount leader, Deng Xiaoping, in the negotiations with British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher. In essence, it allowed Hong Kong to retain its own separate political and financial system under a high degree of autonomy, while the rest of mainland China would continue the practice of socialism. Chapter 1, Article 5 of the Hong Kong Basic Law – the constitutional document of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR) – stated as follows:"},{"title":"Glacier volume in the Everest region has declined by half","year":"2048-2058","text":"At some point during this period (2048-2058), glacier volume in the Mount Everest region falls below 50% of its 2015 level.* The Earth had continued to warm in recent decades and High Mountain Asia – an area that included the Himalayas – was especially sensitive to temperature changes. The glaciers here contained the largest volume of ice outside the polar regions. With global temperatures now 2°C (3.6°F) higher than the pre-industrial average,* melting rates by mid-century have accelerated. In addition to more rapid ice loss, precipitation has changed from snow to rain at critical elevations where glaciers are concentrated. This has acted to reduce glacier growth and increase the areas exposed to melt.The resulting changes in glacier volume have major impacts on the availability of water for local populations. Initially, the increased melting results in greater flows of water – but the ongoing retreat leads to a decline in warmer months before the monsoon, when rainfall is scarce. Another effect is the formation and growth of temporary lakes dammed by glacial debris. Avalanches and earthquakes can breach these dams, causing catastrophic floods in the basins downstream, with river flows 100 times greater than normal.This has serious consequences for agriculture and hydroelectric power generation. Of particular concern is the effect on Pakistan and its relationship with neighbouring India,* both dependent on the glacier-fed water resources of the Himalayas. Tensions between the nuclear-armed countries are escalating markedly during this time,* as the water crisis deepens, made worse by ongoing population growth and ever-increasing demand.A key aspect of these changes has been a steady increase in the freezing level, the elevation where mean monthly temperatures are 0°C. As of 2015, this varied between 3200m in January and 5500m in August. If global average temperatures were to continue rising, the potential increase in height of the freezing level was 800-1200m by 2100, causing a glacier volume loss of between 70% and 99%. However, massive geoengineering projects are perfected in the second half of the century* that will stabilise and eventually reduce the warming.   "},{"title":"The         Antarctic Treaty comes up for review","year":"2048 ","text":"Antarctica         is the last remaining unspoilt wilderness; untouched by the massive         industrialisation common everywhere else on the planet. It covers an         area of 13.7 million sq km (5.3 million sq miles) and is covered by         an ice sheet 4 km (2.5 miles) deep. It has no human inhabitants, other         than a small number of scientists in research stations.The vast,         icy continent is governed by the terms of the Antarctic Treaty, which         came into effect in 1961. This was signed by Argentina, Australia, Chile,         France, New Zealand, Norway, the UK, Belgium, Japan, South Africa, the         USA and Russia. The first seven of these countries have historic claims         to the continent (none of which are generally recognised) and the Treaty         preserves the status quo, neither recognising nor repudiating the old         claims, but forbidding their expansion in any way. The terms of the         Treaty also forbid the assertion of new claims.The discovery         of a hole in the ozone layer, and other concerns, led to the addition         of a new environmental protocol agreed in 1991. This entered force in         1998. It was intended to protect Antarctica's environment and ecosystems,         and included a total ban on the exploitation of mineral and energy resources,         as well as strict regulation of pollution and other damaging activities.         The protocol is open for review in 2048, exactly 50 years after it was implemented.*Much has         changed in the last half century. Earth's population is over 50% larger, placing a substantial drain on the Earth's resources which         has become alarmingly obvious by now. Metal and mineral supplies continue to be an issue, even with large-scale recycling systems in place.* Despite objections from environmentalists, there is general consensus         among the international community that some limited exploitation of         Antarctica should be permitted within certain specially controlled areas.         Over the next few years, a new treaty is drawn up with modified clauses, though disputes continue over territorial boundaries.There are         significant logistical challenges to mining and mineral extraction in         the region – such as the isolation, extreme cold, rough seas and thick         ice sheet. However, new technologies look set to mitigate these problems,         including the use of robots, heavy automation and alternative methods         of drilling. In addition, climate change and the melting of ice is making         it possible to exploit some previously inaccessible areas of the western         ice sheet.   © Staphy | Dreamstime.com  "},{"title":"King crabs are infesting Antarctic marine ecosystems","year":"2048 ","text":"In addition to humanity's increased presence resulting from the Antarctica Treaty review described above, certain animal species have also begun to move into and exploit the continent due to changing environmental conditions. King crabs are one such species. For tens of millions of years, icy cold waters had excluded shell-crushing fish and crustaceans from the continental shelf surrounding Antarctica. Rapid warming has now allowed predatory crustaceans to return. From the 1950s to the 2010s, the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula witnessed a 3.2°C temperature rise – several times the global average. This allowed king crabs to move up the outer shelf, into shallower waters just 200 metres in depth. By the middle of the 21st century,* they are infesting many coastal areas along the Western Antarctic Peninsula. This is causing severe disruption to the food chain, with catastrophic consequences for unique seafloor communities in the region.*   "},{"title":"Bionic eyes are perfected","year":"2048 ","text":"By the late 2040s, artificial retinas and other visual prostheses can match the visual quality of a real human eye.* The first generation of these devices had emerged in the early 2000s, with bulky external equipment and only a very small number of pixels. Subsequent versions featured much higher resolutions, providing ever-more capabilities to improve the living standard of patients with partial or total blindness.Further miniaturisation of components in the 2020s and 30s, alongside new materials and battery/power improvements, resulted in smoother and more colourful visual qualities – as opposed to the monotone and blocky view of the world in the previous generation of devices. This progress would continue into the 2040s, culminating in electrode arrays with hundreds of megapixels and wireless operation.Myopia and other eye conditions were a growing problem in the early 21st century. Half of the world's population faced living with short sight, with up to one-fifth of these people at a significantly increased risk of blindness.* Gene therapy proved to be vital in addressing this global issue, but visual prostheses became an increasingly important addition to the range of treatments available. By 2048, the implants not only provide a cure, but also a means of further enhancing the day-to-day experience of users, with such features as embedded cameras, WiFi, augmented reality, infrared, zoom capability and so on. This is now tempting even healthy adults to upgrade their sight in  one or both eyes by taking advantage of the improvements offered by computerised vision.* These types of devices had already been available some years earlier to the military and certain other specialised or high-profile citizens, but are now inexpensive enough to have reached the mainstream. There are issues related to the technology – chiefly in regard to privacy and security, which helps in exposing a number of government and corporate scandals.    "},{"title":"Completion of China's Belt and Road Initiative","year":"2049","text":"Chinese President Xi Jinping first proposed the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2013. Its purpose was to strengthen trade, infrastructure and investment links between China and more than 100 other countries spanning Eurasia, Africa, and Oceania.One of the largest efforts of its kind in history, the BRI would comprise thousands of projects aiming to improve the lives of 4.4 billion people or about 60% of the global population, equal to 40% of the world's gross domestic product (GDP).The Chinese government called the initiative \"a bid to enhance regional connectivity and embrace a brighter future\". However, some observers viewed it as a push for Chinese dominance in global affairs leading to a China-centered trading network. Having a targeted completion date of 2049,** it would coincide with the 100th anniversary of the People's Republic of China.The BRI would have two main components – the Silk Road Economic Belt (SRB) and the Maritime Silk Road (MSR). The former was planned as a series of interconnecting infrastructure corridors passing through countries on the original Silk Road (established in the Han Dynasty) over Central Asia, West Asia, the Middle East and Europe. The Maritime Silk Road, by contrast, would consist of sea-based routes over several contiguous bodies of water: the South China Sea, South Pacific Ocean and wider Indian Ocean area.   Branching outwards from the main backbone of the SRB would be six subdivisions, forming links between major regions and coastlines. Like the tributaries of a major river, these consisted of: a New Eurasian Land Bridge; a China–Mongolia–Russia Corridor; a China–Central Asia–West Asia Corridor; a China–Indochina Peninsula Corridor; a Bangladesh–China–India–Myanmar (BCIM) Corridor; and a China–Pakistan Corridor.*In addition to the SRB and MSR, Russia and China also worked jointly to build an \"Ice Silk Road\" along the Northern Sea Route in the Arctic, to facilitate increased resource extraction and cargo deliveries, as well as tourism and scientific opportunities.China was already a world leader in infrastructure investment during the late 20th and early 21st century. In contrast with a general underinvestment in transport across much of the industrialised world, China had pursued major infrastructure-based development, resulting in engineering and construction expertise and a wide range of projects. The Belt and Road initiative was therefore a natural extension and continuation of this long-term strategy.Five major priorities were defined for the BRI as a whole:• Policy coordination        • Infrastructure connectivity        • Unimpeded trade        • Financial integration        • Connecting peopleOver a period of 35 years, China would make several trillion dollars' worth of investments – in ports, airports, roads, railways (including high-speed routes), bridges and tunnels,  as well as power plants and telecommunications networks.* One of the more notable examples included a clean energy \"super grid\", consisting of ultra-high voltage electricity networks linking China and much of the Asian continent.However, while improving the flow of goods, services, people and capital in both developed and developing regions, the BRI programme was also criticised for being a debt burden on poorer countries; a form of neo-colonialism, which could leave them vulnerable to China's influence. Furthermore, a significant number of the infrastructure projects had proved to be \"white elephants\", lying empty and unused for years. The resulting bailouts placed the International Monetary Fund (IMF) under increasing pressure, torn between the competing interests of Washington and Beijing.Despite these issues, the Belt and Road Initiative proved to be a success, overall – adding significantly to worldwide GDP and further cementing China's place as the leading global power of the mid-21st century. "},{"title":"Humanity is at a crossroads","year":"2050 ","text":"The world of 2050 is a world of contrasts and paradoxes. On the one hand, science and technology have continued to advance  in response to emerging crises, challenges and opportunities. This has created radical transformations in genetics, nanotechnology, biotechnology and related fields. On the other hand, many of these same technologies have been so disruptive that it has  led to a more frightening, unpredictable and chaotic world than ever before. Humanity is now at a crossroads that will determine its future path for centuries to come – survival or destruction, prosperity or collapse.Some of the most cherished political, economic and social structures have been turned on their heads. In a sense, capitalism remains the dominant economic model, but is now evolving drastically in response to ecological impacts,* resource scarcity,* demographic trends,* technology* and a host of other factors.* The endless consumer culture  that was prevalent throughout the first world has all but collapsed, replaced by a societal need to conserve.* Though there are still many  wealthy people around, money is concentrated in a shrinking upper class. By 2050, \"traditional\" free market capitalism is  largely viewed as a broken system.***As more and more wealth trickles upwards to the hyper-rich elite, there is a growing consensus that money itself – the profit motive – is a major obstacle to future progress, and a new driving force  may be required for civilisation to flourish. Debates are raging on what reforms to make in order to adapt  societies to this rapidly changing world. People everywhere  sense that a great transition is approaching, the likes of which has never been seen before in all of  human history.* It is clear that some new global paradigm will appear; but it is still unclear what this will be.  Decades of stagflation have produced a fragmented, chaotic and perpetually  sluggish global economy. Nearly half of the world's nations have \"junk\" credit ratings, effectively making them bankrupt.* US national debt has now reached almost  400% of GDP,* far exceeding even the levels seen during World War II. China and India, though surpassing the US in overall GDP,* have also stagnated.In the face of economic catastrophe, international politics has faced enormous challenges. Although the number of democratic countries has risen significantly over the years,* many have turned inward, cutting off foreign relations. Revolutions, wars and failed states have produced a strikingly different geopolitical map than seen at the beginning of the century. To repair and maintain the fabric of society, an increasing number of regions have abandoned their national currencies in favour of interest-free, non-fiat, non-inflationary local ones.* Decentralised cash systems such as the Bitcoin* and other electronic alternatives have also exploded in use.Social systems are under extraordinary stress today. The younger generations are increasingly resentful towards the elderly – seeing them as the cause of many problems, and a drain on capital as the ratio of workers to seniors continues to fall.** The rich and poor have continued to grow apart, now that upward social mobility has become next to impossible.  Massive protests outside corporate HQs and gated communities are a daily reality on the news. Global warming has created almost 150 million climate refugees: a sixfold increase compared to 2010.* The influx of people to foreign lands  has put a further strain on economies. Resentment towards migrants has produced an upsurge in nationalism with many isolationist parties sweeping  government elections.  To maintain order and stability,  martial law and military occupation is a feature of many cities around the globe. Radical new political parties and movements have emerged, advocating the overthrow of the reigning  system.Recycling and waste management – for decades neglected by many countries* – are among the issues now taking centre stage.* New regulations and market pressures have forced corporations to move away from the model of planned obsolescence** and mass production, to one of conservation and responsibility. Most firms no longer sell entirely new models of their products when technological advances are made. Instead, replacement  components and upgrades form the bulk of profits, with  items  made of universally interchangeable parts. In a world of increasing resource conflicts, \"doing more with less\" has become an essential mantra.* A system is also employed whereby customers  return products at the end of their life cycle, to be  used as  materials for the next generation. In some of the worst-hit countries, mandatory resource dumps are organised, in which citizens are obligated to recycle any unnecessary   possessions. Naturally such systems are  highly controversial and intrusive.Meanwhile, the widespread use of robots,* automation,* 3D printing* and other technology has rendered obsolete many traditional human roles. Though  industries have made vast improvements in speed and efficiency, it has come at the expense of a declining labour force. Consequently, overall government revenues have seen a net reduction.  Radical Islam and its resentment of the West continue to produce new Jihadists. In addition, underground groups ranging from those angry at the first world's neglect, to anarcho-primitivists, have  sprung up. By 2050, at least one terrorist nuclear attack on a major world city has been conducted by one of these groups. Large amounts of nuclear material had been missing from Russia since the   1990s and some  inevitably fell into the wrong hands.* Being orders of magnitude greater than 9/11, the effects of this attack leave a deep psychological scar on many people alive today, fuelling much paranoia and suspicion between nations.Despite this turmoil, progress has been achieved in cooperating on certain key issues, such as global warming. Carbon emissions have fallen substantially compared with 1990 levels,* thanks to a global carbon tax* and  the widespread deployment of solar, wind and wave power,* together with 4th generation nuclear.* Fossil fuel reserves were declining in any case.** Fusion power is also  becoming available  now* and is being adopted by some  of the leading nations. Orbital solar  is another emerging industry.* Energy efficiency and conservation have provided further reductions in CO2 output.However, carbon emissions from earlier decades remain locked into the system. This delayed reaction  will continue to affect weather patterns and climate stability,* as will the ongoing destruction of the Earth's rainforests, some of which are transitioning from carbon sinks to carbon sources. Sea levels have risen  over a foot by now* and are beginning to affect much of the world's coastal real estate. Large-scale carbon capture and sequestration** appears to be humanity's last and only hope of reversing these trends.   "},{"title":"Nearly half of the Amazon rainforest has been deforested","year":"2050 ","text":"Lack of         enforcement in the so-called protected areas has resulted in the Amazon         undergoing a catastrophic decline. Though army troops were sent into         regions of illegal deforestation, their numbers were simply         too small, and the Amazon  too vast, to have sufficient impact.  Political corruption  also played a role in undermining protection efforts. Droughts         caused by global warming have further contributed to the  decline, with many areas of jungle being turned into parched scrubland. By 2050, nearly 2.7 million sq km have been deforested.*  As a result,         over 30 billion tons of carbon have been added to the atmosphere.         Although  clean energy sources are offsetting this,         they can't save the countless species of plant and animal life         dependent on the rainforest for survival. Substantial amounts of biodiversity         have been lost. Desperate efforts are being made by non-profit organisations         to obtain DNA samples, in the hope of resurrecting these species at         some point in the future.       Above: A       red-eyed tree frog  "},{"title":"Wildfires         have tripled in some regions","year":"2050 ","text":"Rising         global temperatures are creating drier conditions for vegetation – producing         larger and more frequent wildfires. In North America, the geographic         area typically burned has increased by an average of 50%. Worst hit         are the forests of the Pacific Northwest and the Rocky Mountains, which         have seen a tripling of areas affected.*With so         much extra burning, air quality and visibility in the western         United States is being significantly altered. There has been a 40% rise in organic         carbon aerosols and other smoke particles. These irritate the lungs, but are especially dangerous to people who         have trouble breathing as a result of asthma and other chronic conditions. Southern         Europe is also badly affected – especially Greece, which has         been ravaged in recent decades.*These wildfires         are triggering positive feedback loops. As more and more         carbon is  liberated from burning material and released into the atmosphere, this is further accelerating the pace of global warming.    "},{"title":"Traditional wine industries have been severely altered by climate change","year":"2050 ","text":"By 2050, many of the world's most famous wine-producing areas have been rendered unsuitable for traditional grape growing and winemaking, with climate change having severely impacted land use, agricultural production and species ranges. The area suitable for wine production has declined by almost 85 per cent in some regions. California, Mexico, the eastern USA, Southern Europe, South Africa and Australia are particularly affected.**In response to the crisis, many traditional vineyards have shifted to higher elevations with cooler conditions – putting pressure on upland ecosystems, as water and vegetation are converted for human use. Others have made  use of genetic engineering, or indoor growing methods such as vertical farming. Geoengineering efforts are also  getting underway, but have yet to be successful on a global basis.*Although many regions have been devastated, others have actually benefited. This is particularly noticeable in the Rocky Mountains near the Canadian-US border, the westernmost parts of Russia, and Europe which has seen a massive shift northward in the areas suitable. Click to view larger version      Credit: Conservation International  "},{"title":"Fish body size has declined by nearly a quarter","year":"2050 ","text":"By far the greatest impact from global warming has been in the seas and oceans,* where changes in heat content, oxygen levels and other  biogeochemical properties have devastated marine ecosystems. Globally, the average body size of fish has declined by up to 24 per cent compared with 2000.* About half of this shrinkage has come from changes in distribution and abundance, the remainder from changes in physiology. The tropics have been the worst affected regions.   "},{"title":"Hi-tech, intelligent buildings are revolutionising the urban landscape","year":"2050 ","text":"In the first half of the 21st century, a soaring urban population posed serious  problems for the environment, health and infrastructure of many cities.  In newly industrialised nations especially, urban centres became polluted,  overcrowded and chronically inefficient. Throughout the world, metropolitan  areas grew to unprecedented sizes – putting huge and increasing pressure on  city planners to adapt.*  Amid worsening climate change and resource depletion, urban regions were forced to either evolve, or die off. Countless cities failed to make this transition in time, and went the way of Detroit, many being abandoned and left to decay, or  subject to intense military control and martial law. In those that survived, a new generation of buildings and infrastructure emerged based on these rapidly  changing social and environmental needs.*Among the  most important trends in modern architecture has been self-sufficiency. By 2050, environmental and resource degradation have become so obvious and huge, it has triggered a radical rethink of production and consumption by citizens. As such, many modern skyscrapers now come complete with the  internalised creation of food, water and other resources. Farms often comprise multiple floors of a tower – regardless of its  purpose – while rain, mist and condensation are constantly trapped and stored. Advanced 3D printers are available locally on site to manufacture everything from household furniture, to personal transportation, to replacement parts for the building itself. Energy is typically provided by photovoltaics and wind turbines. These are often integrated seamlessly into the building design, so as not to harm the aesthetic appeal. Solar power, for instance, can be collected by window panes or special photovoltaic paints applied to outside surfaces.* The efficiencies for solar have been  improving steadily for decades.*Nature features heavily in these structures. Many  towers incorporate parks and sky gardens, helping to increase the overall biodiversity of a  city, with numerous bird and small animal species finding homes and nesting places. Careful environmental controls ensure that these creatures are  protected while not becoming a nuisance for human residents. The outside of   buildings are often covered with vegetation, or  special membranes, designed to filter pollutants and capture CO2.* Government regulations now require a large percentage of buildings to be fitted in this way, making it a dominant style of architecture today. The artificial parts of this outer layer can also adjust to  wind  conditions, temperatures, moisture levels and sunlight in order to produce   optimal thermal comfort for the human and animal occupants. Algae bio-fuel  cells adorning the facade can also absorb CO2 while acting  as an additional source of electricity.*  Buildings are  integrated into the city around them in a number of  ways. Fuel restrictions and other factors have led to increasingly socialised transportation. The bottom floors of most towers have  dedicated public car share (AI controlled) and bike share facilities, while bus and other mass transit  stations are often built into the structures themselves. Pedestrian  sky-walkways feature heavily in most modern cities, improving  access and permeability of the urban realm, while shielding walkers from the elements. If ornamented  with foliage, they can also function as elevated parks and  gardens. Buildings are making cities more comfortable  and inviting in various other ways. By tightly controlling a tower's reflectivity, heat absorption and heat balance, for  example, planners can significantly reduce the  temperatures  associated with  urban heat island effects. This comes at a time when  temperatures in less developed cities are soaring from the combined effects  of climate change and urbanisation.*The average modern building in 2050 is seamlessly integrated into a city's power  supply, acting as another node in a city-wide smart grid. Nearly all buildings are  able to transmit locally produced energy back into the system. Wireless electricity transfer is also common, with energy beamed invisibly  between buildings, which eliminates the need for unsightly poles and cables. AI systems within each building direct its total power consumption, adjusting according to the varying needs of   occupants and taking into account even the most minor of details.Overall, this new smart infrastructure is helping to drastically  improve the nature of urban living. Cities following this model are  becoming far more liveable,  clean, efficient and modernised. Though many regions have collapsed into chaos, others are now leading the way in providing a more sustainable path for humanity.  "},{"title":"Smaller,         safer, hi-tech automobiles","year":"2050 ","text":"Increased       living costs, lifestyle changes and environmental factors have resulted in smaller, more energy-efficient cars that are usually rented on demand rather than owned. More people         than ever before are choosing to live and work alone, while the number       of children per couple has also declined, which is reducing the demand for larger and more expensive vehicles.Practically all cars in the developed world are now self-driving* and either hybrid or pure electric, while traffic         flow and other road management issues are handled by advanced networks of         AI. The resulting fall in congestion has boosted economies by billions of dollars. Air pollution has also declined greatly.The inherent         safety of being controlled by machine intelligence, rather than human hands, allows         for greater speed of travel. An increasing number of countries are removing the speed limits on highways. Even when         crashes do occur, which is extremely rare,  built-in safety features         and tougher materials (e.g. carbon nanotubes) mean         that fatalities are becoming virtually non-existent.       A typical mid-range car of 2050.  "},{"title":"Major         advances in air travel comfort","year":"2050 ","text":"Commercial airliners of 2050 are safer, quieter and cleaner than those of earlier decades. The vast majority are based on some form of renewable energy. Additionally, travel times have         greatly improved. Hypersonic engines have seen further development, aided by the rapid growth of artificial         intelligence and the resulting advances in computer-automated design evolution.         It is now possible to reach anywhere on the planet in under 2.5 hours.The interiors         of most planes are breathtakingly luxurious compared to those of earlier         decades. New materials have enabled the use of transparent walls and ceilings,         flooding the fuselage with natural light. Seating areas are beautifully       spacious and filled with a range of interactive technology.When flights         are running below full capacity, any unneeded seats are automatically shuffled to         the rear, collapsed and hidden from view. The remaining         seats are  redistributed, rearranging themselves to offer everyone         the maximum possible legroom. These seats can also morph to perfectly fit passengers'         bodies. They can re-energise travellers with vitamin and antioxidant-enriched         air, mood lighting, aromatherapy and acupressure treatments.* In the mid-section         of the plane is a hi-tech zone offering a range of activities from virtual         golf, to conference facilities and bar/lounge settings.  "},{"title":"The U.S. population reaches 400 million","year":"2051","text":"By the early 2050s, the population of the United States has reached 400 million.* This follows earlier milestones in 1915 (100 million), 1968 (200 million) and 2007 (300 million). In terms of world rankings, the country remains unchanged from the previous hundred years, in third place behind China and India. However, its share of the global population has decreased from 6.3% in 1950, to 4.6% in 2000 and 3.9% now.The U.S. in 2051 is more racially and ethnically diverse than ever, white people having declined in number and become a minority.* Those of Hispanic origin have nearly doubled since 2015 and continue to be the fastest growing ethnicity. Black, Asian and other minority groups have also increased, though at a much slower rate than Hispanics.*The average U.S. citizen is also older, with a far larger percentage of  people now aged 65 or above. Even the youngest Gen X-ers are now in their 70s, while the youngest Millennials  have entered middle age. The number of centenarians (people aged 100 or over) has risen more than four-fold, from 85,000 in 2015 to 380,000 in 2051.* Alongside a jobs crisis, resulting from automation and technological unemployment, this has put a huge burden on the working-age population – necessitating major reforms in taxation and social welfare. After a number of failed attempts, a form of universal basic income (UBI) has now finally been adopted by most states, though the U.S. was late in this process compared to most other nations in the developed world.America remains a majority Christian nation, but has seen a nearly 10% increase in those unaffiliated with any organised religion. The Muslim population has increased too, but remains a small segment overall.* In addition, new religions and cults have formed, often based on worship of AI, the 'Singularity' or certain technological niches. Recent advances in mainstream brain-computer interfaces, nanotechnology-based drugs and/or virtual reality have made it easier for leaders to manipulate vulnerable followers, a fact brought into sharper focus by a related government scandal around this time.As in the rest of the world, urbanisation has continued to increase, with more and more people living in cities. Across the country, enormous \"megaregions\" have now emerged, producing metropolitan areas that often overlap and stretch across several states.* The biggest of these – Great Lakes – has grown by over 28%, from a population of around 55.5 million in 2010, to more than 71.2 million. The Northeast (encompassing Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington, D.C.) has expanded by over 35%, from 52.3 million in 2010 to 70.8 million now. California has seen even faster growth of between 50% (north) and 61% (south) – but remains split into these distinct halves. If combined, the two megaregions would now have a total population of 60.5 million people.       Credit: IrvingPlNYC [CC BY-SA 3.0], from Wikimedia Commons       Most of these megaregions are now linked by high-speed rail, which includes a number of 'hyperloop' routes, breaking down geographical barriers and enabling people to commute from longer distances than in earlier decades. However, America still lacks the kind of extensive networks enjoyed by the likes of Europe and East Asia.Despite many advances in technology, the U.S. remains a deeply divided country, riven with social and economic problems. The level of income inequality, already a serious concern at the start of the century, has widened even more, as the rate of return on capital continues to exceed the rate of economic growth over the long term.* The first trillionaires have begun to appear in Forbes and other rich lists.* This ever-increasing concentration of wealth in the hands of the upper 1% has further eroded the middle class. Alongside a perpetual cycle of left-right parties offering the same false promises, little has fundamentally changed in American politics. A general apathy has maintained low election turnouts, now  averaging just 40% or so (compared with 50% at the start of the 21st century and 60% during the mid-20th).Recent decades have seen an intensification of the phenomenon known as \"truth decay\": an increasing disagreement about facts.* This trend has been driven by ongoing polarisation (both political and demographic), as well as the Internet, social media, virtual reality and other technologies, which have accelerated the spread of disinformation. Fake video scenes, for example – indistinguishable from real life, and even made interactive through strong AI – are now so cheap, accessible and easily produced that it has eroded the trust in formerly respected sources of factual information, blurring the line between opinion and fact. All of these trends are further harming civil discourse, causing disengagement and alienation, political paralysis and uncertainty. Americans are routinely bombarded with information overload, often highly personalised and tailored to their individual circumstances in ways that would appear unsettling and surreal to observers from earlier decades. More and more people feel disillusioned by what they see as a hyper-commercialised, intrusive, manipulative society.With oil, gas and coal no longer playing a significant role in the U.S. economy, the lobbying power of fossil fuel companies has essentially disappeared. However, new lobbyists have taken their place – such as biotech and robotics companies, seeking to change regulations and monopolise their industries. The explosion of genetic upgrades, implants, beauty treatments and other personal tech has become yet another driver of inequality.The impact of these various trends has been felt most strongly in the southern 'Bible Belt' states. These are hampered by debt and poor economic growth, exacerbated by worsening environmental conditions.* Many people are now flocking to the north, which is more politically stable. Some of those already living in the north are moving into Canada, which has even better long-term prospects. The U.S. population, as a whole, continues to increase for the rest of the century, though at a slower rate than before.  "},{"title":"An interstellar radio message arrives at Gliese 777","year":"2051","text":"The Yevpatoria RT-70, located at the Center for Deep Space Communications in Ukraine, was among the largest radio telescopes in the world, with a 70m antenna diameter. On 1st July 1999, it beamed a noise-resistant message named \"Cosmic Call 1\" into space. This was sent towards Gliese 777, a yellow subgiant star,  52 light-years away in the constellation of Cygnus. At least two extrasolar planets were known to be present in this system. In April 2051, the  message arrives at its destination, for any potential alien civilisations to hear and decode it.       Credit: S. Korotkiy  "},{"title":"Britain         holds its centennial national exhibition","year":"2051","text":"A centennial         national exhibition is held in the UK, in keeping with the precedent         set by the Great         Exhibition of 1851* and the 1951         Festival of Britain.* The opening ceremony is attended by King William     V, now aged 69.    "},{"title":"The Suburban Rail Loop is operational in Melbourne","year":"2051","text":"The Suburban Rail Loop is Australia's largest ever transport project. It consists of a 90 km (56 mi) line running through suburban Melbourne and surrounding the central business district (CBD). The loop is designed to help commuters connect easily to major suburban hubs and amenities such as hospitals, shopping centres, universities, and the airport. The service connects almost all existing railway lines via one new route through middle suburbs, thus removing the necessity to travel into the city and out again as per the older hub and spoke rail network.The line connects the existing station at Cheltenham with other existing stations at Clayton, Glen Waverley, Box Hill, Heidelberg, Reservoir, Fawkner, Broadmeadows, Sunshine and Werribee. It also links to new stations, built in areas that were long promised rail connections, including Monash University, Burwood, Doncaster, Bundoora and Melbourne Airport. The Suburban Rail Loop was first proposed in August 2018 at a cost of AU$50 billion and received strong public support. Like many government projects, however, it inevitably went over budget.* Construction started by 2022, with sections progressively opening. By the early 2050s, the full line is operational and handling 400,000 passengers a day – relieving pressure on existing city-bound trains, while also taking 200,000 vehicles off congested roads.**    "},{"title":"The biggest supermoon of the 21st century","year":"2052 ","text":"A so-called \"supermoon\" occurs when a full moon coincides with a lunar perigee – the closest approach of the Moon in its elliptical orbit around Earth. Such events produce the largest apparent size of the lunar disk as seen from Earth, making it appear 15% larger and 30% brighter than during apogee (its most distant point from Earth). This provides great opportunities for astronomers and photographers. Particularly dramatic supermoons occur when a full moon and lunar perigee also happen when Earth is at perihelion (its closest point to the Sun for the year).On the morning of 14th November 2016, the distance between the centre of the Moon and Earth was 221,524 miles (356,509 km), the closest they had been together during a full moon since 1948. The Moon would not appear this large again until 25th November 2034. The closest supermoon of the century occurs on 6th December 2052.* Notable supermoons are also observed in 2070, 2088 and 2098.    "},{"title":"Genetically         engineered \"designer babies\" for the rich","year":"2053","text":"The ability         to manipulate DNA has come a long way since its discovery in 1953. A         century on, wealthy parents now have the option of creating \"perfect\"         babies in the laboratory. This is done by picking and choosing their         best hereditary traits. Gender, height, skin, hair and eye colour –         along with hundreds of other characteristics – can be programmed into         the embryo prior to birth. The embryo is then grown in an artificial         uterus.* The most         advanced (and controversial) techniques involve manipulating the brain         to improve the child's intelligence, behaviour and personality. Many         conservative and religious groups decry what they see as the commercialisation         of the human body.   "},{"title":"Australia becomes the first country to eliminate cervical cancer","year":"2053","text":"Cervical cancer is a cancer arising from the cervix, the lower part of the uterus in the human female reproductive system. The first known description of the illness was made by the Greek physician, Hippocrates, in 400 BCE. However, it was not formally identified as a sexually transmitted disease until 1834 and surgical treatments were not available until 1898. By the early 1900s, it was the biggest cancer killer of women in some countries including the USA.In 1943, the Pap test was first generalised as a procedure, enabling doctors to detect cellular abnormalities that might be cancerous and begin treatment before they could spread. Over the following decades, the test was credited with driving down cervical cancer death rates in much of the developed world.A link between human papillomavirus (HPV) and cervical cancer was identified in the 1970s when German virologist, Harald zur Hausen, demonstrated the presence of HPV DNA in cervical cancer cells and genital warts. However, it was not until the mid-1990s that the primary role of HPV in the development of cervical cancer was definitively confirmed. Subsequently, HPV was identified in 99.7% of cervical cancer specimens worldwide. Zur Hausen's breakthrough in medical science was important enough to earn him the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 2008.In the mid-1980s, an HPV vaccine was developed, in parallel, by Georgetown University Medical Center, the University of Rochester, the University of Queensland in Australia, and the U.S. National Cancer Institute. In 2006, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved the first preventive HPV vaccine, under the trade name Gardasil. This was  99% effective in protecting against the most common strains of HPV that caused cancer in women. Other versions of the vaccine became available in subsequent years, protecting against various strains.While progress was being made in richer countries, cervical cancer remained a significant problem globally. During the early 21st century, it was both the fourth most common cancer and fourth most common cause of death from cancer in women. In 2012, an estimated 528,000 cases were reported and 266,000 deaths – about 8% of the total cases and total deaths from cancer. About 70% of cervical cancers occurred in developing countries and it was a leading cause of cancer death for women in low-income nations.Australia was among the countries at the forefront of the fight against cervical cancer. In 2007, its government began a school-based vaccine program that virtually eliminated new infections of HPV for those who were immunised as young teenagers. In 2008, the Australian Cervical Cancer Foundation (ACCF) was founded with a goal to promote women's health \"by eliminating cervical cancer and enabling treatment for women with cervical cancer and related health issues in Australia and in developing countries.\" Ian Frazer, co-inventor of the Gardasil vaccine, was a scientific advisor to the ACCF. The country had also developed a world-class screening program that was 100% effective at preventing cervical cancer for women who fully committed to it. A new vaccine was introduced in 2018 to target more virus strains of HPV that caused cancer.In the 2010s, less than 1,000 cases of cervical cancer were being reported in Australia each year. This figure, alongside the mortality rate, continued to fall, reaching negligible numbers in subsequent decades. By the early 2050s, cervical cancer has been essentially eliminated in Australia – the first country to achieve this milestone – thanks to the combination of highly effective screening and vaccination programs.**Following the example of Australia, universal testing and immunisation programs are now ubiquitous in the developed and most of the developing world, providing hope that the illness can be eliminated globally by the end of the century.    "},{"title":"Rainfall intensity has increased by 20%","year":"2054","text":"As the world warms, the increased evaporation is putting  greater amounts of water  vapour into the atmosphere. Rainfall intensity rises by 7% for each degree of additional warming.* With temperatures  approaching 3°C (5.4°F) above the 20th century average, the most extreme rainfall events are now 20% more intense than before. Dramatic increases in surface runoff,  peak river flows and flash flooding are  being experienced around the world – exacerbating soil erosion and putting huge pressure on drainage and sewage systems. This additional rainfall is a particular problem in the tropics and poor regions with insufficient infrastructure or flood defences.    "},{"title":"Spaceflight has taken a leap forward","year":"2055","text":"Environmental catastrophes, overpopulation, war and other crises have made humanity painfully aware of the limitations on its home planet. Many now believe that exploring and settling space could be a way to alleviate some of Earth's immediate problems. As a result of this, spaceflight has advanced considerably since the beginning of the century. National governments are able to participate to a certain extent, but  huge levels of debt and economic stagnation have left the bulk of the effort to private enterprises and wealthy individuals.The cost of launching material into space has  declined considerably by now.* Advances in materials technology, greatly improved fuel efficiency for rockets* and the proliferation of single-stage-to-orbit spacecraft* have all contributed to this fall in prices. Automated design evolution, facilitated through artificial intelligence networks (enabling rapid synthesis of optimal design requirements) has also played a role. This is allowing much greater frequency of flights, as well as  heavier payloads.One result of this has been a rapid growth in space tourism, with  journeys available to even middle-income citizens. For the super-rich, even excursions to the Moon's surface are now possible. Lunar bases,  already established in previous decades, have  been expanded. In addition to room for tourists, new scientific modules have  been added with greenhouses, ice harvesting stations for water, and solar arrays built from  lunar regolith. Corporate interests are now looking to exploit the Moon commercially. Though  human presence is still confined to the poles, a number of prospecting missions are underway in preparation for  mining operations.* Other  long-term plans include solar power stations capable of beaming energy directly to Earth. In the more distant future, these may expand to completely encircle the Moon.*Asteroid mining has now evolved into a huge industry, with  major firms competing in the business.** Thanks to progress in rocket technology and robotics, countless rendezvous with near-Earth and main belt asteroids have been conducted. A wide range of metals and minerals – including gold, platinum, nickel, iron, zinc, antimony, copper, cobalt and phosphorus – are being recovered.* Some of these materials became so rare on Earth that demand  made them exceedingly valuable. This drove accelerated exploration. Swarms of automated probes are now involved in  prospecting and mining on a constant basis.  Most asteroids are processed in situ, as opposed to Earth orbit,  due to  fears of an accidental impact. For now, manoeuvring larger asteroids is seen as expensive and unnecessary in any case. Water-rich asteroids are particularly useful as the constituent hydrogen and oxygen can be turned into rocket fuel. As part of the commercialisation of space, numerous fuel depots are  in place around the Earth-Moon system and Lagrange points. These are further reducing the cost of spaceflight, with most ships  only required to carry enough fuel to get into orbit. Longer and more complex missions are possible with supplies available en route.*Asteroid mining has proven to be one of the great confirmations of people's hopes for outer space. A single rock just a mile or so in diameter may yield more platinum group metals than has ever been mined on Earth, and more fuel than every rocket launch in history.* The resources now being added to the global economy are helping to meet demand in many areas. However, significant portions of  raw materials are being diverted to off-planet projects including  the construction of new space stations. As a result, various non-profit groups have sprung up, aiming to ensure that poorer nations can benefit from space, not just the countries and rich individuals that can afford to go. The lucrative nature of this business and its  growing influence on Earth has led to the passing of major new regulations, antitrust and monopoly laws.*  Ongoing conflicts around the world have spurred  military powers to new heights. Developed nations are now turning to space to gain the advantage in next generation warfare.* The USA is  prolific in this regard. In earlier decades,  international treaties prevented the militarisation of space. However, some of the more powerful nations have moved projects forward in secret. In any case, the volatile and rapidly evolving  political climate has led to new agreements being introduced.A whole new dimension to war is  emerging, in parallel with the commercialisation of space. The USA, for example,  has established a comprehensive network of spy satellites, each equipped with a wide array of sensors able to observe people and objects on the ground with astounding resolution and detail. AI controls this system, automatically tracking known persons of interest and monitoring for suspicious activity. If enemy actions on the ground cannot be rationalised by the AI,  government and military personnel are notified of it. Now controlling the most advanced and intelligent surveillance system in the world, America has regained some of its lost influence on the world stage.Naturally,  other countries object to what they see as a potential for abuse of power. Alongside the spy satellites are  manned space stations, placed strategically in geosynchronous orbit. These act as command centres, able to view battles from  above in real time while giving directions to forces on the ground. Notably, they allow the military to organise and deploy squadrons of autonomous aircraft and robots. They also ensure  that there are repair crews constantly on call, in the event of spy satellites or other craft malfunctioning. In today's hi-tech, fast-moving wars, communication and information are of unparalleled importance. These stations act as intelligence centres of sorts, and as such become prized targets for enemy forces. Knowing this, no expense is spared when it comes to advanced shielding and warning systems.The first space-based weapons systems are also in place. Most incorporate  traditional missile capabilities, but other, more experimental systems are being utilised. One such weapon is an orbital kinetic bombardment platform operated by the US.* This consists of two satellites in parallel orbits. The first provides a target and communication function, taking instructions from the ground on potential enemies. The second satellite is armed with several 20-foot long, specially reinforced tungsten rods, each complete with tail fins and an internal guidance computer. Upon instruction, a rod is released over a ground target and begins to fall. Using nothing but gravity and pure force, these missiles can impact with the power of a tactical nuclear warhead – only without  the deadly fallout. Almost no bunker is safe, as the weapon lands with utterly devastating force, penetrating deep underground. Several problems needed to be overcome before this system was operational, such as the cost of lifting the materials into space and creating rods of sufficient strength to withstand the energies involved. Years of experimentation  have finally yielded a metal alloy tough enough to be used. This project – the ultimate in bunker busting technology – is highly secretive and  only   tested in the deserts of the American southwest.  Orbital   solar power, since its introduction nearly 15 years ago, has grown   considerably.** Various new stations are now in place, able to   provide continuous power to Earth. In addition to commercial power   production, orbital solar  has  been found to have military   applications. Modern armies no longer require a fixed source of power,   with energy   beamed down to  even the most remote locations. Naturally, these solar power systems, as well as much of the   other activity in space, increase the danger of space junk.   However, genuine solutions are now finally appearing that can eliminate   such debris once and for all. One option is the use of ground-based   lasers, which move larger pieces into decaying orbits to eventually burn   in the atmosphere,* while massive aerogel nets guided by satellites   can sweep up the finer particles in orbit.*AI and robotics have played a major role in opening up space.* Automated construction of spaceships and supplies is another area of reduced expense, while AI is  used by asteroid mining companies to operate their wide range of robotic explorers and miners. In general, the increasingly complex and chaotic network of spacecraft now in place has necessitated the use of strong AI to coordinate operations. Many jobs previously filled by humans have now been given over exclusively to robots and computer programs. Spaceships are almost never piloted by human hands, with everything from docking to refueling to landing completely automated. Naturally, many passengers view this level of AI control with trepidation, cultural fears still being a part of space travel.* Farther away from Earth, numerous robotic probes, each equipped with their own AI, are exploring the planets, moons and asteroids of the outer Solar System. These are yielding unprecedented amounts of empirical data about the nature of these bodies and the early history of the Solar System.Space-based telescopes have seen phenomenal improvements over the decades. Exponential progress has led to telescopic power increasing by a factor of over 100,000.* Thanks to this astounding rate of advancement, it is now possible to view extrasolar planets in close detail.   The number of known planets beyond our  Solar System – about 800 in 2012 – has grown to  13 million by 2055.* Thousands of these bodies have been observed in the habitable \"Goldilocks\" zones of their respective star systems, including  a number of Earth-like planets with liquid water oceans and active hydrological cycles. The possibility of finding alien life expands greatly during this time, as does the hope of achieving contact with intelligent civilisations. Despite the huge progress   in this field, however, humans have still barely scratched the surface of the Milky Way.*Recent progress has been achieved with antimatter propulsion – making human travel to the outer Solar System a real possibility in the coming years.* A permanent base on Mars is  in the late planning stages, set to be established by a consortium of national governments and corporate interests. Longer-term projects are now being considered, with international talks  being held over the future construction of a space elevator, to be located on the equator. Corporations are also looking to the massive, untapped wealth of the gas giants and outer Solar System as an eventual goal. By all accounts, private interests are  driving a new era of space exploration.* Rapid progress in science and technology, combined with surging demand for  resources, imply that humanity is well on its way to becoming a space-faring civilization.***   "},{"title":"The         vast majority of countries have achieved democracy","year":"2055","text":" The on-going         spread of information – aided by mobile telecommunications, social media and         other technology – continues to nurture democracy. The vast majority of         countries now have free and fair elections.*However,         this general upward trend has begun to plateau in recent decades. Climate change is now         having a significant impact on regional stability, particularly in Africa         and the Middle East, where concerns over scarcity of resources have created         conditions allowing dictators and authoritarian governments to make a         comeback.In any case,         a number of cultures are simply more compatible with monarchies, theocracies         and autocracies at the present time. These parochial nations will remain         undemocratic for some time to come.   "},{"title":"Global         population is reaching a plateau","year":"2055","text":"The global population is stabilising at between 9 and 10 billion.* Most of the recent growth has occurred in the         developing world. However, better education along with improved access         to contraception, family planning and other birth control methods is now markedly reducing the number of children per couple. Information technology has played a major role in boosting literacy levels and spreading knowledge to the world's poor.The global population is  also getting older, putting a huge strain on government         welfare systems and employment. More than a fifth of the         planet is aged over 60 now* – and with so many breakthroughs in medicine,         this trend will only continue.More than two-thirds         of people live in urban areas by this time,* compared with 50% in 2010,* and there are vast, sprawling megacities in all corners of the globe.         In the very densest parts of the  world,  the tallest         skyscrapers reach thousands of metres in height, are occupied by millions of         people, and are effectively  cities in their own right with         self-sufficient energy and food production. Many residents within these         towers spend almost their whole lives in these buildings, with         little need or want to venture outside.The population         of the USA has reached nearly 450 million now (up from 309 million in         2010), with Hispanics doubling their share of the population         to 30% and Asians going from 5% to 9%. Non-Hispanic         whites have become a minority, with their share dropping to below 45%.* They made         up 85% of the population in 1960. Due to climate change, living standards have been highest in the northern states, which have better access to water and are         generally more stable. California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas have         seen huge declines in wealth and influence.Despite recent  advances in energy, food production and other technology, there are         still widespread conflicts around the globe – due to a rapidly worsening environment, coupled with a host of socio-political issues as the world struggles to adopt a more sustainable economic paradigm. Huge shantytowns have formed in some countries, with millions of people displaced. The worst-affected regions are so destitute that they have been reclassified as        \"fourth world\" countries.* Desperate attempts are now underway to sequester carbon from the atmosphere in the hope of reversing the effects of global warming.   "},{"title":"Traditional         media have fragmented and diversified","year":"2055","text":"By the mid-2050s,         traditional Western news corporations no longer exist. News gathering,         analysis and distribution has  fragmented – shifting to millions         of creative individuals, bloggers, citizen journalists and small-scale         enterprises. These work cooperatively and seamlessly, utilising         a \"global commons\" of instantly shared knowledge and freely         available resources. This includes information retrieval not only from         cyberspace, but also in the real world; embedded in everything from webcams         and personal digital devices, to orbiting satellites, robots, vehicles,         roads, street lamps, buildings, stadia and other public places.Even people         themselves have become a part of this collection process. Bionic eye         implants (for example) can relay data and footage on the spot, in real         time, from those willing to participate.Traditional         Western TV channels have largely disappeared, replaced by unique \"personalised\"         web channels, covering practically any subject or combination of subjects         imaginable. These are filtered and customised to the exact tastes and         requirements of the individual and are viewable anywhere, at anytime.         They can be highly interactive and are often experienced in virtual         reality settings, rather than on a screen. This is especially true of         movies, many of which have non-linear plotlines allowing the viewer         to influence the outcome themselves, or even to become characters within         the film.Mass advertising,         too, has undergone a revolution in Western societies. Some of the oldest         outdoor media still exist – such as posters, billboards and leaflets         – which continue to survive in holographic and other forms. However,         online web and televisual product/service information is now accessed         almost entirely from on-demand, advanced customer feedback networks         along with automated, semantic web assistants. Together these can provide         instant, factual and trustworthy information on a highly personalised         level: automatically filtering any marketing bias or corporate propaganda         which might have influenced a consumer in the past.Despite the increased choice and empowerment, one major         consequence of this fragmentation (a trend which began in the 1980s) has been increased isolation of the individual. A decrease in the shared experience of media has led to a further decline in Western family  life.Poorer         nations are still reliant on traditional forms of media, marketing and         information exchange. In the near future, however, they too will make the transition – thanks to  rapidly improving access to web technology.    "},{"title":"Global         average temperatures have risen by 3°C*","year":"2056","text":"Global         warming has begun to race out of control with temperatures fed by increasingly         strong feedback mechanisms. Melting permafrost in the Arctic is now releasing         vast amounts of methane – a greenhouse gas more than 70 times stronger         than CO2.* Plants are decaying faster in the         warmer climate, while the oceans are liberating ever greater quantities of         dissolved CO2.The Earth         is now the hottest it has been since the mid-Pliocene, over 3 million         years ago,* and there are permanent         El Niño conditions* – resulting in widespread,         extreme weather events in regions around the world. Severe droughts, torrential         flooding, hurricanes and other disturbances are now a constant feature         on the news. Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Africa are the places         most affected. Developing countries dependent on agriculture and fishing         – especially those bordering the Pacific Ocean – are particularly         badly hit.In Pakistan,         a calamity of epic scale is unfolding. The nation has been declared a         failed state, its government having lost control, with armed gangs seizing         what little food and water remains. Tens of millions of refugees are attempting         to leave the country as rivers run permanently dry.* India has fared little better. The country’s agriculture is now         under severe stress, with monsoons ranging from extremely wet seasons         to extremely dry ones. In the more intense wet years, the flooding is         catastrophic, submerging vast areas of land.In America,         the east coast is being hit particularly hard now. Chesapeake Bay – the         largest estuary in the country – has been devastated by recent flooding         disasters, rising sea levels and storm damage. The economies of Maryland         and Virginia have suffered greatly.       Credit: NASA Much of the         Gulf Coast region has been abandoned, while droughts are worsening in         the southwest of the country. More than 15m Americans now qualify as displaced         persons.* A surge in migration to Canada         is underway – one of the few areas of the world that still offers         somewhat favourable environmental conditions.In Europe,         food riots have continued to spread. Temperatures that were previously         found only in North Africa and the Middle East have become the norm in         central and southern parts of the continent.* Britain now has a Mediterranean climate* and is engaged in a food-sharing process with its neighbour         Ireland.* Rising sea levels, erosion         and storm surges are wreaking havoc on the coastline.*Australia         is being plagued by extreme heatwaves. The country is experiencing severe         and prolonged droughts, together with a huge increase in wildfires and         dust storms. The elderly are especially at risk from this hotter and drier         weather.*The Arctic seas        – which became ice-free in September months by the 2020s – now have ice-free conditions throughout the year. This         has made the region attractive to shipping and exploitation of natural         resources, with various new trade routes being opened up. Iceland is benefiting         from this, becoming like Singapore in some ways.* Many previously uninhabited islands in the Arctic are now being colonised.    "},{"title":"Handheld         MRI scanners","year":"2057","text":"The ability         to scan, analyse and diagnose the body has taken a huge leap forward         by now. Hi-res, 3D imaging of internal structures and brain activity         is now possible using real-time video, rather than static photos. This         can be accomplished with devices no bigger than a camera or tablet.* In the         late 20th and early 21st century, these machines were so bulky that they filled whole rooms.* Scans typically required half an hour or longer to create. They were         also expensive: upwards of a million dollars for a state-of-the-art         model, with each individual scan costing hundreds of dollars.A new generation         of machines began to evolve, based on supersensitive atomic magnetometers,         detecting the tiniest magnetic fields. These replaced the enormous         doughnut-shaped magnets used in the past. By the late         2050s, MRI scans have become as quick and easy as taking a photograph,         with a hundredfold decrease in cost.* This is allowing healthcare programs in developing countries to benefit particularly.    "},{"title":"A billion human brains can be simulated in real time","year":"2058","text":"The late 20th and early 21st centuries witnessed orders of magnitude increases in computer power and data storage. Each new generation of chips was smaller and more energy efficient than the last, resulting in ever larger and more complex applications. This trend was known as Moore's Law and it led to the gradual emergence of artificial intelligence, combined with brain simulations down to the level of single neurons.Despite occasional setbacks, the exponential progress in computational power continued in subsequent decades,** driven by further innovations in the miniaturisation of components, new system architectures, new materials and new cooling methods. By 2058, a billion human brains can be modelled in real time on a single machine, at the level of individual neurons. In recent years, however, a physical bottom limit for transistor size has been reached,* meaning that computers can only be made more powerful by becoming larger in size. This decade sees a profound change in the role of supercomputers – the very largest and most powerful computers – as they seem to take on a life of their own, expanding their infrastructure and software in ways that significantly influence local, regional and world affairs. This is raising major concerns regarding possible existential risks and unforeseen consequences.Until recently, global politics and economics were determined largely or entirely by human thought and emotion. However, it is becoming clear that new forms of machine super-intelligence and hybrid human-AI mergers are beginning to reshape the cultural zeitgeist. Computers are now so powerful that many high-level tasks in business and government are being delegated to them. Large-scale brain models can be used to gauge the likely response of a nation's entire population to new ideas, products, or hypothetical events, for example, or to test new biotechnology implants – often designed by the supercomputers themselves. While a truly accurate brain simulation (i.e. at the subatomic level) has yet to be perfected, the states of protein complexes can now be incorporated into the model of a single brain.** Other applications of these supercomputers include measures to comprehensively deal with climate change,* which finally starts to be reversed over the next several decades.*At the consumer level, gaming devices now provide fantastically lifelike experiences. Full immersion VR is now a mainstream phenomenon, after seeing rapid development over the last two decades. Advances in procedural generation* have led to Matrix-style worlds* of breathtaking scale and ingenuity. Entire new societies have formed in cyberspace, with many people spending their whole leisure time engaged in them. When encountering a player or character online, it is practically impossible to distinguish between human and machine intelligence.   "},{"title":"The Beatles' music catalogue enters the public domain","year":"2058","text":"Copyright law has remained largely unchanged since 2019. Accordingly,  the Beatles' songs from 1962 are entered into the public domain, 96 years after the band's first single.*   "},{"title":"A radio telescope is built on the Moon*","year":"2058","text":"By 2058, a radio telescope         measuring hundreds of metres wide is being developed on the Moon's far side. This provides a stable         platform with slow rotation rate (0.5 arcsec/sec), beyond the interference         of Earth's atmosphere and cluttered radio background. It can produce astronomical images with a clarity unmatched by any observatory       on Earth or in space. Individual stars, billions of light years away, can be seen assembling into the first galaxies. The telescope is situated within an impact crater. Both it and the surrounding infrastructure are built using material gathered from the Moon itself – drastically reducing costs.*       Credit: NASA   "},{"title":"The         end of the oil age","year":"2059","text":"For most         of the 20th century, prospectors discovered far more oil than industrial         societies could consume. This was an era of cheap and plentiful energy that saw huge growth in the world's economy and population. By 1970,         however, a major slowdown in discoveries was  observed. This continued         into the 21st century and the industry now faced competition from renewables. By the late 2050s, the end of the 200-year oil age is being witnessed, as         the final dregs of economically viable reserves are extracted.* Plastics and other oil-based products have been replaced by alternatives, such as bioplastics.   "},{"title":"Mars         has a permanent human presence by now","year":"2059","text":"By the end         of this decade, a permanent team of scientists is present on Mars.** This comprises a highly international mix of         people. The first         civilian tourist has also arrived. Travel to Mars was made cheaper and         faster thanks to nuclear pulse propulsion, cutting         journey times from six months to just a few weeks.*The base         will soon be expanded with new facilities providing more energy, food production and recycling systems, along with mining equipment and other tools.* Vehicles are  being supplied too, improving the astronauts' mobility and        enabling them to roam hundreds of miles. More sophisticated long term bases are now         being planned to accomodate larger teams of scientists as well as corporate         interests.The habitat         modules are constructed partially underground, giving protection from         the Sun's ultraviolet glare. Radiation-absorbing materials         based on advanced nanotechnology are used in spacesuits, as well as on         the exterior of the vehicles. These same materials have  filters         to block even the tiniest particles of dust, providing long term protection         against the environment outside.All of the         above is providing the critical mass needed for self-sufficiency. Operations         will soon be conducted entirely independent of Earth. In the coming years,         the first children will be born on Mars.       Credit: NASA   "},{"title":"Global political and economic systems are in a period of immense transition","year":"2060-2100","text":"As the final decades of the 21st century unfold, humanity faces a crisis unparalleled in its history. Where previously had been resource scarcity, climate change has  taken centre stage as the most immediate threat to world peace.* Natural  and human systems alike face the prospect of permanent collapse. Of  the nine planetary boundaries, three – biodiversity, climate change and nitrogen levels – had already been passed by the year 2000.* Now humanity has shot past its limit on land use, freshwater and ocean acidification, as well.* Population, having reached a peak in the 2050s, is now going into decline as millions perish due to war, starvation and environmental disasters. New and terrifying threats have also emerged, such as nanotechnology terrorism.** The global economy, already undergoing rapid change, has  entered a period of intense disruption, with traditional free market capitalism beset with problems it is structurally incapable of addressing.* Corporations which have operated for many decades seem to disappear overnight, unable to adapt. So too will governments have to change, as  increasingly angry and frightened citizens pile  pressure on world leaders to either adjust or step down. Every organisation and institution survives or falls according to its response to this crisis. By 2100, the world will be unrecognisable compared to its earlier status. Political, economic, social, technological and environmental change will have hit so swiftly that these four decades will appear unlike any other period in history.Much of the world in the 2060s has moved into a rapidly degrading geopolitical situation. Driving this crisis is the seemingly unending stream of climate refugees attempting to cross national borders.** Throughout this period, increasing numbers of equatorial countries are reclassified as failed states, with collapsed governments and directionless populations. Civil war is becoming common in many regions as a result.** For many of the countries adjacent to these equatorial regions, this is leading to severe political and social strife, as desperate measures are introduced to either keep refugees out or try to adjust.* This is a particular problem between Europe and Africa. The Mediterranean has become highly militarised – with Italy, Spain and Greece  especially hard hit, resulting in hardline, nationalistic governments coming to power. Many European countries are in political deadlock over food and water sharing. At the other end of Africa, the previously stable country of South Africa is being overrun by refugees from Botswana, which has been almost entirely consumed by desertification.*Similar problems are proliferating in Asia as well. Bangladesh is slowly being emptied of its populace, with many fleeing to neighbouring India. The latter, however, is  unable to support this surge. As a result, vast shantytowns have formed along the Bangladesh-India border, home to many millions of people. Lawless, overcrowded, and with disease epidemics spreading rapidly, this region has become one of the most dangerous in the world.* China too is facing a political crisis as divisions grow between  coastal areas and the eastern plateaus. The country's population has fallen into steady decline as many people move northward to more stable climates.* Russia is now negotiating with Beijing to stem this tide of Chinese refugees, further dividing the region. Meanwhile, much of the Middle East has been reduced to a wasteland of anarchy, with only a few semi-stable countries remaining.*  North America has seen a dramatic shift in power. The United States and Canada have established a system whereby American citizens are employed temporarily in Canada – similar to the Mexican-American bracero program utilised over a century ago. This is due to both America's disastrous economic situation and Canada's ongoing rise* as a superpower. In any case, large numbers of Americans are moving to Canada permanently whether legal or not. This is creating a great deal of friction between the two countries. Canada's rise has prompted some to call for more aggressive action by the United States, possibly even war. Though not widely supported, the situation is exacerbated by growing violence originating in American enclaves throughout Canada.At the southern border, the situation is much more pressing. A massive flow of immigrants from the Central American countries, but primarily Mexico, is entering the United States, radically shifting the demographics of  southern states. This is encouraged to a certain extent, in response to the loss of American labour to Canada. However, the loss of jobs through mechanisation and the limited regional food production is now forcing American authorities to close off the flow of immigration, leaving a large population of Mexican Americans displaced. The fact that the majority of these people are stuck in the southwest only makes the situation worse. This area is now one of the most destitute in the country, with food and water rationing required almost permanently. Combined with often violent methods used to seal off the border, deep regional and cultural divides are erupting in the United States, the likes of which have not been seen since the Civil War.* American anti-immigration has grown in response,* and by now has reached extreme levels. Previously confined to the more radical ends of the Republican Party, numerous off-shoots have sprung up, with new parties supporting extreme nationalistic and neo-fascist ideals. In light of the turmoil America is experiencing, some of these groups in recent elections have come closer to the presidency than any third party has before.South America is in even worse shape. Though Brazil and Argentina have managed to retain a degree of stability, the mountainous northwestern countries are facing collapse through extreme drought. Some – like Peru and Bolivia – have degraded into a set of armed camps, each protecting their own respective water supply.** Because of geographic barriers, the vast majority of refugees move northward. However,  endless droughts and civil wars found throughout Central America mean that only a small portion of these people actually make it to higher latitudes.*Many of the islands in the South Pacific and Indian Ocean have been completely abandoned. Most of the survivors have moved to Australia.* Several new political organisations have formed out of the remaining island nations, attempting to get their voice heard on the world stage. On Papua New Guinea, shifting populations have led to hundreds of unique languages and cultures dying out.Geopolitical power has seen a drastic restructuring on a global scale. With the United States focusing on its own internal problems, and China and India having stalled in the face of deteriorating environmental conditions, a new group of countries is emerging to take over. The most prominent are those few nations who have seen moderate benefits from climate change – such as Canada, Russia, Iceland and the Scandinavian countries.** These  are developing into relatively prosperous eco-technological societies, with some even able to accommodate significant numbers of refugees. The United Kingdom,* New Zealand* and Japan* have  stabilised by cutting themselves off from the continental mainland and becoming largely self-sufficient.  In the harder-hit regions,  countries that have been able to adapt have found themselves in new positions of power. Mexico, for example, has attained some degree of stability thanks to mass deployment of desalination technology and the use of salt-tolerant biofuels. This is largely thanks to American efforts in earlier decades to control and stabilise Latin America and, by extension, its southern border. Turkey is another example, having escaped the worst of peak oil relatively unscathed due to its large oil and natural gas reserves.* It is now a major regional power, sealing off its borders and hiding behind a shield of nuclear weapons. In many cases, countries have been split into both stable and chaotic regions. Examples of collapsed regions include southern Mexico, southern Italy, and northern India. As a result of all this change, and the collapse of many of their members, organisations such as the UN and NATO have either disappeared entirely, or lost all of their influence. New coalitions are forming based around the rapidly evolving power structure.While geopolitics has evolved immensely, political practice is undergoing its own revolution. The children and grandchildren of the Baby Boomers are now entirely in control of the political and economic systems, and it is obvious that neither system is functional. Being born in a rapidly degrading world, most of these new world leaders are openly acknowledging the failure of older methods, and are actively seeking a new path forward. The traditional growth economy – still clung to in the 2050s – is  finally abandoned during this period, though the transition is long and difficult.** The emergence of the new regional powers to the north – for now seemingly immune to the worst effects of climate change – is creating a more cooperative international community in this part of the world. For the remainder of this century, the world enters into a vast  mobilisation of green technology and geo-engineering in the face of disastrous climate change. In terms of scale and effort, it is  greater than the industrial output seen during the World Wars, and involves an unprecedented degree of government intervention, in ways that would have been politically impossible in the past.* As the World Wars had proved, resistance to such action quickly evaporates in a life or death situation. Humanity from the 2060s onward is in survival mode.The  growth of AI and robotics – in parallel with bio- and nanotechnology – is offering some hope, making the crisis more manageable than it would otherwise have been.* Human-like AI, previously confined to more strategic and planning roles, is now shifting into more direct control of the world's governments and corporations. With vastly greater capacities for foresight and detail, while lacking human emotions or prejudices, these artificial beings prove an integral part of the adaptation effort.* As well as coordination, they are also used to develop new technologies and to model future climate patterns (along with their social/demographic effects) to ultra-high levels of accuracy. The soaring influence of AI causes public concern early on, many people still viewing such entities with suspicion. However, the more immediate threat of climate change soon overshadows this fear. The fact that  humans are upgrading and merging in  various ways with AI has made the average person more receptive to their existence than before. Indeed, global warming is offering a path towards wider acceptance of AI in general, now that they are needed in order to sustain civilisation. By the end of this century, their influence will have greatly surpassed humanity's.Altogether, the new stock of politicians, the emergence of strong AI, the changing geopolitical map, and the sheer difficulty of overcoming the climate crisis, are mobilising whichever countries are able to do so to both address the immediate concerns of global warming and to fix the root underlying problems in the political and economic system. Generally, there are two responses over this period.* The first is the old economy trying to apply traditional mechanisms and assumptions in order to adapt some new form of capitalism to the world. This stance, taken mainly by the old corporate interests, and the more endangered governments, attempts to leverage existing political and market action to try and combat the looming threat of climate catastrophe. The second response is a more radical departure from traditional thinking, looking to reshape the basic fabric of society. This stance – taken by the younger generations, more dynamic corporations, relatively stable governments, and vast majority of AI programs – focuses  on long term action and shifting to an entirely new type of economic paradigm.The first proves to be the dominant response in the early years of this transition, as most countries do not have sufficient energy or resources to address both the immediate effects and underlying causes. Many still incorrectly believe that  older economic models could continue if only they were decoupled from CO2 emissions. For now though, a government-regulated, World War II-scale industrial mobilisation proves the best at addressing such a rapidly growing problem in the short-term.* Efforts to address global warming had of course been pursued since the beginning of the century. These measures proved to be woefully inadequate. Now however, action is stepped up by an order of magnitude. Since human CO2 output has dropped to insignificant levels, work is now directed towards geo-engineering to reverse the damage done by emissions in earlier decades and centuries.*  The survival response to global warming  is originally confined to the more stable countries, but   quickly follows in almost every other country that can. Because of the huge time lag between deployment of clean energy and a slowdown in warming, the carbon itself must be addressed.** A variety of  methods are used. Carbon sequestration, which  began to get underway in the late 2020s, is now deployed on scales large enough to remove billions of tonnes of CO2 each year.* This is often done in conjunction with food production, offering a controlled supply of CO2 gas for plants.* In addition to removing carbon, some geoengineering techniques are undertaken that directly address the temperature rise, but not the CO2 level itself. The most common is painting roofs or large open spaces white, thereby reflecting more sunlight and  lowering temperature (darker colours absorb more heat).Other more radical methods are employed. One involves seeding marine stratocumulus clouds with water droplets or nanotechnology particles, making them more reflective to incoming light. Another  emulates the cooling effect of volcanic eruptions through the deliberate release of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere. This is so potent that a single kilogram has the potential to offset several hundred thousand kilograms of CO2.* These approaches caused  much debate in earlier decades, due to unpredictability about  effects on rainfall.* The science has since improved, however, while simulations provided by quantum computers have  removed any lingering uncertainty over the best methods and locations to use.Other problems are  tackled. Ocean acidification is now wreaking havoc   on marine environments, with potentially deadly results. The gradual   disappearance of algae, for example, threatens a significant loss in   oxygen production,* while fishing has become almost non-existent. One answer to   this is the introduction of ground-up olivine rock into certain areas of   the ocean, which binds to carbonic acid to form bicarbonate. This   actually fertilises coral while reducing overall acidification.* Lime is also used in a similar way,  on a large enough scale that it actually   reverts some parts of the ocean into carbon sinks.* Along with    natural means, artificial substances and synthetic organisms together with nanotech are utilised to even greater effect. Despite   this, the sheer scale and speed of the problem means that it will be   decades before humanity gains full control over the   situation.As the equatorial regions are gradually depopulated, the more   stable northerly nations  are moving in to develop land for   renewable energy  and carbon sequestration projects, as well   as resource recovery. Farmland is also taken   advantage of, though with controversy over whether doing so actually   benefits the remaining local population.* Along with mining of asteroids and the Moon, fresh metal and mineral supplies are now becoming available on Earth, thanks to advances in nanotechnology which enable machines to perfectly separate   each individual substance out of a rock sample. Phosphorus reserves,   for example, are  secure now, since even the abundant low   quality sources can  be mined. Recycling is expanded yet further  during this period, reaching 100% in some countries,* once again thanks to nanotechnology. Entire cities,   abandoned due to climate change, can in a sense be \"recycled\" via swarms   of automated robots programmed to extract and process useful materials from   decaying infrastructure. Landfill sites are particularly rich in this   regard.* An additional factor in the easing of resource scarcity is, of course, the collapse in economic demand as the old \"growth\" paradigm finally   grinds to a halt.**  As this  effort continues, the second response to the disruption – which   supports an entirely new and different kind of socio-economic system – begins to take hold.* Though it had a slower start than the more   traditional approach, by the final decades of the  21st century this second   view  inevitably comes to dominate. The older model proves   again and again unable to yield a sufficient long term solution, despite the ruling elite doing everything in its power to maintain the status quo. Many countries have to endure violent revolutions and periods of  semi-anarchy before genuine progress is made, but a new zeitgeist   begins to solidify, aided by the spread of information technology. Though not yet advanced enough to wholly reverse climate change, humanity is able to establish an equilibrium, preventing a worst case scenario and avoiding a collapse of civilisation. Meanwhile, the refugee problem eases  during the 2080s, since most  have   either reached their destination or died trying. With those nations able to save themselves  having already done so, and with few   nations left to fail, the world enters into a kind of chaotic peace;   humans confined to stable northern enclaves amid a ruined and devastated environment.With this relative stability, the final transition unfolds. Efforts to assign   blame for the catastrophe mark this period, with surviving corporate and   political figures targeted by members of the younger generations. Most   of the worst affected countries see the original industrial nations as   the source of their misery. Those which have maintained a coherent   government demand to be compensated. As debates rage over a permanent solution to future progress, many call for drastic reform of   the global monetary system, or even the elimination of money itself. It is   clear that the  economy must be based on physical or human   capital, rather than assumed value. GDP is gradually dropped as a measure of a   nation's wealth, replaced by more genuine markers of  human well-being   and success. One such model adds life expectancy to overall life satisfaction   and divides the result by the ecological footprint, giving an idea of   the current generation's quality of life and its effect on the quality   of their children's lives.* Artificial intelligence now takes on even more   advanced roles – fully controlling the guidance of farming, mining,   manufacturing and energy production in order to maximise efficiency and   minimise  environmental risks.*The end result of the first response was a form of   steady state economics* in the developed world. In light of material   constraints and increasing automation, people were  buying less,   working less and paying less. The effects of this transition are now causing a  shift in focus – away from materialism, to more altruistic concepts of family, community and   creativity. This is undermining the older established view that money and   individual success are vital for happiness.** People have more   leisure time and consume  far fewer resources. Technology is helping   this trend in myriad ways. Virtual reality, for example, allows people to use goods and services that have little or no impact on the real   world. Governments are beginning to establish limits on inequality,   recognising the drain it has on society,** made clear by  AI  and quantum computers  running simulations and forecasts in precise demographic detail. The basic necessities of life are becoming a shared commons. Crime, poverty and other social problems are gradually being reduced as a result.The world is far from a utopia, of course. Global warming and sea levels remain a significant threat,* and   progress does not occur at the same speed everywhere, or in the same way, due to the differing cultures around the world. There are still many challenges to overcome, but civilisation as a whole is   proving more adaptable and innovative than it once was – thanks to the ongoing march of science, which is greatly expanding humanity's intellectual and educational base. This transition   continues beyond 2100, culminating in a true model of sustainability.*  "},{"title":"The next Nankai megathrust earthquake occurs","year":"2060-2080","text":"At some point during this period, the next Nankai megathrust earthquake occurs. Its origin – the Nankai Trough – is a submarine depression located south of the Nankaid� region of Japan's island of Honshū, extending about 900 km (560 miles) offshore. An underlying fault, the Nankai megathrust, is the source of devastating \"megathrust\" earthquakes, which can reach up to 8.6 in magnitude.Sometimes, the earthquakes occur in pairs, where a rupture along part of the fault is followed by a rupture elsewhere; notably the 1854 Ansei-T�kai earthquake and the 1854 Ansei-Nankai earthquake the next day, and the 1944 T�nankai earthquake, followed by the 1946 Nankaid� earthquake. However, if counting these pairs as single events, the megathrust earthquakes occur with an average interval of approximately 117 years.      Historically, all of these great earthquakes have resulted in major tsunamis, which are particularly damaging due to the Japanese population being concentrated on the Taiheiy� Belt, especially the coastal cities of Tokyo and Osaka, the two most populous in the country. Arriving on schedule in the mid-to-late 21st century, as expected, the next of these megathrust earthquakes is no less prodigious than its predecessors. Shockwaves ripple across a vast swathe of the country – with magnitudes of 8 or higher near the epicentre in the south, but hitting 5 on the Richter scale even as far as the northern coast. Waves of up to 35 m (115 ft) in height are triggered, lashing a stretch of land spanning nearly 1,000 km (620 miles) – from the southwestern island of Kyūshū, to the Kant� region where Tokyo is located in the northeast. The surge front travels for several kilometres inland.In earlier decades and centuries, the casualties and economic impacts resulting from such an event would have been enormous. Following the T�hoku earthquake of March 2011, the Japanese government conducted studies and made contingency plans for likely future earthquakes. It was estimated that a megathrust quake in the Nankai Trough could leave up to 230,000 people dead – 15 times as many as T�hoku – and cause 220 trillion yen (US$2 trillion) in economic damage, nearly 10 times the losses of that earlier quake.However, while the mid-to-late 21st century event is disastrous, the impacts are mitigated to a certain extent by the many preparations and developments that have occurred beforehand. Earthquake prediction techniques, for example, are significantly improved by now, especially thanks to the involvement of powerful AI, which allows people to receive timely warnings beforehand.  AIs can also advise on the most optimal routes for evacuation. Many buildings and other structures utilise new, super-strong materials. Meanwhile, fast and automated transport, such as passenger-carrying drones, can whisk people away to safer areas. In the aftermath and recovery operations, a range of technologies can be rapidly deployed to help the survivors. Orbiting solar satellites can beam down electricity to precise locations, for example, while portable devices can filter water, print food, or self-assemble into temporary shelters.      "},{"title":"Flood       barriers are erected in New York","year":"2060","text":"Sea       level rises and storm surges have begun to threaten even the business,       financial and cultural heart of America. By 2060, what used to be a       once-in-a-century type of flood is becoming a regular occurence.* This has led to the construction of sea walls, breakwaters and locks       to the south of Manhattan, including one very big lock at the harbour       entrance.* JFK Airport and other parts       of the island are receiving protection too. This is       one of the largest public works projects in US history, and comes at       huge cost. However, the costs of not acting would have       been unimaginably greater. Many other       cities around the world are enacting similar measures now.       Credit: NASA  "},{"title":"Tropical cyclones are wreaking havoc in the Mediterranean","year":"2060","text":"Until now, the near-landlocked Mediterranean Sea was largely immune to the more violent forms of ocean weather. The worst storms that the sea experienced were the so-called \"Medicanes\" – comparatively tame versions of the much larger and more destructive Atlantic hurricanes. The most notable example occurred in 1995, when a storm created a hurricane-like spiral for a short period of time, complete with an eye.By 2060, however, normal weather patterns around the world are evolving drastically  as a result of climate change. With global  temperatures over 3°C (5.5°F) above the 20th century average, the Mediterranean Sea is now home to a prolific hurricane basin.** Warming seawater, combined with increasingly common low pressure systems, is turning the region into an ideal incubator for tropical cyclones. These are now devastating coastal communities throughout the southern coast of Europe and the northern coast of Africa.These areas were already  facing collapse due to  heatwaves,  chronic drought and sea level rise. Most of Venice has been   abandoned, after failed attempts to save it from sinking.** Cities such as Athens, Barcelona, Tripoli, Tunis and Alexandria will soon be following.   "},{"title":"Global       extinction rates are peaking","year":"2060","text":"Environmental       destruction is reaching its apex now. Tropical forests are       being especially hard hit, with 0.5% of  animal       and plant species going extinct each and every year – nearly ten times the rate       seen in 2000.*   "},{"title":"An       aging population","year":"2060","text":"In       the early 21st century, around one in five of the European population       was aged over 65. This meant that the pension costs, public health and       transportation needs (and sometimes the housing and social-welfare requirements)       of each senior citizen were supported by taxes and other deductions       from the incomes of four working-age people (aged 15 to 64).However,       birth rates stayed low throughout the first half and into the second       half of the century, whilst longevity was extending through better medicine,       gene therapy, nanotechnology, improved lifestyles and so on. This       meant that the ratio of young to old began to shrink dramatically. By 2060       there are 50m fewer workers and 67m more seniors, so the ratio is changed       to one in three. In other words, only two working-age people       to support each senior.This has       impacted hugely on government budgets, leading to a radical overhaul       of social welfare. A similar pattern has emerged in other parts of the       world. Japan has faced the biggest change of all, with 40% of its population now aged over 65,  double the figure in 2006.   "},{"title":"The       ozone layer has fully recovered","year":"2060","text":"Chlorofluorocarbons       (CFCs) were invented in the 1920s. They were used in air conditioning/cooling       units, as aerosol spray propellants prior to the 1980s, and in the cleaning       processes of electronic equipment. They also occured as by-products       of some chemical processes.No significant       natural sources were ever identified for these compounds – their presence       in the atmosphere was found to be almost entirely due to human activity.       When such ozone-depleting chemicals reached the stratosphere, they dissociated       by ultraviolet light to release chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms acted       as a catalyst, each one breaking down tens of thousands of ozone molecules       before being removed from the stratosphere.The ozone       layer prevents most UV wavelengths of sunlight from passing through       the Earth's atmosphere. In the late 20th century, huge decreases in       ozone generated worldwide concern. It was suspected that a variety of       biological impacts – such as increases in skin cancer, cataracts,       damage to plants, and reduced plankton populations – resulted from the       higher levels of UV exposure due to ozone depletion.This led       to the adoption of the Montreal Protocol – one of the most successful       international agreements of all time, which banned the production of       CFCs, halons and related ozone-depleting chemicals. Although this ban       came into force in 1989, the molecules had a longevity of several decades.       In 2006, the ozone hole was the largest ever recorded, at 10.6 million       square miles (pictured below). It was not until 2060 that it fully recovered.*   "},{"title":"Technology has transformed modern education","year":"2060","text":"Exponential progress in the fields of communication, information technology and computer science continues to  reshape society. Some of the most important advances have occurred in education. Although many countries are being ravaged by global warming, access to learning is now so effortless and inexpensive that – paradoxically – even the poorest and most destitute of places can  take advantage of it.Schools and classrooms as people from the 20th century would know them have  largely disappeared by 2060. Networking has replaced in-person learning for  the vast majority of students, who now take part in decentralised, online and virtual classes. Strong AI has supplanted most of the roles that were formerly held by human teachers. These artificial instructors have instant access to vast repositories of  data and knowledge, greatly expanding the horizons of learning environments. Students are exposed to a much wider variety of culture and ideas, since classes are no longer limited by geographical proximity. Connectivity allows young people with similar interests and abilities to learn together and be optimally matched  in terms of personality types. Universal translators have  removed any language barriers such international classrooms would have experienced in the past.Full immersion virtual reality allows modern \"schools\" to exist as purely online institutions, with a seemingly infinite variety of classes and subjects. These can be experienced through  self-guiding neural  implants – or more commonly, by simply wearing an external device like a headset or visor. Free software and  the negligible cost of  hardware have brought unprecedented levels of education to Third World countries. The lack of required physical infrastructure and reduced need to pay teachers* has given even the poorest neighbourhoods access to a range of study far beyond anything seen in the past. While schools and colleges still exist in the physical world, these are declining  in number and have been heavily influenced by information technology. Instead of paper or textbooks, students make use of  portable tablet devices with essentially limitless power and bandwidth, again at negligible cost. As a consequence, global illiteracy has fallen below 1%.**  As well as technology, the process of education itself has evolved to meet the changing needs of society. With the continuing trend of mechanisation, the bulk of manufacturing and physical labour has been relegated to machines. Even many white collar jobs have disappeared thanks to the emergence of strong AI. As a result, human work is increasingly confined to subjective, abstract and/or creative professions – such as science, art, design, law, etc. This has turned high education into an absolute necessity in many countries. Methods for teaching students have changed in response.In the past, most systems of education consisted of a set period of time that people would move through school. The grades they received played a large role in determining what opportunities they would have later in life. Regardless of how well students did in school, and regardless of whether they even understood the material, they would all complete their education at roughly the same time with whatever skill level they had managed to acquire. Now, this method has been reversed.* In the most developed countries, semester-based learning has been replaced with a go-at-your-own-pace style of learning. The proliferation of virtual teachers has made it possible for a person's education to be exactly tailored to their own learning abilities and interests. This avoids the issue of exceptional students being held back, and struggling students being left behind. The overall result is that time spent in school has become variable, while the level of knowledge and skill one gets out of school has been given a floor.The physical (and virtual) classroom environment itself has also changed. It is common now to have a single class be taught by more than one teacher, allowing them to play off their individual strengths and give students a broader base of information. Teaching is much more reciprocal, with students learning from teachers, learning from other students, or even imparting their own knowledge back onto the teacher. Also, the classic lecture environment has been replaced by a more hands-on approach. Much more of schooling involves practical application with teachers demonstrating exactly how their material can be used in the real world.Technology is bringing further innovations to education. A profound and world-altering paradigm – referred to in earlier decades as the 'Singularity' – appears to be on the cusp of emerging. For increasing numbers of people, direct merger of their brain with cloud-based, non-biological artificial intelligence* has become necessary in order to keep up with the truly staggering amount of new information appearing each day.* These upgrades are having a significant impact on the process of learning. Personal AI can guide a person's educational progression using detailed knowledge of their brain structure and learning abilities. By the end of the century, this method of assisted learning will evolve into a system of downloads, with new skills and facts seamlessly inserted directly into a person's brain. This will ultimately lead to the end of education in the traditional sense, with a new species of transhuman emerging based on automatic, instantaneous accumulation of knowledge and vastly amplified intelligence.   "},{"title":"Halley's       Comet returns","year":" 2061","text":"The       most famous of the periodic comets, Halley's Comet last appeared in       the inner solar system in 1986. Like most comets, it has a highly elliptical       orbit – taking it close to the Sun for only a short time. Several unmanned       probes are sent to explore it during this year, including the first       robotic lander.   "},{"title":"The UK       population reaches 80 million","year":" 2061","text":"The       UK is now the most populous country in Western Europe, with more people       than France (72 million), Germany (71 million) and Spain (52 million).** The population       of Europe, as a whole, has been declining since the 2030s. However,       strong growth from immigration and a younger average population, combined       with favourable environmental conditions have allowed the UK to prosper       and become the leading economic power in the region.The country's       ethnic makeup has changed dramatically over the last 50 years, becoming       far more diverse and geographically integrated. In particular, black       and Asian persons in the most affluent areas have greatly increased.*London       has become a true mega-city. Its urban population (in the continuous       built-up area surrounding the city) has swelled to almost 12m, while       its total metropolitan area now encompasses the entire southern       half of England. An extensive network of high-speed rail joins its       various satellite cities. Other infrastructure being planned includes a series of tunnels spanning the Irish Sea.*  "},{"title":"Islam is the world's dominant religion","year":"2070","text":" By 2070, Islam has overtaken Christianity to become the dominant religion.* More than a quarter of the world's population was Muslim by the 2020s* and this growth continued in subsequent decades. Most of the increase has occurred in sub-Saharan Africa with its high fertility rates, although these are beginning to stabilise now.* While the numbers of non-religious have continued to increase, when measured as a percentage of the global population their share has declined from 16.4% in 2010, to 13.2% in 2050 and less than 12% in 2070. Christians and Muslims each comprise about 32.3% by 2070, with Christians set to reach 33.8% and Muslims 34.9% by 2100.* India has overtaken Indonesia as the country with the largest number of Muslims – though India's even larger population of Hindus continue to outnumber Muslims in the region.*   © Aiconimage | Dreamstime.com   "},{"title":"Global       average temperatures have risen by 4°C*","year":"2070","text":" Vast stores of methane, released from melting permafrost, have triggered       an abrupt change in the Earth's climate.* The atmosphere has now shifted to pre-glacial/interglacial conditions       which last prevailed over 34 million years ago.* CO2 levels have reached almost 700 parts per million – two and a half times       pre-industrial levels.** This has resulted in a global average temperature increase of 4°C,       with the Arctic region seeing rises as high as 15°C.*In many parts       of the world, the limits for human adaptation are being exceeded.* Despite attempts to share food and resources between nations – and to       accommodate the surge in refugee numbers – the sheer scale of       this disaster is presenting enormous challenges, even with the technological       base of the 2070s.The use of       heavily modified GM crops, hydroponics, desalination and other techniques       have allowed some regions to maintain a degree of stability. Nanofabricators are also being utilised in the more advanced societies. For many       others, however, it's becoming impossible to sustain any kind of agriculture       at all, due to the water loss,* soil depletion and other environmental impacts now being experienced.** The intensity of freak weather events has increased dramatically, with hurricanes and severe storms, extreme flooding and droughts becoming       widespread. A number of countries near the equator have been abandoned,       their people scattered. City-scale flooding disasters are now commonplace* as sea levels have risen a full metre,* sweeping       away trillions of dollars' worth of real estate.The number of displaced persons is overwhelming the ability of international organisations and governments to cope. Although many refugees are surviving and resettling in higher or lower latitudes, even greater numbers are unable to complete the journey, or are denied border entry, resulting in alarming numbers of deaths from hunger, conflict and adverse environmental conditions. Traditional free market capitalism is facing enormous pressures and upheaval, as civilisation struggles to adapt to this new and rapidly changing world. Resource-based economies are evolving to take its place.**For too long,       humans exploited their environment with little appreciation of long-term       consequences. Nature is finally beginning to redress the balance.   "},{"title":"Fusion       power is widespread","year":"2070","text":"Most leading countries now have at least one fusion plant either commercially operational,       or in the process of construction.* These reactors offer a clean, safe       and abundant supply of energy.   "},{"title":"Fully       automated homes","year":"2070","text":"Buildings       in developed nations have become highly automated and self-sufficient.       In addition to robots, a typical new home now includes the following:A       localised power supply. Energy can be generated by the building       itself, via a combination of photovoltaics and piezoelectric materials.       Walls, roofs and windows can absorb almost all wavelengths of light       from the Sun with organic solar technology, turning it into heat and       electricity. Friction generated by the occupant's footsteps – and various       other kinetic processes – can also produce energy. This is converted       and stored in any number of ways, from hydrogen to batteries. In countries       where sunlight is less frequent, microturbines may be used in place       of solar.On-site       water production and waste management. Rain is captured by       external guttering, then stored and converted into drinking water using       nanofiltration systems. This is especially useful in regions prone to       drought (which includes a substantial portion of the world by this time).       If local water is in short supply, houses can serve as miniature reservoirs       and filtration systems. Meanwhile, plastics and other kitchen waste       can be placed in recycling machines, ground into extremely fine powder,       then later re-used in nanofabricators.A       multi-layered building envelope which provides a variety of dynamic       effects. Windows can self-adjust their size and position –       as well as their opacity – to optimise the level of natural light. In       some of the more upmarket properties, the entire façade can morph       its texture and appearance.       Depending on the tastes of the occupant, this could transform into an       art deco style, a classic Victorian building, or something entirely       different. This form of \"programmable matter\" can even be       designed by the occupant themselves and changed on demand.Air       purification systems. Air within the home is kept fresh, purified       and completely free of dust and microbes.Interactive       surfaces. Holographic generators cover the whole interior of       the property – including walls, doors, worktop surfaces, mirrors       and shower cubicles. These intelligent surfaces can track the position       of the occupant and display information whenever and wherever necessary.       A person can read emails, see news reports and access the online world       using virtually any surface in the house as a touch screen or mind control       interface.* Detailed, real-time information       on their health, personal lifestyle and daily schedules can also be       displayed. This system has a variety of other functions, e.g. it can       be used to locate personal items which may have been misplaced.Intelligent/self-maintaining       appliances. Appliances that don't repair or maintain themselves       in some way have become largely obsolete by now. It is very rare for       a human engineer to be called to the house.A       modest size. The world is becoming an ever more crowded place,       with available land continuing to shrink due to overpopulation and environmental       decline. In city centres, apartments tend to be highly minimalist and       compact, with small footprints utilising every inch of space. Full         immersion virtual reality is one method of adapting to this. Another       is flexible room layouts that reconfigure themselves on demand. In earlier       decades, this was achieved in some homes by using a sliding wall system.* Today, it can be done with morphable materials.   © Sellingpix | Dreamstime.com  "},{"title":"Five-year survival rates for liver cancer are approaching 100%","year":"2070","text":"In the early 21st century, liver cancer was the third most common cancer death in the world. Nearly 700,000 people died from the disease in 2008, accounting for 9% of all cancer deaths. Major risk factors included chronic infection with hepatitis B and C (accounting for 54% and 31% of cases, respectively), consumption of foods contaminated with aflatoxin, and heavy alcohol consumption. It was nearly three times more common in men than in women.In 2009, Japanese researchers began efforts to map the complete genome of liver cancer.* This paved the way for blood tests to spot tumours  earlier, whilst also yielding new drug targets. The increasing use of nanoparticle carriers – and eventually nanobots  giving precise control and delivery of drugs – also greatly improved survival rates.Despite the global chaos unfolding at this point in history, scientific knowledge continues to advance incrementally. By 2070, five-year survival rates for liver cancer are reaching 100% in many countries.**  "},{"title":"Some   humans are becoming more non-biological than biological","year":"2080","text":"Today,       the average citizen has access to a wide array of biotechnology implants       and personal medical devices. These include fully artificial organs       that never fail, bionic eyes and ears providing Superman-like senses,       nanoscale brain interfaces to augment the wearer's intelligence,       synthetic blood and bodily fluids that can filter deadly toxins and       provide hours' worth of oxygen in a single breath.Some of       the more adventurous citizens are undergoing voluntary amputations to       gain prosthetic arms and legs, boosting strength and endurance by orders       of magnitude. There is even artificial skin based on nanotechnology, which can be used to give the appearance of natural skin when applied       to metallic limbs.These various       upgrades have become available in a series of gradual, incremental steps       over preceding decades, such that today, they are pretty much taken       for granted. They are       now utilised by a wide sector of society – with even those in developing       countries now having access to some of the available upgrades due       to exponential trends in price performance.Were a fully       upgraded person of the 2080s  to travel back in time a century        and be integrated into the population, they would be superior in        almost every way imaginable. They could run faster and for longer distances than the greatest athletes       of the time; they could       survive multiple gunshot wounds; they could cope with some of the most       hostile environments on Earth without too much trouble. Intellectually,       they would be considered geniuses – thanks to various devices merged directly with their       brain.   "},{"title":"Construction       of a transatlantic tunnel is underway","year":"2080","text":"Built       from advanced automation and robots – and controlled  by AI –              this is among the largest, most ambitious engineering projects ever       undertaken. With hyperfast Maglev up to 4,000mph, passengers using the       tunnel can be delivered from Europe to America in under an hour.Carbon       nanotubes, along with powerful geo-sensing devices, have been paramount       in the structure's design – these can self-adjust in the event of undersea       earthquakes, for example. Also noteworthy is that the train cars operate       in a complete vacuum. This eliminates air friction, allowing  hypersonic       speeds to be reached. The cost         of this project is in the region of $88-175bn.*       Credit: Mdf  "},{"title":"Many former Winter Olympics venues no longer provide snow","year":"2080","text":"Rising temperatures have rendered many former Winter Olympic sites \"climatically unreliable\" – that is to say, unable to provide snow on a regular basis.* Although  geoengineering efforts have been underway for some time, these have not yet managed to stabilise the global climate.* Former locations that are now either unsuitable or forced to rely on artificial snow include Sochi (Russia), Grenoble (France), Garmisch-Partenkirchen (Germany), Chamonix (France), Vancouver (Canada) and Squaw Valley (US), with a number of others remaining at high risk. Aside from the Olympics, winter sports in general are increasingly being moved indoors, or are taking place in simulated environments.   "},{"title":"Polar       bears face extinction","year":"2080","text":"Between       2000 and 2050, polar bear numbers dropped by 70 percent, due to shrinking ice sheets caused by global warming. By 2080, they have       disappeared from Greenland entirely – and from the northern Canadian       coast – leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.*Of the       few which remain, ice breaking up earlier in the year means they are       forced ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores.       Others are forced to swim huge distances, which exhausts them, leading       to drowning. The effects of global warming have led to thinner, stressed       bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates.   "},{"title":"One       in five lizard species are extinct","year":"2080","text":"The ongoing       mass extinction has claimed many exotic and well-known lizards.* One in five species are now extinct as a result of global warming. Lizards       are forced to spend more and more time resting and regulating their       body temperature, which leaves them unable to spend sufficient time       foraging for food.   "},{"title":"Deadly       heatwaves plague Europe","year":"2080","text":"Heatwaves       greater than that seen in 2003 have become annual occurrences       by this time.* In the       peak of summer, temperatures in major cities such as London and Paris       reach over 40°C. In some of the more southerly parts of the continent,       temperatures of over 50°C are reported. Thousands are dying of heat       exhaustion. Forest       mega-fires rage in many places* while prolonged,       ongoing droughts are causing many rivers to run permanently dry. Spain,       Italy and the Balkans are turning into desert nations, with climates       similar to North Africa.       Credit: NASA "},{"title":"Religion   is fading from European culture","year":"2090","text":"In some       European nations, the number of people considering themselves to be       non-religious has increased from around 30% in 1980, to over 90% now.* Although       large numbers of Muslims populate the continent, a substantial portion       are now only \"culturally\" Muslim, rather than having a literal       interpretation of the Koran. Mainstream Islam has begun a reformation       and modernisation in recent years – aided by vast improvements in education,       combined with the broad homogenisation of culture resulting from globalisation,       the Internet, various international agreements and other factors.Medical       advances are undermining religion as a whole, by greatly diminishing       the fear of death, while developments in AI, robotics and biotechnology       are beginning to trivialise the miracles on which many ancient religions       are based. The increasing presence of androids in society – along with       other forms of sentience – is adding a whole new dimension to the way       humans view themselves and their place in the Universe. The ability       to communicate with certain artifically enhanced animals (such as dolphins,       monkeys and domestic pets) is also contributing to this trend.Spirituality       continues to play a role in European cultures – but is now based more       on nature and physical reality, rather than myths, dogma or supernatural       forces.The USA       still lags far behind Europe in terms of atheistic belief, however.       It will be another century before America reaches the same level; even       longer for certain parts of Asia. Even then, a small percentage of citizens       will continue to worship a God (or Gods), well into the next millenium.       These people will tend to be those who reject science and technology,       or have purposefully chosen to isolate themselves from the rest of the       world. Click       to enlarge.  "},{"title":"Hypersonic vactrains are widespread","year":"2090","text":"Much of the  world has now established a hypersonic, evacuated tube transport system connecting major population centres.* Its  routes  extend primarily throughout Russia, Northern Europe, Canada and the US. These trains are more advanced versions of the slower, simpler prototypes first introduced  decades previously.*This form of transport works by combining the principles of maglev trains and pneumatic tubes. The trains, or vactrains as they are called, travel inside a closed tube, levitated and pushed forward by magnetic fields. After passing through an airlock, the train cars enter a complete vacuum inside the tube. With no air friction to slow it down, the vactrain can reach speeds far beyond that of any traditional rail system. The fastest routes can now reach speeds of around 4,000 mph (6,400 km/h)* – around five times the speed of sound – compared to a 300 mph maglev train a century earlier.* "}]

LSA.py

#import modules
import os.path
from gensim import corpora
from gensim.models import LsiModel
from nltk.tokenize import RegexpTokenizer
from nltk.corpus import stopwords
from nltk.stem.porter import PorterStemmer
from gensim.models.coherencemodel import CoherenceModel
from multiprocessing import freeze_support
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import json
import csv
import re

def load_data(path,file_name):
    """
    Input  : path and file_name
    Purpose: loading text file
    Output : list of paragraphs/documents and
             title(initial 100 words considred as title of document)
    """
    documents_list = []
    titles=[]
    with open( os.path.join(path, file_name) ,"r") as fin:
        for line in fin.readlines():
            text = line.strip()
            documents_list.append(text)
            #titles.append( text[0:min(len(text),100)] )
    print("Total Number of Documents:",len(documents_list))
    return documents_list,documents_list

def load_json(path,file_name):
    """
    Input  : path and file_name
    Purpose: loading text file
    Output : list of paragraphs/documents and
             title(initial 100 words considred as title of document)
    """
    documents_list = []
    titles=[]
    with open( os.path.join(path, file_name) ,"r") as fin:
        lines=fin.readlines()
        rawData=json.loads(lines[0])
        documents_list=[i['text'] for i in rawData]
        titles=( text[0:min(len(text),100)] for text in documents_list)
    print("Total Number of Documents:",len(documents_list))
    return documents_list,titles

def preprocess_data(doc_set,custom_stops=[]):
    """
    Input  : docuemnt list
    Purpose: preprocess text (tokenize, removing stopwords, and stemming)
    Output : preprocessed text
    """
    # initialize regex tokenizer
    tokenizer = RegexpTokenizer(r'\w+')
    # create English stop words list
    en_stop = set(stopwords.words('english'))
    # Create p_stemmer of class PorterStemmer
    p_stemmer = PorterStemmer()
    # list for tokenized documents in loop
    texts = []
    # loop through document list
    for i in doc_set:
        # clean and tokenize document string
        raw = i.lower()
        tokens = tokenizer.tokenize(raw)
        # remove stop words from tokens
        stopped_tokens = [i for i in tokens if not i in en_stop]
        # stem tokens
        stemmed_tokens = [p_stemmer.stem(i) for i in stopped_tokens]
        # custom stops
        custom_stopped_tokens = [i for i in stemmed_tokens if not i in custom_stops]
        # add tokens to list
        texts.append(custom_stopped_tokens)
    return texts

def prepare_corpus(doc_clean):
    """
    Input  : clean document
    Purpose: create term dictionary of our courpus and Converting list of documents (corpus) into Document Term Matrix
    Output : term dictionary and Document Term Matrix
    """
    # Creating the term dictionary of our courpus, where every unique term is assigned an index. dictionary = corpora.Dictionary(doc_clean)
    dictionary = corpora.Dictionary(doc_clean)
    # Converting list of documents (corpus) into Document Term Matrix using dictionary prepared above.
    doc_term_matrix = [dictionary.doc2bow(doc) for doc in doc_clean]
    # generate Lsi model
    return dictionary,doc_term_matrix

def create_gensim_lsa_model(doc_clean,number_of_topics,words):
    """
    Input  : clean document, number of topics and number of words associated with each topic
    Purpose: create LSA model using gensim
    Output : return LSA model
    """
    dictionary,doc_term_matrix=prepare_corpus(doc_clean)
    # generate LSA model
    lsamodel = LsiModel(doc_term_matrix, num_topics=number_of_topics, id2word = dictionary)  # train model
    print(lsamodel.print_topics(num_topics=number_of_topics, num_words=words))
    return lsamodel

def compute_coherence_values(dictionary, doc_term_matrix, doc_clean, stop, start=2, step=3):
    """
    Input   : dictionary : Gensim dictionary
              corpus : Gensim corpus
              texts : List of input texts
              stop : Max num of topics
    purpose : Compute c_v coherence for various number of topics
    Output  : model_list : List of LSA topic models
              coherence_values : Coherence values corresponding to the Lsi model with respective number of topics
    """
    coherence_values = []
    for number_of_topics in range(start, stop, step):
        # generate LSA model
        print (number_of_topics)
        model = LsiModel(doc_term_matrix, num_topics=number_of_topics, id2word = dictionary)  # train model
        print(number_of_topics)
        coherencemodel = CoherenceModel(model=model, texts=doc_clean, dictionary=dictionary, coherence='u_mass')
        print(number_of_topics)
        coherence_values.append(coherencemodel.get_coherence())
        print(number_of_topics)
        del model
    return coherence_values

def plot_graph(doc_clean,start, stop, step):
    dictionary,doc_term_matrix=prepare_corpus(doc_clean)
    coherence_values = compute_coherence_values(dictionary, doc_term_matrix,doc_clean,
                                                            stop, start, step)
    # Show graph
    x = range(start, stop, step)
    plt.plot(x, coherence_values)
    plt.xlabel("Number of Topics")
    plt.ylabel("Coherence score")
    plt.legend(("coherence_values"), loc='best')
    plt.show()

if not __name__ == "__main__":
    exit()
    

opmode="full"

custom_stop = set(["new","â","use","system","year","time","mani","world","first","countri","also","would","includ","000","decad","number","howev","power","increas","human","major","develop"])
#custom_stop=set([])
document_list,titles=load_json("","clean-axios.json")
clean_text=preprocess_data(document_list,custom_stop)

# graph plot first to determine what value we should use for number_of_topics
if opmode=="graph":
    freeze_support()
    start,stop,step=2,20,1
    plot_graph(clean_text,start,stop,step)
    exit()

# LSA Model
number_of_topics=13
words=10
model=create_gensim_lsa_model(clean_text,number_of_topics,words)

# Query the model: returns an array showing which topic this dictionary fits into.
dictionary,doc_term_matrix=prepare_corpus(clean_text)
corpus_topics=list(model[doc_term_matrix])
corpus_topics=[[i[1] for i in a] for a in corpus_topics]
for t,i in enumerate(corpus_topics):
    i.append(document_list[t])

f=open("output.csv","w")
csvwriter=csv.writer(f)
csvwriter.writerows(corpus_topics)

#print(corpus_topics)
print("\n\n\n\n")

# Identify words that need to be added to the custom stop list in the next run
# by taking all words in the topic and picking out the most common ones.
topic_representation = model.print_topics(num_topics=number_of_topics, num_words=words)
topic_representation=[i[1] for i in topic_representation]
pattern=re.compile('"(.+?)"')
topic_words=[pattern.findall(topic) for topic in topic_representation]
print(topic_words)
word_count={}
for t in topic_words:
    for i in t: 
        if not i in word_count:
            word_count[i]=0
        word_count[i]+=1

dictlist=list(word_count.items())
dictlist.sort(key=lambda i: i[1])
print(dictlist)