Example bbb build contents re: https://github.com/tbranyen/backbone-boilerplate/issues/185. See readme for more information.

readme.md

contents

• modules_testing.js: a bbb module modified to test backbone import issues. Placed in /modules/testing
• app.js: the default app.js that comes with bbb, modified to add modules/testing as a dependency.
• dist_debug_require.js: the concatenated js output from bbb debug. Found in dist/debug/
• grunt.js: The default grunt file that comes with bbb.
• app_config.js: The default bbb config.js file found in app/config.js
• vendor_jam_require.config.js: The default bbb require.config.js file found in vendor/jam/require.config.js

Steps to reproduce issue:

1. Make a test directory, initialize bbb, then make a module: bash mkdir ~/Desktop/test && cd ~/Desktop/test && bbb init && bbb init:module
2. At the module prompt, name your module 'testing'
3. Replace modules/testing.js with the file in gist
4. Add 'modules/testing' to the list of dependencies in app.js (see gist)
5. in console, run bbb debug && bbb server:debug
6. open site in browser
7. See that console.log outputs undefined (Backbone is undefined)
8. in console, kill server then run bbb server
9. refresh site in browser
10. See that console.log outputs Backbone object (no problems when not concatenated)

app.js

define([
  "modules/testing",
  "backbone.layoutmanager"
], function() {

  // Provide a global location to place configuration settings and module
  // creation.
  var app = {
    // The root path to run the application.
    root: "/"
  };

  // Localize or create a new JavaScript Template object.
  var JST = window.JST = window.JST || {};

  // Configure LayoutManager with Backbone Boilerplate defaults.
  Backbone.LayoutManager.configure({
    // Allow LayoutManager to augment Backbone.View.prototype.
    manage: true,

    prefix: "app/templates/",

    fetch: function(path) {
      // Concatenate the file extension.
      path = path + ".html";

      // If cached, use the compiled template.
      if (JST[path]) {
        return JST[path];
      }

      // Put fetch into `async-mode`.
      var done = this.async();

      // Seek out the template asynchronously.
      $.get(app.root + path, function(contents) {
        done(JST[path] = _.template(contents));
      });
    }
  });

  // Mix Backbone.Events, modules, and layout management into the app object.
  return _.extend(app, {
    // Create a custom object with a nested Views object.
    module: function(additionalProps) {
      return _.extend({ Views: {} }, additionalProps);
    },

    // Helper for using layouts.
    useLayout: function(name, options) {
      // Enable variable arity by allowing the first argument to be the options
      // object and omitting the name argument.
      if (_.isObject(name)) {
        options = name;
      }

      // Ensure options is an object.
      options = options || {};

      // If a name property was specified use that as the template.
      if (_.isString(name)) {
        options.template = name;
      }

      // Create a new Layout with options.
      var layout = new Backbone.Layout(_.extend({
        el: "#main"
      }, options));

      // Cache the refererence.
      return this.layout = layout;
    }
  }, Backbone.Events);

});

app_config.js

// Set the require.js configuration for your application.
require.config({

  // Initialize the application with the main application file and the JamJS
  // generated configuration file.
  deps: ["../vendor/jam/require.config", "main"],

  paths: {
    // Put paths here.
  },

  shim: {
    // Put shims here.
  }

});

dist_debug_require.js

/**
 * NOTE: This was generated using `bbb debug`
 **/
/**
 * almond 0.2.0 Copyright (c) 2011, The Dojo Foundation All Rights Reserved.
 * Available via the MIT or new BSD license.
 * see: http://github.com/jrburke/almond for details
 */
//Going sloppy to avoid 'use strict' string cost, but strict practices should
//be followed.
/*jslint sloppy: true */
/*global setTimeout: false */

var requirejs, require, define;
(function (undef) {
    var main, req, makeMap, handlers,
        defined = {},
        waiting = {},
        config = {},
        defining = {},
        aps = [].slice;

    /**
     * Given a relative module name, like ./something, normalize it to
     * a real name that can be mapped to a path.
     * @param {String} name the relative name
     * @param {String} baseName a real name that the name arg is relative
     * to.
     * @returns {String} normalized name
     */
    function normalize(name, baseName) {
        var nameParts, nameSegment, mapValue, foundMap,
            foundI, foundStarMap, starI, i, j, part,
            baseParts = baseName && baseName.split("/"),
            map = config.map,
            starMap = (map && map['*']) || {};

        //Adjust any relative paths.
        if (name && name.charAt(0) === ".") {
            //If have a base name, try to normalize against it,
            //otherwise, assume it is a top-level require that will
            //be relative to baseUrl in the end.
            if (baseName) {
                //Convert baseName to array, and lop off the last part,
                //so that . matches that "directory" and not name of the baseName's
                //module. For instance, baseName of "one/two/three", maps to
                //"one/two/three.js", but we want the directory, "one/two" for
                //this normalization.
                baseParts = baseParts.slice(0, baseParts.length - 1);

                name = baseParts.concat(name.split("/"));

                //start trimDots
                for (i = 0; i < name.length; i += 1) {
                    part = name[i];
                    if (part === ".") {
                        name.splice(i, 1);
                        i -= 1;
                    } else if (part === "..") {
                        if (i === 1 && (name[2] === '..' || name[0] === '..')) {
                            //End of the line. Keep at least one non-dot
                            //path segment at the front so it can be mapped
                            //correctly to disk. Otherwise, there is likely
                            //no path mapping for a path starting with '..'.
                            //This can still fail, but catches the most reasonable
                            //uses of ..
                            break;
                        } else if (i > 0) {
                            name.splice(i - 1, 2);
                            i -= 2;
                        }
                    }
                }
                //end trimDots

                name = name.join("/");
            }
        }

        //Apply map config if available.
        if ((baseParts || starMap) && map) {
            nameParts = name.split('/');

            for (i = nameParts.length; i > 0; i -= 1) {
                nameSegment = nameParts.slice(0, i).join("/");

                if (baseParts) {
                    //Find the longest baseName segment match in the config.
                    //So, do joins on the biggest to smallest lengths of baseParts.
                    for (j = baseParts.length; j > 0; j -= 1) {
                        mapValue = map[baseParts.slice(0, j).join('/')];

                        //baseName segment has  config, find if it has one for
                        //this name.
                        if (mapValue) {
                            mapValue = mapValue[nameSegment];
                            if (mapValue) {
                                //Match, update name to the new value.
                                foundMap = mapValue;
                                foundI = i;
                                break;
                            }
                        }
                    }
                }

                if (foundMap) {
                    break;
                }

                //Check for a star map match, but just hold on to it,
                //if there is a shorter segment match later in a matching
                //config, then favor over this star map.
                if (!foundStarMap && starMap && starMap[nameSegment]) {
                    foundStarMap = starMap[nameSegment];
                    starI = i;
                }
            }

            if (!foundMap && foundStarMap) {
                foundMap = foundStarMap;
                foundI = starI;
            }

            if (foundMap) {
                nameParts.splice(0, foundI, foundMap);
                name = nameParts.join('/');
            }
        }

        return name;
    }

    function makeRequire(relName, forceSync) {
        return function () {
            //A version of a require function that passes a moduleName
            //value for items that may need to
            //look up paths relative to the moduleName
            return req.apply(undef, aps.call(arguments, 0).concat([relName, forceSync]));
        };
    }

    function makeNormalize(relName) {
        return function (name) {
            return normalize(name, relName);
        };
    }

    function makeLoad(depName) {
        return function (value) {
            defined[depName] = value;
        };
    }

    function callDep(name) {
        if (waiting.hasOwnProperty(name)) {
            var args = waiting[name];
            delete waiting[name];
            defining[name] = true;
            main.apply(undef, args);
        }

        if (!defined.hasOwnProperty(name) && !defining.hasOwnProperty(name)) {
            throw new Error('No ' + name);
        }
        return defined[name];
    }

    //Turns a plugin!resource to [plugin, resource]
    //with the plugin being undefined if the name
    //did not have a plugin prefix.
    function splitPrefix(name) {
        var prefix,
            index = name ? name.indexOf('!') : -1;
        if (index > -1) {
            prefix = name.substring(0, index);
            name = name.substring(index + 1, name.length);
        }
        return [prefix, name];
    }

    /**
     * Makes a name map, normalizing the name, and using a plugin
     * for normalization if necessary. Grabs a ref to plugin
     * too, as an optimization.
     */
    makeMap = function (name, relName) {
        var plugin,
            parts = splitPrefix(name),
            prefix = parts[0];

        name = parts[1];

        if (prefix) {
            prefix = normalize(prefix, relName);
            plugin = callDep(prefix);
        }

        //Normalize according
        if (prefix) {
            if (plugin && plugin.normalize) {
                name = plugin.normalize(name, makeNormalize(relName));
            } else {
                name = normalize(name, relName);
            }
        } else {
            name = normalize(name, relName);
            parts = splitPrefix(name);
            prefix = parts[0];
            name = parts[1];
            if (prefix) {
                plugin = callDep(prefix);
            }
        }

        //Using ridiculous property names for space reasons
        return {
            f: prefix ? prefix + '!' + name : name, //fullName
            n: name,
            pr: prefix,
            p: plugin
        };
    };

    function makeConfig(name) {
        return function () {
            return (config && config.config && config.config[name]) || {};
        };
    }

    handlers = {
        require: function (name) {
            return makeRequire(name);
        },
        exports: function (name) {
            var e = defined[name];
            if (typeof e !== 'undefined') {
                return e;
            } else {
                return (defined[name] = {});
            }
        },
        module: function (name) {
            return {
                id: name,
                uri: '',
                exports: defined[name],
                config: makeConfig(name)
            };
        }
    };

    main = function (name, deps, callback, relName) {
        var cjsModule, depName, ret, map, i,
            args = [],
            usingExports;

        //Use name if no relName
        relName = relName || name;

        //Call the callback to define the module, if necessary.
        if (typeof callback === 'function') {

            //Pull out the defined dependencies and pass the ordered
            //values to the callback.
            //Default to [require, exports, module] if no deps
            deps = !deps.length && callback.length ? ['require', 'exports', 'module'] : deps;
            for (i = 0; i < deps.length; i += 1) {
                map = makeMap(deps[i], relName);
                depName = map.f;

                //Fast path CommonJS standard dependencies.
                if (depName === "require") {
                    args[i] = handlers.require(name);
                } else if (depName === "exports") {
                    //CommonJS module spec 1.1
                    args[i] = handlers.exports(name);
                    usingExports = true;
                } else if (depName === "module") {
                    //CommonJS module spec 1.1
                    cjsModule = args[i] = handlers.module(name);
                } else if (defined.hasOwnProperty(depName) ||
                           waiting.hasOwnProperty(depName) ||
                           defining.hasOwnProperty(depName)) {
                    args[i] = callDep(depName);
                } else if (map.p) {
                    map.p.load(map.n, makeRequire(relName, true), makeLoad(depName), {});
                    args[i] = defined[depName];
                } else {
                    throw new Error(name + ' missing ' + depName);
                }
            }

            ret = callback.apply(defined[name], args);

            if (name) {
                //If setting exports via "module" is in play,
                //favor that over return value and exports. After that,
                //favor a non-undefined return value over exports use.
                if (cjsModule && cjsModule.exports !== undef &&
                        cjsModule.exports !== defined[name]) {
                    defined[name] = cjsModule.exports;
                } else if (ret !== undef || !usingExports) {
                    //Use the return value from the function.
                    defined[name] = ret;
                }
            }
        } else if (name) {
            //May just be an object definition for the module. Only
            //worry about defining if have a module name.
            defined[name] = callback;
        }
    };

    requirejs = require = req = function (deps, callback, relName, forceSync, alt) {
        if (typeof deps === "string") {
            if (handlers[deps]) {
                //callback in this case is really relName
                return handlers[deps](callback);
            }
            //Just return the module wanted. In this scenario, the
            //deps arg is the module name, and second arg (if passed)
            //is just the relName.
            //Normalize module name, if it contains . or ..
            return callDep(makeMap(deps, callback).f);
        } else if (!deps.splice) {
            //deps is a config object, not an array.
            config = deps;
            if (callback.splice) {
                //callback is an array, which means it is a dependency list.
                //Adjust args if there are dependencies
                deps = callback;
                callback = relName;
                relName = null;
            } else {
                deps = undef;
            }
        }

        //Support require(['a'])
        callback = callback || function () {};

        //If relName is a function, it is an errback handler,
        //so remove it.
        if (typeof relName === 'function') {
            relName = forceSync;
            forceSync = alt;
        }

        //Simulate async callback;
        if (forceSync) {
            main(undef, deps, callback, relName);
        } else {
            setTimeout(function () {
                main(undef, deps, callback, relName);
            }, 15);
        }

        return req;
    };

    /**
     * Just drops the config on the floor, but returns req in case
     * the config return value is used.
     */
    req.config = function (cfg) {
        config = cfg;
        return req;
    };

    define = function (name, deps, callback) {

        //This module may not have dependencies
        if (!deps.splice) {
            //deps is not an array, so probably means
            //an object literal or factory function for
            //the value. Adjust args.
            callback = deps;
            deps = [];
        }

        waiting[name] = [name, deps, callback];
    };

    define.amd = {
        jQuery: true
    };
}());
;this["JST"] = this["JST"] || {};

this["JST"]["app/templates/testing.html"] = function(obj){
var __p='';var print=function(){__p+=Array.prototype.join.call(arguments, '')};
with(obj||{}){
__p+='';
}
return __p;
};;
var jam = {
    "packages": [
        {
            "name": "backbone",
            "location": "../vendor/jam/backbone",
            "main": "backbone.js"
        },
        {
            "name": "backbone.layoutmanager",
            "location": "../vendor/jam/backbone.layoutmanager",
            "main": "backbone.layoutmanager.js"
        },
        {
            "name": "jquery",
            "location": "../vendor/jam/jquery",
            "main": "jquery.js"
        },
        {
            "name": "lodash",
            "location": "../vendor/jam/lodash",
            "main": "./lodash.js"
        }
    ],
    "version": "0.2.11",
    "shim": {
        "backbone": {
            "deps": [
                "jquery",
                "lodash"
            ],
            "exports": "Backbone"
        },
        "backbone.layoutmanager": {
            "deps": [
                "jquery",
                "backbone",
                "lodash"
            ],
            "exports": "Backbone.LayoutManager"
        }
    }
};

if (typeof require !== "undefined" && require.config) {
    require.config({packages: jam.packages, shim: jam.shim});
}
else {
    var require = {packages: jam.packages, shim: jam.shim};
}

if (typeof exports !== "undefined" && typeof module !== "undefined") {
    module.exports = jam;
};
define("../vendor/jam/require.config", function(){});

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define('jquery', ['jquery/jquery'], function (main) { return main; });

define("jquery/jquery", function(){});

/*!
 * Lo-Dash v0.9.2 <http://lodash.com>
 * (c) 2012 John-David Dalton <http://allyoucanleet.com/>
 * Based on Underscore.js 1.4.2 <http://underscorejs.org>
 * (c) 2009-2012 Jeremy Ashkenas, DocumentCloud Inc.
 * Available under MIT license <http://lodash.com/license>
 */
;(function(window, undefined) {

  /** Detect free variable `exports` */
  var freeExports = typeof exports == 'object' && exports;

  /** Detect free variable `global` and use it as `window` */
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  if (freeGlobal.global === freeGlobal) {
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  /** Used for array and object method references */
  var arrayRef = [],
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      objectRef = new function(){};

  /** Used to generate unique IDs */
  var idCounter = 0;

  /** Used internally to indicate various things */
  var indicatorObject = objectRef;

  /** Used by `cachedContains` as the default size when optimizations are enabled for large arrays */
  var largeArraySize = 30;

  /** Used to restore the original `_` reference in `noConflict` */
  var oldDash = window._;

  /** Used to detect template delimiter values that require a with-statement */
  var reComplexDelimiter = /[-?+=!~*%&^<>|{(\/]|\[\D|\b(?:delete|in|instanceof|new|typeof|void)\b/;

  /** Used to match HTML entities */
  var reEscapedHtml = /&(?:amp|lt|gt|quot|#x27);/g;

  /** Used to match empty string literals in compiled template source */
  var reEmptyStringLeading = /\b__p \+= '';/g,
      reEmptyStringMiddle = /\b(__p \+=) '' \+/g,
      reEmptyStringTrailing = /(__e\(.*?\)|\b__t\)) \+\n'';/g;

  /** Used to match regexp flags from their coerced string values */
  var reFlags = /\w*$/;

  /** Used to insert the data object variable into compiled template source */
  var reInsertVariable = /(?:__e|__t = )\(\s*(?![\d\s"']|this\.)/g;

  /** Used to detect if a method is native */
  var reNative = RegExp('^' +
    (objectRef.valueOf + '')
      .replace(/[.*+?^=!:${}()|[\]\/\\]/g, '\\$&')
      .replace(/valueOf|for [^\]]+/g, '.+?') + '$'
  );

  /**
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   * http://people.mozilla.org/~jorendorff/es6-draft.html#sec-7.8.6
   */
  var reEsTemplate = /\$\{((?:(?=\\?)\\?[\s\S])*?)}/g;

  /** Used to match "interpolate" template delimiters */
  var reInterpolate = /<%=([\s\S]+?)%>/g;

  /** Used to ensure capturing order of template delimiters */
  var reNoMatch = /($^)/;

  /** Used to match HTML characters */
  var reUnescapedHtml = /[&<>"']/g;

  /** Used to match unescaped characters in compiled string literals */
  var reUnescapedString = /['\n\r\t\u2028\u2029\\]/g;

  /** Used to fix the JScript [[DontEnum]] bug */
  var shadowed = [
    'constructor', 'hasOwnProperty', 'isPrototypeOf', 'propertyIsEnumerable',
    'toLocaleString', 'toString', 'valueOf'
  ];

  /** Used to make template sourceURLs easier to identify */
  var templateCounter = 0;

  /** Native method shortcuts */
  var ceil = Math.ceil,
      concat = arrayRef.concat,
      floor = Math.floor,
      getPrototypeOf = reNative.test(getPrototypeOf = Object.getPrototypeOf) && getPrototypeOf,
      hasOwnProperty = objectRef.hasOwnProperty,
      push = arrayRef.push,
      propertyIsEnumerable = objectRef.propertyIsEnumerable,
      slice = arrayRef.slice,
      toString = objectRef.toString;

  /* Native method shortcuts for methods with the same name as other `lodash` methods */
  var nativeBind = reNative.test(nativeBind = slice.bind) && nativeBind,
      nativeIsArray = reNative.test(nativeIsArray = Array.isArray) && nativeIsArray,
      nativeIsFinite = window.isFinite,
      nativeIsNaN = window.isNaN,
      nativeKeys = reNative.test(nativeKeys = Object.keys) && nativeKeys,
      nativeMax = Math.max,
      nativeMin = Math.min,
      nativeRandom = Math.random;

  /** `Object#toString` result shortcuts */
  var argsClass = '[object Arguments]',
      arrayClass = '[object Array]',
      boolClass = '[object Boolean]',
      dateClass = '[object Date]',
      funcClass = '[object Function]',
      numberClass = '[object Number]',
      objectClass = '[object Object]',
      regexpClass = '[object RegExp]',
      stringClass = '[object String]';

  /**
   * Detect the JScript [[DontEnum]] bug:
   *
   * In IE < 9 an objects own properties, shadowing non-enumerable ones, are
   * made non-enumerable as well.
   */
  var hasDontEnumBug;

  /** Detect if own properties are iterated after inherited properties (IE < 9) */
  var iteratesOwnLast;

  /**
   * Detect if `Array#shift` and `Array#splice` augment array-like objects
   * incorrectly:
   *
   * Firefox < 10, IE compatibility mode, and IE < 9 have buggy Array `shift()`
   * and `splice()` functions that fail to remove the last element, `value[0]`,
   * of array-like objects even though the `length` property is set to `0`.
   * The `shift()` method is buggy in IE 8 compatibility mode, while `splice()`
   * is buggy regardless of mode in IE < 9 and buggy in compatibility mode in IE 9.
   */
  var hasObjectSpliceBug = (hasObjectSpliceBug = { '0': 1, 'length': 1 },
    arrayRef.splice.call(hasObjectSpliceBug, 0, 1), hasObjectSpliceBug[0]);

  /** Detect if an `arguments` object's indexes are non-enumerable (IE < 9) */
  var noArgsEnum = true;

  (function() {
    var props = [];
    function ctor() { this.x = 1; }
    ctor.prototype = { 'valueOf': 1, 'y': 1 };
    for (var prop in new ctor) { props.push(prop); }
    for (prop in arguments) { noArgsEnum = !prop; }

    hasDontEnumBug = !/valueOf/.test(props);
    iteratesOwnLast = props[0] != 'x';
  }(1));

  /** Detect if an `arguments` object's [[Class]] is unresolvable (Firefox < 4, IE < 9) */
  var noArgsClass = !isArguments(arguments);

  /** Detect if `Array#slice` cannot be used to convert strings to arrays (Opera < 10.52) */
  var noArraySliceOnStrings = slice.call('x')[0] != 'x';

  /**
   * Detect lack of support for accessing string characters by index:
   *
   * IE < 8 can't access characters by index and IE 8 can only access
   * characters by index on string literals.
   */
  var noCharByIndex = ('x'[0] + Object('x')[0]) != 'xx';

  /**
   * Detect if a node's [[Class]] is unresolvable (IE < 9)
   * and that the JS engine won't error when attempting to coerce an object to
   * a string without a `toString` property value of `typeof` "function".
   */
  try {
    var noNodeClass = ({ 'toString': 0 } + '', toString.call(window.document || 0) == objectClass);
  } catch(e) { }

  /* Detect if `Function#bind` exists and is inferred to be fast (all but V8) */
  var isBindFast = nativeBind && /\n|Opera/.test(nativeBind + toString.call(window.opera));

  /* Detect if `Object.keys` exists and is inferred to be fast (IE, Opera, V8) */
  var isKeysFast = nativeKeys && /^.+$|true/.test(nativeKeys + !!window.attachEvent);

  /**
   * Detect if sourceURL syntax is usable without erroring:
   *
   * The JS engine in Adobe products, like InDesign, will throw a syntax error
   * when it encounters a single line comment beginning with the `@` symbol.
   *
   * The JS engine in Narwhal will generate the function `function anonymous(){//}`
   * and throw a syntax error.
   *
   * Avoid comments beginning `@` symbols in IE because they are part of its
   * non-standard conditional compilation support.
   * http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/121hztk3(v=vs.94).aspx
   */
  try {
    var useSourceURL = (Function('//@')(), !window.attachEvent);
  } catch(e) { }

  /** Used to identify object classifications that `_.clone` supports */
  var cloneableClasses = {};
  cloneableClasses[argsClass] = cloneableClasses[funcClass] = false;
  cloneableClasses[arrayClass] = cloneableClasses[boolClass] = cloneableClasses[dateClass] =
  cloneableClasses[numberClass] = cloneableClasses[objectClass] = cloneableClasses[regexpClass] =
  cloneableClasses[stringClass] = true;

  /** Used to determine if values are of the language type Object */
  var objectTypes = {
    'boolean': false,
    'function': true,
    'object': true,
    'number': false,
    'string': false,
    'undefined': false
  };

  /** Used to escape characters for inclusion in compiled string literals */
  var stringEscapes = {
    '\\': '\\',
    "'": "'",
    '\n': 'n',
    '\r': 'r',
    '\t': 't',
    '\u2028': 'u2028',
    '\u2029': 'u2029'
  };

  /*--------------------------------------------------------------------------*/

  /**
   * The `lodash` function.
   *
   * @name _
   * @constructor
   * @category Chaining
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to wrap in a `lodash` instance.
   * @returns {Object} Returns a `lodash` instance.
   */
  function lodash(value) {
    // exit early if already wrapped
    if (value && value.__wrapped__) {
      return value;
    }
    // allow invoking `lodash` without the `new` operator
    if (!(this instanceof lodash)) {
      return new lodash(value);
    }
    this.__wrapped__ = value;
  }

  /**
   * By default, the template delimiters used by Lo-Dash are similar to those in
   * embedded Ruby (ERB). Change the following template settings to use alternative
   * delimiters.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @type Object
   */
  lodash.templateSettings = {

    /**
     * Used to detect `data` property values to be HTML-escaped.
     *
     * @static
     * @memberOf _.templateSettings
     * @type RegExp
     */
    'escape': /<%-([\s\S]+?)%>/g,

    /**
     * Used to detect code to be evaluated.
     *
     * @static
     * @memberOf _.templateSettings
     * @type RegExp
     */
    'evaluate': /<%([\s\S]+?)%>/g,

    /**
     * Used to detect `data` property values to inject.
     *
     * @static
     * @memberOf _.templateSettings
     * @type RegExp
     */
    'interpolate': reInterpolate,

    /**
     * Used to reference the data object in the template text.
     *
     * @static
     * @memberOf _.templateSettings
     * @type String
     */
    'variable': ''
  };

  /*--------------------------------------------------------------------------*/

  /**
   * The template used to create iterator functions.
   *
   * @private
   * @param {Obect} data The data object used to populate the text.
   * @returns {String} Returns the interpolated text.
   */
  var iteratorTemplate = template(
    // conditional strict mode
    '<% if (obj.useStrict) { %>\'use strict\';\n<% } %>' +

    // the `iteratee` may be reassigned by the `top` snippet
    'var index, value, iteratee = <%= firstArg %>, ' +
    // assign the `result` variable an initial value
    'result = <%= firstArg %>;\n' +
    // exit early if the first argument is falsey
    'if (!<%= firstArg %>) return result;\n' +
    // add code before the iteration branches
    '<%= top %>;\n' +

    // array-like iteration:
    '<% if (arrayLoop) { %>' +
    'var length = iteratee.length; index = -1;\n' +
    'if (typeof length == \'number\') {' +

    // add support for accessing string characters by index if needed
    '  <% if (noCharByIndex) { %>\n' +
    '  if (isString(iteratee)) {\n' +
    '    iteratee = iteratee.split(\'\')\n' +
    '  }' +
    '  <% } %>\n' +

    // iterate over the array-like value
    '  while (++index < length) {\n' +
    '    value = iteratee[index];\n' +
    '    <%= arrayLoop %>\n' +
    '  }\n' +
    '}\n' +
    'else {' +

    // object iteration:
    // add support for iterating over `arguments` objects if needed
    '  <%  } else if (noArgsEnum) { %>\n' +
    '  var length = iteratee.length; index = -1;\n' +
    '  if (length && isArguments(iteratee)) {\n' +
    '    while (++index < length) {\n' +
    '      value = iteratee[index += \'\'];\n' +
    '      <%= objectLoop %>\n' +
    '    }\n' +
    '  } else {' +
    '  <% } %>' +

    // Firefox < 3.6, Opera > 9.50 - Opera < 11.60, and Safari < 5.1
    // (if the prototype or a property on the prototype has been set)
    // incorrectly sets a function's `prototype` property [[Enumerable]]
    // value to `true`. Because of this Lo-Dash standardizes on skipping
    // the the `prototype` property of functions regardless of its
    // [[Enumerable]] value.
    '  <% if (!hasDontEnumBug) { %>\n' +
    '  var skipProto = typeof iteratee == \'function\' && \n' +
    '    propertyIsEnumerable.call(iteratee, \'prototype\');\n' +
    '  <% } %>' +

    // iterate own properties using `Object.keys` if it's fast
    '  <% if (isKeysFast && useHas) { %>\n' +
    '  var ownIndex = -1,\n' +
    '      ownProps = objectTypes[typeof iteratee] ? nativeKeys(iteratee) : [],\n' +
    '      length = ownProps.length;\n\n' +
    '  while (++ownIndex < length) {\n' +
    '    index = ownProps[ownIndex];\n' +
    '    <% if (!hasDontEnumBug) { %>if (!(skipProto && index == \'prototype\')) {\n  <% } %>' +
    '    value = iteratee[index];\n' +
    '    <%= objectLoop %>\n' +
    '    <% if (!hasDontEnumBug) { %>}\n<% } %>' +
    '  }' +

    // else using a for-in loop
    '  <% } else { %>\n' +
    '  for (index in iteratee) {<%' +
    '    if (!hasDontEnumBug || useHas) { %>\n    if (<%' +
    '      if (!hasDontEnumBug) { %>!(skipProto && index == \'prototype\')<% }' +
    '      if (!hasDontEnumBug && useHas) { %> && <% }' +
    '      if (useHas) { %>hasOwnProperty.call(iteratee, index)<% }' +
    '    %>) {' +
    '    <% } %>\n' +
    '    value = iteratee[index];\n' +
    '    <%= objectLoop %>;' +
    '    <% if (!hasDontEnumBug || useHas) { %>\n    }<% } %>\n' +
    '  }' +
    '  <% } %>' +

    // Because IE < 9 can't set the `[[Enumerable]]` attribute of an
    // existing property and the `constructor` property of a prototype
    // defaults to non-enumerable, Lo-Dash skips the `constructor`
    // property when it infers it's iterating over a `prototype` object.
    '  <% if (hasDontEnumBug) { %>\n\n' +
    '  var ctor = iteratee.constructor;\n' +
    '    <% for (var k = 0; k < 7; k++) { %>\n' +
    '  index = \'<%= shadowed[k] %>\';\n' +
    '  if (<%' +
    '      if (shadowed[k] == \'constructor\') {' +
    '        %>!(ctor && ctor.prototype === iteratee) && <%' +
    '      } %>hasOwnProperty.call(iteratee, index)) {\n' +
    '    value = iteratee[index];\n' +
    '    <%= objectLoop %>\n' +
    '  }' +
    '    <% } %>' +
    '  <% } %>' +
    '  <% if (arrayLoop || noArgsEnum) { %>\n}<% } %>\n' +

    // add code to the bottom of the iteration function
    '<%= bottom %>;\n' +
    // finally, return the `result`
    'return result'
  );

  /**
   * Reusable iterator options shared by `forEach`, `forIn`, and `forOwn`.
   */
  var forEachIteratorOptions = {
    'args': 'collection, callback, thisArg',
    'top': 'callback = createCallback(callback, thisArg)',
    'arrayLoop': 'if (callback(value, index, collection) === false) return result',
    'objectLoop': 'if (callback(value, index, collection) === false) return result'
  };

  /** Reusable iterator options for `defaults`, and `extend` */
  var extendIteratorOptions = {
    'useHas': false,
    'args': 'object',
    'top':
      'for (var argsIndex = 1, argsLength = arguments.length; argsIndex < argsLength; argsIndex++) {\n' +
      '  if (iteratee = arguments[argsIndex]) {',
    'objectLoop': 'result[index] = value',
    'bottom': '  }\n}'
  };

  /** Reusable iterator options for `forIn` and `forOwn` */
  var forOwnIteratorOptions = {
    'arrayLoop': null
  };

  /*--------------------------------------------------------------------------*/

  /**
   * Creates a function optimized to search large arrays for a given `value`,
   * starting at `fromIndex`, using strict equality for comparisons, i.e. `===`.
   *
   * @private
   * @param {Array} array The array to search.
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to search for.
   * @param {Number} [fromIndex=0] The index to search from.
   * @param {Number} [largeSize=30] The length at which an array is considered large.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if `value` is found, else `false`.
   */
  function cachedContains(array, fromIndex, largeSize) {
    fromIndex || (fromIndex = 0);

    var length = array.length,
        isLarge = (length - fromIndex) >= (largeSize || largeArraySize);

    if (isLarge) {
      var cache = {},
          index = fromIndex - 1;

      while (++index < length) {
        // manually coerce `value` to a string because `hasOwnProperty`, in some
        // older versions of Firefox, coerces objects incorrectly
        var key = array[index] + '';
        (hasOwnProperty.call(cache, key) ? cache[key] : (cache[key] = [])).push(array[index]);
      }
    }
    return function(value) {
      if (isLarge) {
        var key = value + '';
        return hasOwnProperty.call(cache, key) && indexOf(cache[key], value) > -1;
      }
      return indexOf(array, value, fromIndex) > -1;
    }
  }

  /**
   * Used by `_.max` and `_.min` as the default `callback` when a given
   * `collection` is a string value.
   *
   * @private
   * @param {String} value The character to inspect.
   * @returns {Number} Returns the code unit of given character.
   */
  function charAtCallback(value) {
    return value.charCodeAt(0);
  }

  /**
   * Used by `sortBy` to compare transformed `collection` values, stable sorting
   * them in ascending order.
   *
   * @private
   * @param {Object} a The object to compare to `b`.
   * @param {Object} b The object to compare to `a`.
   * @returns {Number} Returns the sort order indicator of `1` or `-1`.
   */
  function compareAscending(a, b) {
    var ai = a.index,
        bi = b.index;

    a = a.criteria;
    b = b.criteria;

    // ensure a stable sort in V8 and other engines
    // http://code.google.com/p/v8/issues/detail?id=90
    if (a !== b) {
      if (a > b || a === undefined) {
        return 1;
      }
      if (a < b || b === undefined) {
        return -1;
      }
    }
    return ai < bi ? -1 : 1;
  }

  /**
   * Creates a function that, when called, invokes `func` with the `this`
   * binding of `thisArg` and prepends any `partailArgs` to the arguments passed
   * to the bound function.
   *
   * @private
   * @param {Function|String} func The function to bind or the method name.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `func`.
   * @param {Array} partialArgs An array of arguments to be partially applied.
   * @returns {Function} Returns the new bound function.
   */
  function createBound(func, thisArg, partialArgs) {
    var isFunc = isFunction(func),
        isPartial = !partialArgs,
        methodName = func;

    // juggle arguments
    if (isPartial) {
      partialArgs = thisArg;
    }

    function bound() {
      // `Function#bind` spec
      // http://es5.github.com/#x15.3.4.5
      var args = arguments,
          thisBinding = isPartial ? this : thisArg;

      if (!isFunc) {
        func = thisArg[methodName];
      }
      if (partialArgs.length) {
        args = args.length
          ? partialArgs.concat(slice.call(args))
          : partialArgs;
      }
      if (this instanceof bound) {
        // get `func` instance if `bound` is invoked in a `new` expression
        noop.prototype = func.prototype;
        thisBinding = new noop;

        // mimic the constructor's `return` behavior
        // http://es5.github.com/#x13.2.2
        var result = func.apply(thisBinding, args);
        return isObject(result)
          ? result
          : thisBinding
      }
      return func.apply(thisBinding, args);
    }
    return bound;
  }

  /**
   * Produces an iteration callback bound to an optional `thisArg`. If `func` is
   * a property name, the callback will return the property value for a given element.
   *
   * @private
   * @param {Function|String} [func=identity|property] The function called per
   * iteration or property name to query.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Function} Returns a callback function.
   */
  function createCallback(func, thisArg) {
    if (!func) {
      return identity;
    }
    if (typeof func != 'function') {
      return function(object) {
        return object[func];
      };
    }
    if (thisArg !== undefined) {
      return function(value, index, object) {
        return func.call(thisArg, value, index, object);
      };
    }
    return func;
  }

  /**
   * Creates compiled iteration functions.
   *
   * @private
   * @param {Object} [options1, options2, ...] The compile options object(s).
   *  useHas - A boolean to specify using `hasOwnProperty` checks in the object loop.
   *  args - A string of comma separated arguments the iteration function will accept.
   *  top - A string of code to execute before the iteration branches.
   *  arrayLoop - A string of code to execute in the array loop.
   *  objectLoop - A string of code to execute in the object loop.
   *  bottom - A string of code to execute after the iteration branches.
   *
   * @returns {Function} Returns the compiled function.
   */
  function createIterator() {
    var data = {
      'arrayLoop': '',
      'bottom': '',
      'hasDontEnumBug': hasDontEnumBug,
      'isKeysFast': isKeysFast,
      'objectLoop': '',
      'noArgsEnum': noArgsEnum,
      'noCharByIndex': noCharByIndex,
      'shadowed': shadowed,
      'top': '',
      'useHas': true
    };

    // merge options into a template data object
    for (var object, index = 0; object = arguments[index]; index++) {
      for (var key in object) {
        data[key] = object[key];
      }
    }
    var args = data.args;
    data.firstArg = /^[^,]+/.exec(args)[0];

    // create the function factory
    var factory = Function(
        'createCallback, hasOwnProperty, isArguments, isString, objectTypes, ' +
        'nativeKeys, propertyIsEnumerable',
      'return function(' + args + ') {\n' + iteratorTemplate(data) + '\n}'
    );
    // return the compiled function
    return factory(
      createCallback, hasOwnProperty, isArguments, isString, objectTypes,
      nativeKeys, propertyIsEnumerable
    );
  }

  /**
   * Used by `template` to escape characters for inclusion in compiled
   * string literals.
   *
   * @private
   * @param {String} match The matched character to escape.
   * @returns {String} Returns the escaped character.
   */
  function escapeStringChar(match) {
    return '\\' + stringEscapes[match];
  }

  /**
   * Used by `escape` to convert characters to HTML entities.
   *
   * @private
   * @param {String} match The matched character to escape.
   * @returns {String} Returns the escaped character.
   */
  function escapeHtmlChar(match) {
    return htmlEscapes[match];
  }

  /**
   * A no-operation function.
   *
   * @private
   */
  function noop() {
    // no operation performed
  }

  /**
   * Used by `unescape` to convert HTML entities to characters.
   *
   * @private
   * @param {String} match The matched character to unescape.
   * @returns {String} Returns the unescaped character.
   */
  function unescapeHtmlChar(match) {
    return htmlUnescapes[match];
  }

  /*--------------------------------------------------------------------------*/

  /**
   * Checks if `value` is an `arguments` object.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to check.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if the `value` is an `arguments` object, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * (function() { return _.isArguments(arguments); })(1, 2, 3);
   * // => true
   *
   * _.isArguments([1, 2, 3]);
   * // => false
   */
  function isArguments(value) {
    return toString.call(value) == argsClass;
  }
  // fallback for browsers that can't detect `arguments` objects by [[Class]]
  if (noArgsClass) {
    isArguments = function(value) {
      return value ? hasOwnProperty.call(value, 'callee') : false;
    };
  }

  /**
   * Iterates over `object`'s own and inherited enumerable properties, executing
   * the `callback` for each property. The `callback` is bound to `thisArg` and
   * invoked with three arguments; (value, key, object). Callbacks may exit iteration
   * early by explicitly returning `false`.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Object} object The object to iterate over.
   * @param {Function} callback The function called per iteration.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Object} Returns `object`.
   * @example
   *
   * function Dog(name) {
   *   this.name = name;
   * }
   *
   * Dog.prototype.bark = function() {
   *   alert('Woof, woof!');
   * };
   *
   * _.forIn(new Dog('Dagny'), function(value, key) {
   *   alert(key);
   * });
   * // => alerts 'name' and 'bark' (order is not guaranteed)
   */
  var forIn = createIterator(forEachIteratorOptions, forOwnIteratorOptions, {
    'useHas': false
  });

  /**
   * Iterates over `object`'s own enumerable properties, executing the `callback`
   * for each property. The `callback` is bound to `thisArg` and invoked with three
   * arguments; (value, key, object). Callbacks may exit iteration early by explicitly
   * returning `false`.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Object} object The object to iterate over.
   * @param {Function} callback The function called per iteration.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Object} Returns `object`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.forOwn({ '0': 'zero', '1': 'one', 'length': 2 }, function(num, key) {
   *   alert(key);
   * });
   * // => alerts '0', '1', and 'length' (order is not guaranteed)
   */
  var forOwn = createIterator(forEachIteratorOptions, forOwnIteratorOptions);

  /**
   * A fallback implementation of `isPlainObject` that checks if a given `value`
   * is an object created by the `Object` constructor, assuming objects created
   * by the `Object` constructor have no inherited enumerable properties and that
   * there are no `Object.prototype` extensions.
   *
   * @private
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to check.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if `value` is a plain object, else `false`.
   */
  function shimIsPlainObject(value) {
    // avoid non-objects and false positives for `arguments` objects
    var result = false;
    if (!(value && typeof value == 'object') || isArguments(value)) {
      return result;
    }
    // IE < 9 presents DOM nodes as `Object` objects except they have `toString`
    // methods that are `typeof` "string" and still can coerce nodes to strings.
    // Also check that the constructor is `Object` (i.e. `Object instanceof Object`)
    var ctor = value.constructor;
    if ((!noNodeClass || !(typeof value.toString != 'function' && typeof (value + '') == 'string')) &&
        (!isFunction(ctor) || ctor instanceof ctor)) {
      // IE < 9 iterates inherited properties before own properties. If the first
      // iterated property is an object's own property then there are no inherited
      // enumerable properties.
      if (iteratesOwnLast) {
        forIn(value, function(value, key, object) {
          result = !hasOwnProperty.call(object, key);
          return false;
        });
        return result === false;
      }
      // In most environments an object's own properties are iterated before
      // its inherited properties. If the last iterated property is an object's
      // own property then there are no inherited enumerable properties.
      forIn(value, function(value, key) {
        result = key;
      });
      return result === false || hasOwnProperty.call(value, result);
    }
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * A fallback implementation of `Object.keys` that produces an array of the
   * given object's own enumerable property names.
   *
   * @private
   * @param {Object} object The object to inspect.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new array of property names.
   */
  function shimKeys(object) {
    var result = [];
    forOwn(object, function(value, key) {
      result.push(key);
    });
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Used to convert characters to HTML entities:
   *
   * Though the `>` character is escaped for symmetry, characters like `>` and `/`
   * don't require escaping in HTML and have no special meaning unless they're part
   * of a tag or an unquoted attribute value.
   * http://mathiasbynens.be/notes/ambiguous-ampersands (under "semi-related fun fact")
   */
  var htmlEscapes = {
    '&': '&amp;',
    '<': '&lt;',
    '>': '&gt;',
    '"': '&quot;',
    "'": '&#x27;'
  };

  /** Used to convert HTML entities to characters */
  var htmlUnescapes = invert(htmlEscapes);

  /*--------------------------------------------------------------------------*/

  /**
   * Creates a clone of `value`. If `deep` is `true`, all nested objects will
   * also be cloned otherwise they will be assigned by reference. Functions, DOM
   * nodes, `arguments` objects, and objects created by constructors other than
   * `Object` are **not** cloned.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to clone.
   * @param {Boolean} deep A flag to indicate a deep clone.
   * @param- {Object} [guard] Internally used to allow this method to work with
   *  others like `_.map` without using their callback `index` argument for `deep`.
   * @param- {Array} [stackA=[]] Internally used to track traversed source objects.
   * @param- {Array} [stackB=[]] Internally used to associate clones with their
   *  source counterparts.
   * @returns {Mixed} Returns the cloned `value`.
   * @example
   *
   * var stooges = [
   *   { 'name': 'moe', 'age': 40 },
   *   { 'name': 'larry', 'age': 50 },
   *   { 'name': 'curly', 'age': 60 }
   * ];
   *
   * _.clone({ 'name': 'moe' });
   * // => { 'name': 'moe' }
   *
   * var shallow = _.clone(stooges);
   * shallow[0] === stooges[0];
   * // => true
   *
   * var deep = _.clone(stooges, true);
   * shallow[0] === stooges[0];
   * // => false
   */
  function clone(value, deep, guard, stackA, stackB) {
    if (value == null) {
      return value;
    }
    if (guard) {
      deep = false;
    }
    // inspect [[Class]]
    var isObj = isObject(value);
    if (isObj) {
      // don't clone `arguments` objects, functions, or non-object Objects
      var className = toString.call(value);
      if (!cloneableClasses[className] || (noArgsClass && isArguments(value))) {
        return value;
      }
      var isArr = className == arrayClass;
      isObj = isArr || (className == objectClass ? isPlainObject(value) : isObj);
    }
    // shallow clone
    if (!isObj || !deep) {
      // don't clone functions
      return isObj
        ? (isArr ? slice.call(value) : extend({}, value))
        : value;
    }

    var ctor = value.constructor;
    switch (className) {
      case boolClass:
      case dateClass:
        return new ctor(+value);

      case numberClass:
      case stringClass:
        return new ctor(value);

      case regexpClass:
        return ctor(value.source, reFlags.exec(value));
    }
    // check for circular references and return corresponding clone
    stackA || (stackA = []);
    stackB || (stackB = []);

    var length = stackA.length;
    while (length--) {
      if (stackA[length] == value) {
        return stackB[length];
      }
    }
    // init cloned object
    var result = isArr ? ctor(value.length) : {};

    // add the source value to the stack of traversed objects
    // and associate it with its clone
    stackA.push(value);
    stackB.push(result);

    // recursively populate clone (susceptible to call stack limits)
    (isArr ? forEach : forOwn)(value, function(objValue, key) {
      result[key] = clone(objValue, deep, null, stackA, stackB);
    });

    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Assigns enumerable properties of the default object(s) to the `destination`
   * object for all `destination` properties that resolve to `null`/`undefined`.
   * Once a property is set, additional defaults of the same property will be
   * ignored.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Object} object The destination object.
   * @param {Object} [default1, default2, ...] The default objects.
   * @returns {Object} Returns the destination object.
   * @example
   *
   * var iceCream = { 'flavor': 'chocolate' };
   * _.defaults(iceCream, { 'flavor': 'vanilla', 'sprinkles': 'rainbow' });
   * // => { 'flavor': 'chocolate', 'sprinkles': 'rainbow' }
   */
  var defaults = createIterator(extendIteratorOptions, {
    'objectLoop': 'if (result[index] == null) ' + extendIteratorOptions.objectLoop
  });

  /**
   * Assigns enumerable properties of the source object(s) to the `destination`
   * object. Subsequent sources will overwrite propery assignments of previous
   * sources.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Object} object The destination object.
   * @param {Object} [source1, source2, ...] The source objects.
   * @returns {Object} Returns the destination object.
   * @example
   *
   * _.extend({ 'name': 'moe' }, { 'age': 40 });
   * // => { 'name': 'moe', 'age': 40 }
   */
  var extend = createIterator(extendIteratorOptions);

  /**
   * Creates a sorted array of all enumerable properties, own and inherited,
   * of `object` that have function values.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @alias methods
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Object} object The object to inspect.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new array of property names that have function values.
   * @example
   *
   * _.functions(_);
   * // => ['all', 'any', 'bind', 'bindAll', 'clone', 'compact', 'compose', ...]
   */
  function functions(object) {
    var result = [];
    forIn(object, function(value, key) {
      if (isFunction(value)) {
        result.push(key);
      }
    });
    return result.sort();
  }

  /**
   * Checks if the specified object `property` exists and is a direct property,
   * instead of an inherited property.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Object} object The object to check.
   * @param {String} property The property to check for.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if key is a direct property, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.has({ 'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3 }, 'b');
   * // => true
   */
  function has(object, property) {
    return object ? hasOwnProperty.call(object, property) : false;
  }

  /**
   * Creates an object composed of the inverted keys and values of the given `object`.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Object} object The object to invert.
   * @returns {Object} Returns the created inverted object.
   * @example
   *
   *  _.invert({ 'first': 'Moe', 'second': 'Larry', 'third': 'Curly' });
   * // => { 'Moe': 'first', 'Larry': 'second', 'Curly': 'third' } (order is not guaranteed)
   */
  function invert(object) {
    var result = {};
    forOwn(object, function(value, key) {
      result[value] = key;
    });
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Checks if `value` is an array.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to check.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if the `value` is an array, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * (function() { return _.isArray(arguments); })();
   * // => false
   *
   * _.isArray([1, 2, 3]);
   * // => true
   */
  var isArray = nativeIsArray || function(value) {
    return toString.call(value) == arrayClass;
  };

  /**
   * Checks if `value` is a boolean (`true` or `false`) value.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to check.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if the `value` is a boolean value, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.isBoolean(null);
   * // => false
   */
  function isBoolean(value) {
    return value === true || value === false || toString.call(value) == boolClass;
  }

  /**
   * Checks if `value` is a date.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to check.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if the `value` is a date, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.isDate(new Date);
   * // => true
   */
  function isDate(value) {
    return toString.call(value) == dateClass;
  }

  /**
   * Checks if `value` is a DOM element.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to check.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if the `value` is a DOM element, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.isElement(document.body);
   * // => true
   */
  function isElement(value) {
    return value ? value.nodeType === 1 : false;
  }

  /**
   * Checks if `value` is empty. Arrays, strings, or `arguments` objects with a
   * length of `0` and objects with no own enumerable properties are considered
   * "empty".
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Array|Object|String} value The value to inspect.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if the `value` is empty, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.isEmpty([1, 2, 3]);
   * // => false
   *
   * _.isEmpty({});
   * // => true
   *
   * _.isEmpty('');
   * // => true
   */
  function isEmpty(value) {
    var result = true;
    if (!value) {
      return result;
    }
    var className = toString.call(value),
        length = value.length;

    if ((className == arrayClass || className == stringClass ||
        className == argsClass || (noArgsClass && isArguments(value))) ||
        (className == objectClass && typeof length == 'number' && isFunction(value.splice))) {
      return !length;
    }
    forOwn(value, function() {
      return (result = false);
    });
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Performs a deep comparison between two values to determine if they are
   * equivalent to each other.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Mixed} a The value to compare.
   * @param {Mixed} b The other value to compare.
   * @param- {Object} [stackA=[]] Internally used track traversed `a` objects.
   * @param- {Object} [stackB=[]] Internally used track traversed `b` objects.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if the values are equvalent, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * var moe = { 'name': 'moe', 'luckyNumbers': [13, 27, 34] };
   * var clone = { 'name': 'moe', 'luckyNumbers': [13, 27, 34] };
   *
   * moe == clone;
   * // => false
   *
   * _.isEqual(moe, clone);
   * // => true
   */
  function isEqual(a, b, stackA, stackB) {
    // exit early for identical values
    if (a === b) {
      // treat `+0` vs. `-0` as not equal
      return a !== 0 || (1 / a == 1 / b);
    }
    // a strict comparison is necessary because `null == undefined`
    if (a == null || b == null) {
      return a === b;
    }
    // compare [[Class]] names
    var className = toString.call(a);
    if (className != toString.call(b)) {
      return false;
    }
    switch (className) {
      case boolClass:
      case dateClass:
        // coerce dates and booleans to numbers, dates to milliseconds and booleans
        // to `1` or `0`, treating invalid dates coerced to `NaN` as not equal
        return +a == +b;

      case numberClass:
        // treat `NaN` vs. `NaN` as equal
        return a != +a
          ? b != +b
          // but treat `+0` vs. `-0` as not equal
          : (a == 0 ? (1 / a == 1 / b) : a == +b);

      case regexpClass:
      case stringClass:
        // coerce regexes to strings (http://es5.github.com/#x15.10.6.4)
        // treat string primitives and their corresponding object instances as equal
        return a == b + '';
    }
    // exit early, in older browsers, if `a` is array-like but not `b`
    var isArr = className == arrayClass || className == argsClass;
    if (noArgsClass && !isArr && (isArr = isArguments(a)) && !isArguments(b)) {
      return false;
    }
    if (!isArr) {
      // unwrap any `lodash` wrapped values
      if (a.__wrapped__ || b.__wrapped__) {
        return isEqual(a.__wrapped__ || a, b.__wrapped__ || b);
      }
      // exit for functions and DOM nodes
      if (className != objectClass || (noNodeClass && (
          (typeof a.toString != 'function' && typeof (a + '') == 'string') ||
          (typeof b.toString != 'function' && typeof (b + '') == 'string')))) {
        return false;
      }
      var ctorA = a.constructor,
          ctorB = b.constructor;

      // non `Object` object instances with different constructors are not equal
      if (ctorA != ctorB && !(
            isFunction(ctorA) && ctorA instanceof ctorA &&
            isFunction(ctorB) && ctorB instanceof ctorB
          )) {
        return false;
      }
    }
    // assume cyclic structures are equal
    // the algorithm for detecting cyclic structures is adapted from ES 5.1
    // section 15.12.3, abstract operation `JO` (http://es5.github.com/#x15.12.3)
    stackA || (stackA = []);
    stackB || (stackB = []);

    var length = stackA.length;
    while (length--) {
      if (stackA[length] == a) {
        return stackB[length] == b;
      }
    }

    var index = -1,
        result = true,
        size = 0;

    // add `a` and `b` to the stack of traversed objects
    stackA.push(a);
    stackB.push(b);

    // recursively compare objects and arrays (susceptible to call stack limits)
    if (isArr) {
      // compare lengths to determine if a deep comparison is necessary
      size = a.length;
      result = size == b.length;

      if (result) {
        // deep compare the contents, ignoring non-numeric properties
        while (size--) {
          if (!(result = isEqual(a[size], b[size], stackA, stackB))) {
            break;
          }
        }
      }
      return result;
    }
    // deep compare objects
    for (var key in a) {
      if (hasOwnProperty.call(a, key)) {
        // count the number of properties.
        size++;
        // deep compare each property value.
        if (!(hasOwnProperty.call(b, key) && isEqual(a[key], b[key], stackA, stackB))) {
          return false;
        }
      }
    }
    // ensure both objects have the same number of properties
    for (key in b) {
      // The JS engine in Adobe products, like InDesign, has a bug that causes
      // `!size--` to throw an error so it must be wrapped in parentheses.
      // https://github.com/documentcloud/underscore/issues/355
      if (hasOwnProperty.call(b, key) && !(size--)) {
        // `size` will be `-1` if `b` has more properties than `a`
        return false;
      }
    }
    // handle JScript [[DontEnum]] bug
    if (hasDontEnumBug) {
      while (++index < 7) {
        key = shadowed[index];
        if (hasOwnProperty.call(a, key) &&
            !(hasOwnProperty.call(b, key) && isEqual(a[key], b[key], stackA, stackB))) {
          return false;
        }
      }
    }
    return true;
  }

  /**
   * Checks if `value` is, or can be coerced to, a finite number.
   *
   * Note: This is not the same as native `isFinite`, which will return true for
   * booleans and empty strings. See http://es5.github.com/#x15.1.2.5.
   *
   * @deprecated
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to check.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if the `value` is a finite number, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.isFinite(-101);
   * // => true
   *
   * _.isFinite('10');
   * // => true
   *
   * _.isFinite(true);
   * // => false
   *
   * _.isFinite('');
   * // => false
   *
   * _.isFinite(Infinity);
   * // => false
   */
  function isFinite(value) {
    return nativeIsFinite(value) && !nativeIsNaN(parseFloat(value));
  }

  /**
   * Checks if `value` is a function.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to check.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if the `value` is a function, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.isFunction(_);
   * // => true
   */
  function isFunction(value) {
    return typeof value == 'function';
  }
  // fallback for older versions of Chrome and Safari
  if (isFunction(/x/)) {
    isFunction = function(value) {
      return toString.call(value) == funcClass;
    };
  }

  /**
   * Checks if `value` is the language type of Object.
   * (e.g. arrays, functions, objects, regexes, `new Number(0)`, and `new String('')`)
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to check.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if the `value` is an object, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.isObject({});
   * // => true
   *
   * _.isObject([1, 2, 3]);
   * // => true
   *
   * _.isObject(1);
   * // => false
   */
  function isObject(value) {
    // check if the value is the ECMAScript language type of Object
    // http://es5.github.com/#x8
    // and avoid a V8 bug
    // http://code.google.com/p/v8/issues/detail?id=2291
    return value ? objectTypes[typeof value] : false;
  }

  /**
   * Checks if `value` is `NaN`.
   *
   * Note: This is not the same as native `isNaN`, which will return true for
   * `undefined` and other values. See http://es5.github.com/#x15.1.2.4.
   *
   * @deprecated
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to check.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if the `value` is `NaN`, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.isNaN(NaN);
   * // => true
   *
   * _.isNaN(new Number(NaN));
   * // => true
   *
   * isNaN(undefined);
   * // => true
   *
   * _.isNaN(undefined);
   * // => false
   */
  function isNaN(value) {
    // `NaN` as a primitive is the only value that is not equal to itself
    // (perform the [[Class]] check first to avoid errors with some host objects in IE)
    return toString.call(value) == numberClass && value != +value
  }

  /**
   * Checks if `value` is `null`.
   *
   * @deprecated
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to check.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if the `value` is `null`, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.isNull(null);
   * // => true
   *
   * _.isNull(undefined);
   * // => false
   */
  function isNull(value) {
    return value === null;
  }

  /**
   * Checks if `value` is a number.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to check.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if the `value` is a number, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.isNumber(8.4 * 5);
   * // => true
   */
  function isNumber(value) {
    return toString.call(value) == numberClass;
  }

  /**
   * Checks if a given `value` is an object created by the `Object` constructor.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to check.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if `value` is a plain object, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * function Stooge(name, age) {
   *   this.name = name;
   *   this.age = age;
   * }
   *
   * _.isPlainObject(new Stooge('moe', 40));
   * // => false
   *
   * _.isPlainObject([1, 2, 3]);
   * // => false
   *
   * _.isPlainObject({ 'name': 'moe', 'age': 40 });
   * // => true
   */
  var isPlainObject = !getPrototypeOf ? shimIsPlainObject : function(value) {
    if (!(value && typeof value == 'object')) {
      return false;
    }
    var valueOf = value.valueOf,
        objProto = typeof valueOf == 'function' && (objProto = getPrototypeOf(valueOf)) && getPrototypeOf(objProto);

    return objProto
      ? value == objProto || (getPrototypeOf(value) == objProto && !isArguments(value))
      : shimIsPlainObject(value);
  };

  /**
   * Checks if `value` is a regular expression.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to check.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if the `value` is a regular expression, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.isRegExp(/moe/);
   * // => true
   */
  function isRegExp(value) {
    return toString.call(value) == regexpClass;
  }

  /**
   * Checks if `value` is a string.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to check.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if the `value` is a string, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.isString('moe');
   * // => true
   */
  function isString(value) {
    return toString.call(value) == stringClass;
  }

  /**
   * Checks if `value` is `undefined`.
   *
   * @deprecated
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to check.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if the `value` is `undefined`, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.isUndefined(void 0);
   * // => true
   */
  function isUndefined(value) {
    return value === undefined;
  }

  /**
   * Creates an array composed of the own enumerable property names of `object`.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Object} object The object to inspect.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new array of property names.
   * @example
   *
   * _.keys({ 'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3 });
   * // => ['one', 'two', 'three'] (order is not guaranteed)
   */
  var keys = !nativeKeys ? shimKeys : function(object) {
    // avoid iterating over the `prototype` property
    return typeof object == 'function' && propertyIsEnumerable.call(object, 'prototype')
      ? shimKeys(object)
      : (isObject(object) ? nativeKeys(object) : []);
  };

  /**
   * Merges enumerable properties of the source object(s) into the `destination`
   * object. Subsequent sources will overwrite propery assignments of previous
   * sources.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Object} object The destination object.
   * @param {Object} [source1, source2, ...] The source objects.
   * @param- {Object} [indicator] Internally used to indicate that the `stack`
   *  argument is an array of traversed objects instead of another source object.
   * @param- {Array} [stackA=[]] Internally used to track traversed source objects.
   * @param- {Array} [stackB=[]] Internally used to associate values with their
   *  source counterparts.
   * @returns {Object} Returns the destination object.
   * @example
   *
   * var stooges = [
   *   { 'name': 'moe' },
   *   { 'name': 'larry' }
   * ];
   *
   * var ages = [
   *   { 'age': 40 },
   *   { 'age': 50 }
   * ];
   *
   * _.merge(stooges, ages);
   * // => [{ 'name': 'moe', 'age': 40 }, { 'name': 'larry', 'age': 50 }]
   */
  function merge(object, source, indicator) {
    var args = arguments,
        index = 0,
        length = 2,
        stackA = args[3],
        stackB = args[4];

    if (indicator !== objectRef) {
      stackA = [];
      stackB = [];
      length = args.length;
    }
    while (++index < length) {
      forOwn(args[index], function(source, key) {
        var found, isArr, value;
        if (source && ((isArr = isArray(source)) || isPlainObject(source))) {
          // avoid merging previously merged cyclic sources
          var stackLength = stackA.length;
          while (stackLength--) {
            found = stackA[stackLength] == source;
            if (found) {
              break;
            }
          }
          if (found) {
            object[key] = stackB[stackLength];
          }
          else {
            // add `source` and associated `value` to the stack of traversed objects
            stackA.push(source);
            stackB.push(value = (value = object[key], isArr)
              ? (isArray(value) ? value : [])
              : (isPlainObject(value) ? value : {})
            );
            // recursively merge objects and arrays (susceptible to call stack limits)
            object[key] = merge(value, source, objectRef, stackA, stackB);
          }
        } else if (source != null) {
          object[key] = source;
        }
      });
    }
    return object;
  }

  /**
   * Creates a shallow clone of `object` excluding the specified properties.
   * Property names may be specified as individual arguments or as arrays of
   * property names. If `callback` is passed, it will be executed for each property
   * in the `object`, omitting the properties `callback` returns truthy for. The
   * `callback` is bound to `thisArg` and invoked with three arguments; (value, key, object).
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Object} object The source object.
   * @param {Function|String} callback|[prop1, prop2, ...] The properties to omit
   *  or the function called per iteration.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Object} Returns an object without the omitted properties.
   * @example
   *
   * _.omit({ 'name': 'moe', 'age': 40, 'userid': 'moe1' }, 'userid');
   * // => { 'name': 'moe', 'age': 40 }
   *
   * _.omit({ 'name': 'moe', '_hint': 'knucklehead', '_seed': '96c4eb' }, function(value, key) {
   *   return key.charAt(0) == '_';
   * });
   * // => { 'name': 'moe' }
   */
  function omit(object, callback, thisArg) {
    var isFunc = typeof callback == 'function',
        result = {};

    if (isFunc) {
      callback = createCallback(callback, thisArg);
    } else {
      var props = concat.apply(arrayRef, arguments);
    }
    forIn(object, function(value, key, object) {
      if (isFunc
            ? !callback(value, key, object)
            : indexOf(props, key, 1) < 0
          ) {
        result[key] = value;
      }
    });
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Creates a two dimensional array of the given object's key-value pairs,
   * i.e. `[[key1, value1], [key2, value2]]`.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Object} object The object to inspect.
   * @returns {Array} Returns new array of key-value pairs.
   * @example
   *
   * _.pairs({ 'moe': 30, 'larry': 40, 'curly': 50 });
   * // => [['moe', 30], ['larry', 40], ['curly', 50]] (order is not guaranteed)
   */
  function pairs(object) {
    var result = [];
    forOwn(object, function(value, key) {
      result.push([key, value]);
    });
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Creates a shallow clone of `object` composed of the specified properties.
   * Property names may be specified as individual arguments or as arrays of
   * property names. If `callback` is passed, it will be executed for each property
   * in the `object`, picking the properties `callback` returns truthy for. The
   * `callback` is bound to `thisArg` and invoked with three arguments; (value, key, object).
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Object} object The source object.
   * @param {Function|String} callback|[prop1, prop2, ...] The properties to pick
   *  or the function called per iteration.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Object} Returns an object composed of the picked properties.
   * @example
   *
   * _.pick({ 'name': 'moe', 'age': 40, 'userid': 'moe1' }, 'name', 'age');
   * // => { 'name': 'moe', 'age': 40 }
   *
   * _.pick({ 'name': 'moe', '_hint': 'knucklehead', '_seed': '96c4eb' }, function(value, key) {
   *   return key.charAt(0) != '_';
   * });
   * // => { 'name': 'moe' }
   */
  function pick(object, callback, thisArg) {
    var result = {};
    if (typeof callback != 'function') {
      var index = 0,
          props = concat.apply(arrayRef, arguments),
          length = props.length;

      while (++index < length) {
        var key = props[index];
        if (key in object) {
          result[key] = object[key];
        }
      }
    } else {
      callback = createCallback(callback, thisArg);
      forIn(object, function(value, key, object) {
        if (callback(value, key, object)) {
          result[key] = value;
        }
      });
    }
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Creates an array composed of the own enumerable property values of `object`.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Objects
   * @param {Object} object The object to inspect.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new array of property values.
   * @example
   *
   * _.values({ 'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3 });
   * // => [1, 2, 3]
   */
  function values(object) {
    var result = [];
    forOwn(object, function(value) {
      result.push(value);
    });
    return result;
  }

  /*--------------------------------------------------------------------------*/

  /**
   * Checks if a given `target` element is present in a `collection` using strict
   * equality for comparisons, i.e. `===`. If `fromIndex` is negative, it is used
   * as the offset from the end of the collection.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @alias include
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to iterate over.
   * @param {Mixed} target The value to check for.
   * @param {Number} [fromIndex=0] The index to search from.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if the `target` element is found, else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.contains([1, 2, 3], 1);
   * // => true
   *
   * _.contains([1, 2, 3], 1, 2);
   * // => false
   *
   * _.contains({ 'name': 'moe', 'age': 40 }, 'moe');
   * // => true
   *
   * _.contains('curly', 'ur');
   * // => true
   */
  function contains(collection, target, fromIndex) {
    var index = -1,
        length = collection ? collection.length : 0;

    fromIndex = (fromIndex < 0 ? nativeMax(0, length + fromIndex) : fromIndex) || 0;
    if (typeof length == 'number') {
      return (isString(collection)
        ? collection.indexOf(target, fromIndex)
        : indexOf(collection, target, fromIndex)
      ) > -1;
    }
    return some(collection, function(value) {
      return ++index >= fromIndex && value === target;
    });
  }

  /**
   * Creates an object composed of keys returned from running each element of
   * `collection` through a `callback`. The corresponding value of each key is
   * the number of times the key was returned by `callback`. The `callback` is
   * bound to `thisArg` and invoked with three arguments; (value, index|key, collection).
   * The `callback` argument may also be the name of a property to count by (e.g. 'length').
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to iterate over.
   * @param {Function|String} callback|property The function called per iteration
   *  or property name to count by.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Object} Returns the composed aggregate object.
   * @example
   *
   * _.countBy([4.3, 6.1, 6.4], function(num) { return Math.floor(num); });
   * // => { '4': 1, '6': 2 }
   *
   * _.countBy([4.3, 6.1, 6.4], function(num) { return this.floor(num); }, Math);
   * // => { '4': 1, '6': 2 }
   *
   * _.countBy(['one', 'two', 'three'], 'length');
   * // => { '3': 2, '5': 1 }
   */
  function countBy(collection, callback, thisArg) {
    var result = {};
    callback = createCallback(callback, thisArg);
    forEach(collection, function(value, key, collection) {
      key = callback(value, key, collection);
      (hasOwnProperty.call(result, key) ? result[key]++ : result[key] = 1);
    });
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Checks if the `callback` returns a truthy value for **all** elements of a
   * `collection`. The `callback` is bound to `thisArg` and invoked with three
   * arguments; (value, index|key, collection).
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @alias all
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to iterate over.
   * @param {Function} [callback=identity] The function called per iteration.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if all elements pass the callback check,
   *  else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.every([true, 1, null, 'yes'], Boolean);
   * // => false
   */
  function every(collection, callback, thisArg) {
    var result = true;
    callback = createCallback(callback, thisArg);

    if (isArray(collection)) {
      var index = -1,
          length = collection.length;

      while (++index < length) {
        if (!(result = !!callback(collection[index], index, collection))) {
          break;
        }
      }
    } else {
      forEach(collection, function(value, index, collection) {
        return (result = !!callback(value, index, collection));
      });
    }
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Examines each element in a `collection`, returning an array of all elements
   * the `callback` returns truthy for. The `callback` is bound to `thisArg` and
   * invoked with three arguments; (value, index|key, collection).
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @alias select
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to iterate over.
   * @param {Function} [callback=identity] The function called per iteration.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new array of elements that passed the callback check.
   * @example
   *
   * var evens = _.filter([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6], function(num) { return num % 2 == 0; });
   * // => [2, 4, 6]
   */
  function filter(collection, callback, thisArg) {
    var result = [];
    callback = createCallback(callback, thisArg);
    forEach(collection, function(value, index, collection) {
      if (callback(value, index, collection)) {
        result.push(value);
      }
    });
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Examines each element in a `collection`, returning the first one the `callback`
   * returns truthy for. The function returns as soon as it finds an acceptable
   * element, and does not iterate over the entire `collection`. The `callback` is
   * bound to `thisArg` and invoked with three arguments; (value, index|key, collection).
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @alias detect
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to iterate over.
   * @param {Function} callback The function called per iteration.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Mixed} Returns the element that passed the callback check,
   *  else `undefined`.
   * @example
   *
   * var even = _.find([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6], function(num) { return num % 2 == 0; });
   * // => 2
   */
  function find(collection, callback, thisArg) {
    var result;
    callback = createCallback(callback, thisArg);
    forEach(collection, function(value, index, collection) {
      if (callback(value, index, collection)) {
        result = value;
        return false;
      }
    });
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Iterates over a `collection`, executing the `callback` for each element in
   * the `collection`. The `callback` is bound to `thisArg` and invoked with three
   * arguments; (value, index|key, collection). Callbacks may exit iteration early
   * by explicitly returning `false`.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @alias each
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to iterate over.
   * @param {Function} callback The function called per iteration.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Array|Object|String} Returns `collection`.
   * @example
   *
   * _([1, 2, 3]).forEach(alert).join(',');
   * // => alerts each number and returns '1,2,3'
   *
   * _.forEach({ 'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3 }, alert);
   * // => alerts each number (order is not guaranteed)
   */
  var forEach = createIterator(forEachIteratorOptions);

  /**
   * Creates an object composed of keys returned from running each element of
   * `collection` through a `callback`. The corresponding value of each key is an
   * array of elements passed to `callback` that returned the key. The `callback`
   * is bound to `thisArg` and invoked with three arguments; (value, index|key, collection).
   * The `callback` argument may also be the name of a property to group by (e.g. 'length').
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to iterate over.
   * @param {Function|String} callback|property The function called per iteration
   *  or property name to group by.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Object} Returns the composed aggregate object.
   * @example
   *
   * _.groupBy([4.2, 6.1, 6.4], function(num) { return Math.floor(num); });
   * // => { '4': [4.2], '6': [6.1, 6.4] }
   *
   * _.groupBy([4.2, 6.1, 6.4], function(num) { return this.floor(num); }, Math);
   * // => { '4': [4.2], '6': [6.1, 6.4] }
   *
   * _.groupBy(['one', 'two', 'three'], 'length');
   * // => { '3': ['one', 'two'], '5': ['three'] }
   */
  function groupBy(collection, callback, thisArg) {
    var result = {};
    callback = createCallback(callback, thisArg);
    forEach(collection, function(value, key, collection) {
      key = callback(value, key, collection);
      (hasOwnProperty.call(result, key) ? result[key] : result[key] = []).push(value);
    });
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Invokes the method named by `methodName` on each element in the `collection`,
   * returning an array of the results of each invoked method. Additional arguments
   * will be passed to each invoked method. If `methodName` is a function it will
   * be invoked for, and `this` bound to, each element in the `collection`.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to iterate over.
   * @param {Function|String} methodName The name of the method to invoke or
   *  the function invoked per iteration.
   * @param {Mixed} [arg1, arg2, ...] Arguments to invoke the method with.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new array of the results of each invoked method.
   * @example
   *
   * _.invoke([[5, 1, 7], [3, 2, 1]], 'sort');
   * // => [[1, 5, 7], [1, 2, 3]]
   *
   * _.invoke([123, 456], String.prototype.split, '');
   * // => [['1', '2', '3'], ['4', '5', '6']]
   */
  function invoke(collection, methodName) {
    var args = slice.call(arguments, 2),
        isFunc = typeof methodName == 'function',
        result = [];

    forEach(collection, function(value) {
      result.push((isFunc ? methodName : value[methodName]).apply(value, args));
    });
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Creates an array of values by running each element in the `collection`
   * through a `callback`. The `callback` is bound to `thisArg` and invoked with
   * three arguments; (value, index|key, collection).
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @alias collect
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to iterate over.
   * @param {Function} [callback=identity] The function called per iteration.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new array of the results of each `callback` execution.
   * @example
   *
   * _.map([1, 2, 3], function(num) { return num * 3; });
   * // => [3, 6, 9]
   *
   * _.map({ 'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3 }, function(num) { return num * 3; });
   * // => [3, 6, 9] (order is not guaranteed)
   */
  function map(collection, callback, thisArg) {
    var index = -1,
        length = collection ? collection.length : 0,
        result = Array(typeof length == 'number' ? length : 0);

    callback = createCallback(callback, thisArg);
    if (isArray(collection)) {
      while (++index < length) {
        result[index] = callback(collection[index], index, collection);
      }
    } else {
      forEach(collection, function(value, key, collection) {
        result[++index] = callback(value, key, collection);
      });
    }
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Retrieves the maximum value of an `array`. If `callback` is passed,
   * it will be executed for each value in the `array` to generate the
   * criterion by which the value is ranked. The `callback` is bound to
   * `thisArg` and invoked with three arguments; (value, index, collection).
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to iterate over.
   * @param {Function} [callback] The function called per iteration.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Mixed} Returns the maximum value.
   * @example
   *
   * var stooges = [
   *   { 'name': 'moe', 'age': 40 },
   *   { 'name': 'larry', 'age': 50 },
   *   { 'name': 'curly', 'age': 60 }
   * ];
   *
   * _.max(stooges, function(stooge) { return stooge.age; });
   * // => { 'name': 'curly', 'age': 60 };
   */
  function max(collection, callback, thisArg) {
    var computed = -Infinity,
        index = -1,
        length = collection ? collection.length : 0,
        result = computed;

    if (callback || !isArray(collection)) {
      callback = !callback && isString(collection)
        ? charAtCallback
        : createCallback(callback, thisArg);

      forEach(collection, function(value, index, collection) {
        var current = callback(value, index, collection);
        if (current > computed) {
          computed = current;
          result = value;
        }
      });
    } else {
      while (++index < length) {
        if (collection[index] > result) {
          result = collection[index];
        }
      }
    }
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Retrieves the minimum value of an `array`. If `callback` is passed,
   * it will be executed for each value in the `array` to generate the
   * criterion by which the value is ranked. The `callback` is bound to `thisArg`
   * and invoked with three arguments; (value, index, collection).
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to iterate over.
   * @param {Function} [callback] The function called per iteration.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Mixed} Returns the minimum value.
   * @example
   *
   * _.min([10, 5, 100, 2, 1000]);
   * // => 2
   */
  function min(collection, callback, thisArg) {
    var computed = Infinity,
        index = -1,
        length = collection ? collection.length : 0,
        result = computed;

    if (callback || !isArray(collection)) {
      callback = !callback && isString(collection)
        ? charAtCallback
        : createCallback(callback, thisArg);

      forEach(collection, function(value, index, collection) {
        var current = callback(value, index, collection);
        if (current < computed) {
          computed = current;
          result = value;
        }
      });
    } else {
      while (++index < length) {
        if (collection[index] < result) {
          result = collection[index];
        }
      }
    }
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Retrieves the value of a specified property from all elements in
   * the `collection`.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to iterate over.
   * @param {String} property The property to pluck.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new array of property values.
   * @example
   *
   * var stooges = [
   *   { 'name': 'moe', 'age': 40 },
   *   { 'name': 'larry', 'age': 50 },
   *   { 'name': 'curly', 'age': 60 }
   * ];
   *
   * _.pluck(stooges, 'name');
   * // => ['moe', 'larry', 'curly']
   */
  function pluck(collection, property) {
    var result = [];
    forEach(collection, function(value) {
      result.push(value[property]);
    });
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Boils down a `collection` to a single value. The initial state of the
   * reduction is `accumulator` and each successive step of it should be returned
   * by the `callback`. The `callback` is bound to `thisArg` and invoked with 4
   * arguments; for arrays they are (accumulator, value, index|key, collection).
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @alias foldl, inject
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to iterate over.
   * @param {Function} callback The function called per iteration.
   * @param {Mixed} [accumulator] Initial value of the accumulator.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Mixed} Returns the accumulated value.
   * @example
   *
   * var sum = _.reduce([1, 2, 3], function(memo, num) { return memo + num; });
   * // => 6
   */
  function reduce(collection, callback, accumulator, thisArg) {
    var noaccum = arguments.length < 3;
    callback = createCallback(callback, thisArg);
    forEach(collection, function(value, index, collection) {
      accumulator = noaccum
        ? (noaccum = false, value)
        : callback(accumulator, value, index, collection)
    });
    return accumulator;
  }

  /**
   * The right-associative version of `_.reduce`.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @alias foldr
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to iterate over.
   * @param {Function} callback The function called per iteration.
   * @param {Mixed} [accumulator] Initial value of the accumulator.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Mixed} Returns the accumulated value.
   * @example
   *
   * var list = [[0, 1], [2, 3], [4, 5]];
   * var flat = _.reduceRight(list, function(a, b) { return a.concat(b); }, []);
   * // => [4, 5, 2, 3, 0, 1]
   */
  function reduceRight(collection, callback, accumulator, thisArg) {
    var iteratee = collection,
        length = collection ? collection.length : 0,
        noaccum = arguments.length < 3;

    if (typeof length != 'number') {
      var props = keys(collection);
      length = props.length;
    } else if (noCharByIndex && isString(collection)) {
      iteratee = collection.split('');
    }
    forEach(collection, function(value, index, collection) {
      index = props ? props[--length] : --length;
      accumulator = noaccum
        ? (noaccum = false, iteratee[index])
        : callback.call(thisArg, accumulator, iteratee[index], index, collection);
    });
    return accumulator;
  }

  /**
   * The opposite of `_.filter`, this method returns the values of a
   * `collection` that `callback` does **not** return truthy for.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to iterate over.
   * @param {Function} [callback=identity] The function called per iteration.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new array of elements that did **not** pass the
   *  callback check.
   * @example
   *
   * var odds = _.reject([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6], function(num) { return num % 2 == 0; });
   * // => [1, 3, 5]
   */
  function reject(collection, callback, thisArg) {
    callback = createCallback(callback, thisArg);
    return filter(collection, function(value, index, collection) {
      return !callback(value, index, collection);
    });
  }

  /**
   * Creates an array of shuffled `array` values, using a version of the
   * Fisher-Yates shuffle. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisher-Yates_shuffle.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to shuffle.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new shuffled collection.
   * @example
   *
   * _.shuffle([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]);
   * // => [4, 1, 6, 3, 5, 2]
   */
  function shuffle(collection) {
    var index = -1,
        result = Array(collection ? collection.length : 0);

    forEach(collection, function(value) {
      var rand = floor(nativeRandom() * (++index + 1));
      result[index] = result[rand];
      result[rand] = value;
    });
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Gets the size of the `collection` by returning `collection.length` for arrays
   * and array-like objects or the number of own enumerable properties for objects.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to inspect.
   * @returns {Number} Returns `collection.length` or number of own enumerable properties.
   * @example
   *
   * _.size([1, 2]);
   * // => 2
   *
   * _.size({ 'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3 });
   * // => 3
   *
   * _.size('curly');
   * // => 5
   */
  function size(collection) {
    var length = collection ? collection.length : 0;
    return typeof length == 'number' ? length : keys(collection).length;
  }

  /**
   * Checks if the `callback` returns a truthy value for **any** element of a
   * `collection`. The function returns as soon as it finds passing value, and
   * does not iterate over the entire `collection`. The `callback` is bound to
   * `thisArg` and invoked with three arguments; (value, index|key, collection).
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @alias any
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to iterate over.
   * @param {Function} [callback=identity] The function called per iteration.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Boolean} Returns `true` if any element passes the callback check,
   *  else `false`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.some([null, 0, 'yes', false]);
   * // => true
   */
  function some(collection, callback, thisArg) {
    var result;
    callback = createCallback(callback, thisArg);

    if (isArray(collection)) {
      var index = -1,
          length = collection.length;

      while (++index < length) {
        if (result = callback(collection[index], index, collection)) {
          break;
        }
      }
    } else {
      forEach(collection, function(value, index, collection) {
        return !(result = callback(value, index, collection));
      });
    }
    return !!result;
  }

  /**
   * Creates an array, stable sorted in ascending order by the results of
   * running each element of `collection` through a `callback`. The `callback`
   * is bound to `thisArg` and invoked with three arguments; (value, index|key, collection).
   * The `callback` argument may also be the name of a property to sort by (e.g. 'length').
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to iterate over.
   * @param {Function|String} callback|property The function called per iteration
   *  or property name to sort by.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new array of sorted elements.
   * @example
   *
   * _.sortBy([1, 2, 3], function(num) { return Math.sin(num); });
   * // => [3, 1, 2]
   *
   * _.sortBy([1, 2, 3], function(num) { return this.sin(num); }, Math);
   * // => [3, 1, 2]
   *
   * _.sortBy(['larry', 'brendan', 'moe'], 'length');
   * // => ['moe', 'larry', 'brendan']
   */
  function sortBy(collection, callback, thisArg) {
    var result = [];
    callback = createCallback(callback, thisArg);
    forEach(collection, function(value, index, collection) {
      result.push({
        'criteria': callback(value, index, collection),
        'index': index,
        'value': value
      });
    });

    var length = result.length;
    result.sort(compareAscending);
    while (length--) {
      result[length] = result[length].value;
    }
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Converts the `collection`, to an array.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to convert.
   * @returns {Array} Returns the new converted array.
   * @example
   *
   * (function() { return _.toArray(arguments).slice(1); })(1, 2, 3, 4);
   * // => [2, 3, 4]
   */
  function toArray(collection) {
    if (collection && typeof collection.length == 'number') {
      return (noArraySliceOnStrings ? isString(collection) : typeof collection == 'string')
        ? collection.split('')
        : slice.call(collection);
    }
    return values(collection);
  }

  /**
   * Examines each element in a `collection`, returning an array of all elements
   * that contain the given `properties`.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Collections
   * @param {Array|Object|String} collection The collection to iterate over.
   * @param {Object} properties The object of property values to filter by.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new array of elements that contain the given `properties`.
   * @example
   *
   * var stooges = [
   *   { 'name': 'moe', 'age': 40 },
   *   { 'name': 'larry', 'age': 50 },
   *   { 'name': 'curly', 'age': 60 }
   * ];
   *
   * _.where(stooges, { 'age': 40 });
   * // => [{ 'name': 'moe', 'age': 40 }]
   */
  function where(collection, properties) {
    var props = [];
    forIn(properties, function(value, prop) {
      props.push(prop);
    });
    return filter(collection, function(object) {
      var length = props.length;
      while (length--) {
        var result = object[props[length]] === properties[props[length]];
        if (!result) {
          break;
        }
      }
      return !!result;
    });
  }

  /*--------------------------------------------------------------------------*/

  /**
   * Creates an array with all falsey values of `array` removed. The values
   * `false`, `null`, `0`, `""`, `undefined` and `NaN` are all falsey.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Arrays
   * @param {Array} array The array to compact.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new filtered array.
   * @example
   *
   * _.compact([0, 1, false, 2, '', 3]);
   * // => [1, 2, 3]
   */
  function compact(array) {
    var index = -1,
        length = array ? array.length : 0,
        result = [];

    while (++index < length) {
      var value = array[index];
      if (value) {
        result.push(value);
      }
    }
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Creates an array of `array` elements not present in the other arrays
   * using strict equality for comparisons, i.e. `===`.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Arrays
   * @param {Array} array The array to process.
   * @param {Array} [array1, array2, ...] Arrays to check.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new array of `array` elements not present in the
   *  other arrays.
   * @example
   *
   * _.difference([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], [5, 2, 10]);
   * // => [1, 3, 4]
   */
  function difference(array) {
    var index = -1,
        length = array ? array.length : 0,
        flattened = concat.apply(arrayRef, arguments),
        contains = cachedContains(flattened, length),
        result = [];

    while (++index < length) {
      var value = array[index];
      if (!contains(value)) {
        result.push(value);
      }
    }
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Gets the first element of the `array`. Pass `n` to return the first `n`
   * elements of the `array`.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @alias head, take
   * @category Arrays
   * @param {Array} array The array to query.
   * @param {Number} [n] The number of elements to return.
   * @param- {Object} [guard] Internally used to allow this method to work with
   *  others like `_.map` without using their callback `index` argument for `n`.
   * @returns {Mixed} Returns the first element or an array of the first `n`
   *  elements of `array`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.first([5, 4, 3, 2, 1]);
   * // => 5
   */
  function first(array, n, guard) {
    if (array) {
      return (n == null || guard) ? array[0] : slice.call(array, 0, n);
    }
  }

  /**
   * Flattens a nested array (the nesting can be to any depth). If `shallow` is
   * truthy, `array` will only be flattened a single level.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Arrays
   * @param {Array} array The array to compact.
   * @param {Boolean} shallow A flag to indicate only flattening a single level.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new flattened array.
   * @example
   *
   * _.flatten([1, [2], [3, [[4]]]]);
   * // => [1, 2, 3, 4];
   *
   * _.flatten([1, [2], [3, [[4]]]], true);
   * // => [1, 2, 3, [[4]]];
   */
  function flatten(array, shallow) {
    var index = -1,
        length = array ? array.length : 0,
        result = [];

    while (++index < length) {
      var value = array[index];

      // recursively flatten arrays (susceptible to call stack limits)
      if (isArray(value)) {
        push.apply(result, shallow ? value : flatten(value));
      } else {
        result.push(value);
      }
    }
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Gets the index at which the first occurrence of `value` is found using
   * strict equality for comparisons, i.e. `===`. If the `array` is already
   * sorted, passing `true` for `fromIndex` will run a faster binary search.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Arrays
   * @param {Array} array The array to search.
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to search for.
   * @param {Boolean|Number} [fromIndex=0] The index to search from or `true` to
   *  perform a binary search on a sorted `array`.
   * @returns {Number} Returns the index of the matched value or `-1`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.indexOf([1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3], 2);
   * // => 1
   *
   * _.indexOf([1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3], 2, 3);
   * // => 4
   *
   * _.indexOf([1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3], 2, true);
   * // => 2
   */
  function indexOf(array, value, fromIndex) {
    var index = -1,
        length = array ? array.length : 0;

    if (typeof fromIndex == 'number') {
      index = (fromIndex < 0 ? nativeMax(0, length + fromIndex) : fromIndex || 0) - 1;
    } else if (fromIndex) {
      index = sortedIndex(array, value);
      return array[index] === value ? index : -1;
    }
    while (++index < length) {
      if (array[index] === value) {
        return index;
      }
    }
    return -1;
  }

  /**
   * Gets all but the last element of `array`. Pass `n` to exclude the last `n`
   * elements from the result.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Arrays
   * @param {Array} array The array to query.
   * @param {Number} [n=1] The number of elements to exclude.
   * @param- {Object} [guard] Internally used to allow this method to work with
   *  others like `_.map` without using their callback `index` argument for `n`.
   * @returns {Array} Returns all but the last element or `n` elements of `array`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.initial([3, 2, 1]);
   * // => [3, 2]
   */
  function initial(array, n, guard) {
    return array
      ? slice.call(array, 0, -((n == null || guard) ? 1 : n))
      : [];
  }

  /**
   * Computes the intersection of all the passed-in arrays using strict equality
   * for comparisons, i.e. `===`.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Arrays
   * @param {Array} [array1, array2, ...] Arrays to process.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new array of unique elements, in order, that are
   *  present in **all** of the arrays.
   * @example
   *
   * _.intersection([1, 2, 3], [101, 2, 1, 10], [2, 1]);
   * // => [1, 2]
   */
  function intersection(array) {
    var args = arguments,
        argsLength = args.length,
        cache = {},
        result = [];

    forEach(array, function(value) {
      if (indexOf(result, value) < 0) {
        var length = argsLength;
        while (--length) {
          if (!(cache[length] || (cache[length] = cachedContains(args[length])))(value)) {
            return;
          }
        }
        result.push(value);
      }
    });
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Gets the last element of the `array`. Pass `n` to return the last `n`
   * elements of the `array`.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Arrays
   * @param {Array} array The array to query.
   * @param {Number} [n] The number of elements to return.
   * @param- {Object} [guard] Internally used to allow this method to work with
   *  others like `_.map` without using their callback `index` argument for `n`.
   * @returns {Mixed} Returns the last element or an array of the last `n`
   *  elements of `array`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.last([3, 2, 1]);
   * // => 1
   */
  function last(array, n, guard) {
    if (array) {
      var length = array.length;
      return (n == null || guard) ? array[length - 1] : slice.call(array, -n || length);
    }
  }

  /**
   * Gets the index at which the last occurrence of `value` is found using strict
   * equality for comparisons, i.e. `===`. If `fromIndex` is negative, it is used
   * as the offset from the end of the collection.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Arrays
   * @param {Array} array The array to search.
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to search for.
   * @param {Number} [fromIndex=array.length-1] The index to search from.
   * @returns {Number} Returns the index of the matched value or `-1`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.lastIndexOf([1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3], 2);
   * // => 4
   *
   * _.lastIndexOf([1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3], 2, 3);
   * // => 1
   */
  function lastIndexOf(array, value, fromIndex) {
    var index = array ? array.length : 0;
    if (typeof fromIndex == 'number') {
      index = (fromIndex < 0 ? nativeMax(0, index + fromIndex) : nativeMin(fromIndex, index - 1)) + 1;
    }
    while (index--) {
      if (array[index] === value) {
        return index;
      }
    }
    return -1;
  }

  /**
   * Creates an object composed from arrays of `keys` and `values`. Pass either
   * a single two dimensional array, i.e. `[[key1, value1], [key2, value2]]`, or
   * two arrays, one of `keys` and one of corresponding `values`.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Arrays
   * @param {Array} keys The array of keys.
   * @param {Array} [values=[]] The array of values.
   * @returns {Object} Returns an object composed of the given keys and
   *  corresponding values.
   * @example
   *
   * _.object(['moe', 'larry', 'curly'], [30, 40, 50]);
   * // => { 'moe': 30, 'larry': 40, 'curly': 50 }
   */
  function object(keys, values) {
    var index = -1,
        length = keys ? keys.length : 0,
        result = {};

    while (++index < length) {
      var key = keys[index];
      if (values) {
        result[key] = values[index];
      } else {
        result[key[0]] = key[1];
      }
    }
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Creates an array of numbers (positive and/or negative) progressing from
   * `start` up to but not including `stop`. This method is a port of Python's
   * `range()` function. See http://docs.python.org/library/functions.html#range.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Arrays
   * @param {Number} [start=0] The start of the range.
   * @param {Number} end The end of the range.
   * @param {Number} [step=1] The value to increment or descrement by.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new range array.
   * @example
   *
   * _.range(10);
   * // => [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
   *
   * _.range(1, 11);
   * // => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
   *
   * _.range(0, 30, 5);
   * // => [0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
   *
   * _.range(0, -10, -1);
   * // => [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]
   *
   * _.range(0);
   * // => []
   */
  function range(start, end, step) {
    start = +start || 0;
    step = +step || 1;

    if (end == null) {
      end = start;
      start = 0;
    }
    // use `Array(length)` so V8 will avoid the slower "dictionary" mode
    // http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XAqIpGU8ZZk#t=16m27s
    var index = -1,
        length = nativeMax(0, ceil((end - start) / step)),
        result = Array(length);

    while (++index < length) {
      result[index] = start;
      start += step;
    }
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * The opposite of `_.initial`, this method gets all but the first value of
   * `array`. Pass `n` to exclude the first `n` values from the result.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @alias drop, tail
   * @category Arrays
   * @param {Array} array The array to query.
   * @param {Number} [n=1] The number of elements to exclude.
   * @param- {Object} [guard] Internally used to allow this method to work with
   *  others like `_.map` without using their callback `index` argument for `n`.
   * @returns {Array} Returns all but the first value or `n` values of `array`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.rest([3, 2, 1]);
   * // => [2, 1]
   */
  function rest(array, n, guard) {
    return array
      ? slice.call(array, (n == null || guard) ? 1 : n)
      : [];
  }

  /**
   * Uses a binary search to determine the smallest index at which the `value`
   * should be inserted into `array` in order to maintain the sort order of the
   * sorted `array`. If `callback` is passed, it will be executed for `value` and
   * each element in `array` to compute their sort ranking. The `callback` is
   * bound to `thisArg` and invoked with one argument; (value). The `callback`
   * argument may also be the name of a property to order by.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Arrays
   * @param {Array} array The array to iterate over.
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to evaluate.
   * @param {Function|String} [callback=identity|property] The function called
   *  per iteration or property name to order by.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Number} Returns the index at which the value should be inserted
   *  into `array`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.sortedIndex([20, 30, 50], 40);
   * // => 2
   *
   * _.sortedIndex([{ 'x': 20 }, { 'x': 30 }, { 'x': 50 }], { 'x': 40 }, 'x');
   * // => 2
   *
   * var dict = {
   *   'wordToNumber': { 'twenty': 20, 'thirty': 30, 'fourty': 40, 'fifty': 50 }
   * };
   *
   * _.sortedIndex(['twenty', 'thirty', 'fifty'], 'fourty', function(word) {
   *   return dict.wordToNumber[word];
   * });
   * // => 2
   *
   * _.sortedIndex(['twenty', 'thirty', 'fifty'], 'fourty', function(word) {
   *   return this.wordToNumber[word];
   * }, dict);
   * // => 2
   */
  function sortedIndex(array, value, callback, thisArg) {
    var low = 0,
        high = array ? array.length : low;

    // explicitly reference `identity` for better engine inlining
    callback = callback ? createCallback(callback, thisArg) : identity;
    value = callback(value);
    while (low < high) {
      var mid = (low + high) >>> 1;
      callback(array[mid]) < value
        ? low = mid + 1
        : high = mid;
    }
    return low;
  }

  /**
   * Computes the union of the passed-in arrays using strict equality for
   * comparisons, i.e. `===`.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Arrays
   * @param {Array} [array1, array2, ...] Arrays to process.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new array of unique values, in order, that are
   *  present in one or more of the arrays.
   * @example
   *
   * _.union([1, 2, 3], [101, 2, 1, 10], [2, 1]);
   * // => [1, 2, 3, 101, 10]
   */
  function union() {
    return uniq(concat.apply(arrayRef, arguments));
  }

  /**
   * Creates a duplicate-value-free version of the `array` using strict equality
   * for comparisons, i.e. `===`. If the `array` is already sorted, passing `true`
   * for `isSorted` will run a faster algorithm. If `callback` is passed, each
   * element of `array` is passed through a callback` before uniqueness is computed.
   * The `callback` is bound to `thisArg` and invoked with three arguments; (value, index, array).
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @alias unique
   * @category Arrays
   * @param {Array} array The array to process.
   * @param {Boolean} [isSorted=false] A flag to indicate that the `array` is already sorted.
   * @param {Function} [callback=identity] The function called per iteration.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a duplicate-value-free array.
   * @example
   *
   * _.uniq([1, 2, 1, 3, 1]);
   * // => [1, 2, 3]
   *
   * _.uniq([1, 1, 2, 2, 3], true);
   * // => [1, 2, 3]
   *
   * _.uniq([1, 2, 1.5, 3, 2.5], function(num) { return Math.floor(num); });
   * // => [1, 2, 3]
   *
   * _.uniq([1, 2, 1.5, 3, 2.5], function(num) { return this.floor(num); }, Math);
   * // => [1, 2, 3]
   */
  function uniq(array, isSorted, callback, thisArg) {
    var index = -1,
        length = array ? array.length : 0,
        result = [],
        seen = result;

    // juggle arguments
    if (typeof isSorted == 'function') {
      thisArg = callback;
      callback = isSorted;
      isSorted = false;
    }
    // init value cache for large arrays
    var isLarge = !isSorted && length > 74;
    if (isLarge) {
      var cache = {};
    }
    if (callback) {
      seen = [];
      callback = createCallback(callback, thisArg);
    }
    while (++index < length) {
      var value = array[index],
          computed = callback ? callback(value, index, array) : value;

      if (isLarge) {
        // manually coerce `computed` to a string because `hasOwnProperty`, in
        // some older versions of Firefox, coerces objects incorrectly
        seen = hasOwnProperty.call(cache, computed + '') ? cache[computed] : (cache[computed] = []);
      }
      if (isSorted
            ? !index || seen[seen.length - 1] !== computed
            : indexOf(seen, computed) < 0
          ) {
        if (callback || isLarge) {
          seen.push(computed);
        }
        result.push(value);
      }
    }
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Creates an array with all occurrences of the passed values removed using
   * strict equality for comparisons, i.e. `===`.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Arrays
   * @param {Array} array The array to filter.
   * @param {Mixed} [value1, value2, ...] Values to remove.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new filtered array.
   * @example
   *
   * _.without([1, 2, 1, 0, 3, 1, 4], 0, 1);
   * // => [2, 3, 4]
   */
  function without(array) {
    var index = -1,
        length = array ? array.length : 0,
        contains = cachedContains(arguments, 1, 20),
        result = [];

    while (++index < length) {
      var value = array[index];
      if (!contains(value)) {
        result.push(value);
      }
    }
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Groups the elements of each array at their corresponding indexes. Useful for
   * separate data sources that are coordinated through matching array indexes.
   * For a matrix of nested arrays, `_.zip.apply(...)` can transpose the matrix
   * in a similar fashion.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Arrays
   * @param {Array} [array1, array2, ...] Arrays to process.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new array of grouped elements.
   * @example
   *
   * _.zip(['moe', 'larry', 'curly'], [30, 40, 50], [true, false, false]);
   * // => [['moe', 30, true], ['larry', 40, false], ['curly', 50, false]]
   */
  function zip(array) {
    var index = -1,
        length = array ? max(pluck(arguments, 'length')) : 0,
        result = Array(length);

    while (++index < length) {
      result[index] = pluck(arguments, index);
    }
    return result;
  }

  /*--------------------------------------------------------------------------*/

  /**
   * Creates a function that is restricted to executing `func` only after it is
   * called `n` times. The `func` is executed with the `this` binding of the
   * created function.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Functions
   * @param {Number} n The number of times the function must be called before
   * it is executed.
   * @param {Function} func The function to restrict.
   * @returns {Function} Returns the new restricted function.
   * @example
   *
   * var renderNotes = _.after(notes.length, render);
   * _.forEach(notes, function(note) {
   *   note.asyncSave({ 'success': renderNotes });
   * });
   * // `renderNotes` is run once, after all notes have saved
   */
  function after(n, func) {
    if (n < 1) {
      return func();
    }
    return function() {
      if (--n < 1) {
        return func.apply(this, arguments);
      }
    };
  }

  /**
   * Creates a function that, when called, invokes `func` with the `this`
   * binding of `thisArg` and prepends any additional `bind` arguments to those
   * passed to the bound function.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Functions
   * @param {Function} func The function to bind.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `func`.
   * @param {Mixed} [arg1, arg2, ...] Arguments to be partially applied.
   * @returns {Function} Returns the new bound function.
   * @example
   *
   * var func = function(greeting) {
   *   return greeting + ' ' + this.name;
   * };
   *
   * func = _.bind(func, { 'name': 'moe' }, 'hi');
   * func();
   * // => 'hi moe'
   */
  function bind(func, thisArg) {
    // use `Function#bind` if it exists and is fast
    // (in V8 `Function#bind` is slower except when partially applied)
    return isBindFast || (nativeBind && arguments.length > 2)
      ? nativeBind.call.apply(nativeBind, arguments)
      : createBound(func, thisArg, slice.call(arguments, 2));
  }

  /**
   * Binds methods on `object` to `object`, overwriting the existing method.
   * If no method names are provided, all the function properties of `object`
   * will be bound.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Functions
   * @param {Object} object The object to bind and assign the bound methods to.
   * @param {String} [methodName1, methodName2, ...] Method names on the object to bind.
   * @returns {Object} Returns `object`.
   * @example
   *
   * var buttonView = {
   *  'label': 'lodash',
   *  'onClick': function() { alert('clicked: ' + this.label); }
   * };
   *
   * _.bindAll(buttonView);
   * jQuery('#lodash_button').on('click', buttonView.onClick);
   * // => When the button is clicked, `this.label` will have the correct value
   */
  function bindAll(object) {
    var funcs = arguments,
        index = funcs.length > 1 ? 0 : (funcs = functions(object), -1),
        length = funcs.length;

    while (++index < length) {
      var key = funcs[index];
      object[key] = bind(object[key], object);
    }
    return object;
  }

  /**
   * Creates a function that is the composition of the passed functions,
   * where each function consumes the return value of the function that follows.
   * In math terms, composing the functions `f()`, `g()`, and `h()` produces `f(g(h()))`.
   * Each function is executed with the `this` binding of the composed function.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Functions
   * @param {Function} [func1, func2, ...] Functions to compose.
   * @returns {Function} Returns the new composed function.
   * @example
   *
   * var greet = function(name) { return 'hi: ' + name; };
   * var exclaim = function(statement) { return statement + '!'; };
   * var welcome = _.compose(exclaim, greet);
   * welcome('moe');
   * // => 'hi: moe!'
   */
  function compose() {
    var funcs = arguments;
    return function() {
      var args = arguments,
          length = funcs.length;

      while (length--) {
        args = [funcs[length].apply(this, args)];
      }
      return args[0];
    };
  }

  /**
   * Creates a function that will delay the execution of `func` until after
   * `wait` milliseconds have elapsed since the last time it was invoked. Pass
   * `true` for `immediate` to cause debounce to invoke `func` on the leading,
   * instead of the trailing, edge of the `wait` timeout. Subsequent calls to
   * the debounced function will return the result of the last `func` call.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Functions
   * @param {Function} func The function to debounce.
   * @param {Number} wait The number of milliseconds to delay.
   * @param {Boolean} immediate A flag to indicate execution is on the leading
   *  edge of the timeout.
   * @returns {Function} Returns the new debounced function.
   * @example
   *
   * var lazyLayout = _.debounce(calculateLayout, 300);
   * jQuery(window).on('resize', lazyLayout);
   */
  function debounce(func, wait, immediate) {
    var args,
        result,
        thisArg,
        timeoutId;

    function delayed() {
      timeoutId = null;
      if (!immediate) {
        result = func.apply(thisArg, args);
      }
    }
    return function() {
      var isImmediate = immediate && !timeoutId;
      args = arguments;
      thisArg = this;

      clearTimeout(timeoutId);
      timeoutId = setTimeout(delayed, wait);

      if (isImmediate) {
        result = func.apply(thisArg, args);
      }
      return result;
    };
  }

  /**
   * Executes the `func` function after `wait` milliseconds. Additional arguments
   * will be passed to `func` when it is invoked.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Functions
   * @param {Function} func The function to delay.
   * @param {Number} wait The number of milliseconds to delay execution.
   * @param {Mixed} [arg1, arg2, ...] Arguments to invoke the function with.
   * @returns {Number} Returns the `setTimeout` timeout id.
   * @example
   *
   * var log = _.bind(console.log, console);
   * _.delay(log, 1000, 'logged later');
   * // => 'logged later' (Appears after one second.)
   */
  function delay(func, wait) {
    var args = slice.call(arguments, 2);
    return setTimeout(function() { func.apply(undefined, args); }, wait);
  }

  /**
   * Defers executing the `func` function until the current call stack has cleared.
   * Additional arguments will be passed to `func` when it is invoked.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Functions
   * @param {Function} func The function to defer.
   * @param {Mixed} [arg1, arg2, ...] Arguments to invoke the function with.
   * @returns {Number} Returns the `setTimeout` timeout id.
   * @example
   *
   * _.defer(function() { alert('deferred'); });
   * // returns from the function before `alert` is called
   */
  function defer(func) {
    var args = slice.call(arguments, 1);
    return setTimeout(function() { func.apply(undefined, args); }, 1);
  }

  /**
   * Creates a function that, when called, invokes `object[methodName]` and
   * prepends any additional `lateBind` arguments to those passed to the bound
   * function. This method differs from `_.bind` by allowing bound functions to
   * reference methods that will be redefined or don't yet exist.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Functions
   * @param {Object} object The object the method belongs to.
   * @param {String} methodName The method name.
   * @param {Mixed} [arg1, arg2, ...] Arguments to be partially applied.
   * @returns {Function} Returns the new bound function.
   * @example
   *
   * var object = {
   *   'name': 'moe',
   *   'greet': function(greeting) {
   *     return greeting + ' ' + this.name;
   *   }
   * };
   *
   * var func = _.lateBind(object, 'greet', 'hi');
   * func();
   * // => 'hi moe'
   *
   * object.greet = function(greeting) {
   *   return greeting + ', ' + this.name + '!';
   * };
   *
   * func();
   * // => 'hi, moe!'
   */
  function lateBind(object, methodName) {
    return createBound(methodName, object, slice.call(arguments, 2));
  }

  /**
   * Creates a function that memoizes the result of `func`. If `resolver` is
   * passed, it will be used to determine the cache key for storing the result
   * based on the arguments passed to the memoized function. By default, the first
   * argument passed to the memoized function is used as the cache key. The `func`
   * is executed with the `this` binding of the memoized function.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Functions
   * @param {Function} func The function to have its output memoized.
   * @param {Function} [resolver] A function used to resolve the cache key.
   * @returns {Function} Returns the new memoizing function.
   * @example
   *
   * var fibonacci = _.memoize(function(n) {
   *   return n < 2 ? n : fibonacci(n - 1) + fibonacci(n - 2);
   * });
   */
  function memoize(func, resolver) {
    var cache = {};
    return function() {
      var key = resolver ? resolver.apply(this, arguments) : arguments[0];
      return hasOwnProperty.call(cache, key)
        ? cache[key]
        : (cache[key] = func.apply(this, arguments));
    };
  }

  /**
   * Creates a function that is restricted to execute `func` once. Repeat calls to
   * the function will return the value of the first call. The `func` is executed
   * with the `this` binding of the created function.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Functions
   * @param {Function} func The function to restrict.
   * @returns {Function} Returns the new restricted function.
   * @example
   *
   * var initialize = _.once(createApplication);
   * initialize();
   * initialize();
   * // Application is only created once.
   */
  function once(func) {
    var result,
        ran = false;

    return function() {
      if (ran) {
        return result;
      }
      ran = true;
      result = func.apply(this, arguments);

      // clear the `func` variable so the function may be garbage collected
      func = null;
      return result;
    };
  }

  /**
   * Creates a function that, when called, invokes `func` with any additional
   * `partial` arguments prepended to those passed to the new function. This
   * method is similar to `bind`, except it does **not** alter the `this` binding.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Functions
   * @param {Function} func The function to partially apply arguments to.
   * @param {Mixed} [arg1, arg2, ...] Arguments to be partially applied.
   * @returns {Function} Returns the new partially applied function.
   * @example
   *
   * var greet = function(greeting, name) { return greeting + ': ' + name; };
   * var hi = _.partial(greet, 'hi');
   * hi('moe');
   * // => 'hi: moe'
   */
  function partial(func) {
    return createBound(func, slice.call(arguments, 1));
  }

  /**
   * Creates a function that, when executed, will only call the `func`
   * function at most once per every `wait` milliseconds. If the throttled
   * function is invoked more than once during the `wait` timeout, `func` will
   * also be called on the trailing edge of the timeout. Subsequent calls to the
   * throttled function will return the result of the last `func` call.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Functions
   * @param {Function} func The function to throttle.
   * @param {Number} wait The number of milliseconds to throttle executions to.
   * @returns {Function} Returns the new throttled function.
   * @example
   *
   * var throttled = _.throttle(updatePosition, 100);
   * jQuery(window).on('scroll', throttled);
   */
  function throttle(func, wait) {
    var args,
        result,
        thisArg,
        timeoutId,
        lastCalled = 0;

    function trailingCall() {
      lastCalled = new Date;
      timeoutId = null;
      result = func.apply(thisArg, args);
    }
    return function() {
      var now = new Date,
          remaining = wait - (now - lastCalled);

      args = arguments;
      thisArg = this;

      if (remaining <= 0) {
        clearTimeout(timeoutId);
        lastCalled = now;
        result = func.apply(thisArg, args);
      }
      else if (!timeoutId) {
        timeoutId = setTimeout(trailingCall, remaining);
      }
      return result;
    };
  }

  /**
   * Creates a function that passes `value` to the `wrapper` function as its
   * first argument. Additional arguments passed to the function are appended
   * to those passed to the `wrapper` function. The `wrapper` is executed with
   * the `this` binding of the created function.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Functions
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to wrap.
   * @param {Function} wrapper The wrapper function.
   * @returns {Function} Returns the new function.
   * @example
   *
   * var hello = function(name) { return 'hello ' + name; };
   * hello = _.wrap(hello, function(func) {
   *   return 'before, ' + func('moe') + ', after';
   * });
   * hello();
   * // => 'before, hello moe, after'
   */
  function wrap(value, wrapper) {
    return function() {
      var args = [value];
      push.apply(args, arguments);
      return wrapper.apply(this, args);
    };
  }

  /*--------------------------------------------------------------------------*/

  /**
   * Converts the characters `&`, `<`, `>`, `"`, and `'` in `string` to their
   * corresponding HTML entities.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Utilities
   * @param {String} string The string to escape.
   * @returns {String} Returns the escaped string.
   * @example
   *
   * _.escape('Moe, Larry & Curly');
   * // => "Moe, Larry &amp; Curly"
   */
  function escape(string) {
    return string == null ? '' : (string + '').replace(reUnescapedHtml, escapeHtmlChar);
  }

  /**
   * This function returns the first argument passed to it.
   *
   * Note: It is used throughout Lo-Dash as a default callback.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Utilities
   * @param {Mixed} value Any value.
   * @returns {Mixed} Returns `value`.
   * @example
   *
   * var moe = { 'name': 'moe' };
   * moe === _.identity(moe);
   * // => true
   */
  function identity(value) {
    return value;
  }

  /**
   * Adds functions properties of `object` to the `lodash` function and chainable
   * wrapper.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Utilities
   * @param {Object} object The object of function properties to add to `lodash`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.mixin({
   *   'capitalize': function(string) {
   *     return string.charAt(0).toUpperCase() + string.slice(1).toLowerCase();
   *   }
   * });
   *
   * _.capitalize('larry');
   * // => 'Larry'
   *
   * _('curly').capitalize();
   * // => 'Curly'
   */
  function mixin(object) {
    forEach(functions(object), function(methodName) {
      var func = lodash[methodName] = object[methodName];

      lodash.prototype[methodName] = function() {
        var args = [this.__wrapped__];
        push.apply(args, arguments);

        var result = func.apply(lodash, args);
        if (this.__chain__) {
          result = new lodash(result);
          result.__chain__ = true;
        }
        return result;
      };
    });
  }

  /**
   * Reverts the '_' variable to its previous value and returns a reference to
   * the `lodash` function.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Utilities
   * @returns {Function} Returns the `lodash` function.
   * @example
   *
   * var lodash = _.noConflict();
   */
  function noConflict() {
    window._ = oldDash;
    return this;
  }

  /**
   * Produces a random number between `min` and `max` (inclusive). If only one
   * argument is passed, a number between `0` and the given number will be returned.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Utilities
   * @param {Number} [min=0] The minimum possible value.
   * @param {Number} [max=1] The maximum possible value.
   * @returns {Number} Returns a random number.
   * @example
   *
   * _.random(0, 5);
   * // => a number between 1 and 5
   *
   * _.random(5);
   * // => also a number between 1 and 5
   */
  function random(min, max) {
    if (min == null && max == null) {
      max = 1;
    }
    min = +min || 0;
    if (max == null) {
      max = min;
      min = 0;
    }
    return min + floor(nativeRandom() * ((+max || 0) - min + 1));
  }

  /**
   * Resolves the value of `property` on `object`. If `property` is a function
   * it will be invoked and its result returned, else the property value is
   * returned. If `object` is falsey, then `null` is returned.
   *
   * @deprecated
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Utilities
   * @param {Object} object The object to inspect.
   * @param {String} property The property to get the value of.
   * @returns {Mixed} Returns the resolved value.
   * @example
   *
   * var object = {
   *   'cheese': 'crumpets',
   *   'stuff': function() {
   *     return 'nonsense';
   *   }
   * };
   *
   * _.result(object, 'cheese');
   * // => 'crumpets'
   *
   * _.result(object, 'stuff');
   * // => 'nonsense'
   */
  function result(object, property) {
    // based on Backbone's private `getValue` function
    // https://github.com/documentcloud/backbone/blob/0.9.2/backbone.js#L1419-1424
    var value = object ? object[property] : null;
    return isFunction(value) ? object[property]() : value;
  }

  /**
   * A micro-templating method that handles arbitrary delimiters, preserves
   * whitespace, and correctly escapes quotes within interpolated code.
   *
   * Note: In the development build `_.template` utilizes sourceURLs for easier
   * debugging. See http://www.html5rocks.com/en/tutorials/developertools/sourcemaps/#toc-sourceurl
   *
   * Note: Lo-Dash may be used in Chrome extensions by either creating a `lodash csp`
   * build and avoiding `_.template` use, or loading Lo-Dash in a sandboxed page.
   * See http://developer.chrome.com/trunk/extensions/sandboxingEval.html
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Utilities
   * @param {String} text The template text.
   * @param {Obect} data The data object used to populate the text.
   * @param {Object} options The options object.
   *  escape - The "escape" delimiter regexp.
   *  evaluate - The "evaluate" delimiter regexp.
   *  interpolate - The "interpolate" delimiter regexp.
   *  sourceURL - The sourceURL of the template's compiled source.
   *  variable - The data object variable name.
   *
   * @returns {Function|String} Returns a compiled function when no `data` object
   *  is given, else it returns the interpolated text.
   * @example
   *
   * // using a compiled template
   * var compiled = _.template('hello <%= name %>');
   * compiled({ 'name': 'moe' });
   * // => 'hello moe'
   *
   * var list = '<% _.forEach(people, function(name) { %><li><%= name %></li><% }); %>';
   * _.template(list, { 'people': ['moe', 'larry', 'curly'] });
   * // => '<li>moe</li><li>larry</li><li>curly</li>'
   *
   * // using the "escape" delimiter to escape HTML in data property values
   * _.template('<b><%- value %></b>', { 'value': '<script>' });
   * // => '<b>&lt;script&gt;</b>'
   *
   * // using the ES6 delimiter as an alternative to the default "interpolate" delimiter
   * _.template('hello ${ name }', { 'name': 'curly' });
   * // => 'hello curly'
   *
   * // using the internal `print` function in "evaluate" delimiters
   * _.template('<% print("hello " + epithet); %>!', { 'epithet': 'stooge' });
   * // => 'hello stooge!'
   *
   * // using custom template delimiters
   * _.templateSettings = {
   *   'interpolate': /{{([\s\S]+?)}}/g
   * };
   *
   * _.template('hello {{ name }}!', { 'name': 'mustache' });
   * // => 'hello mustache!'
   *
   * // using the `sourceURL` option to specify a custom sourceURL for the template
   * var compiled = _.template('hello <%= name %>', null, { 'sourceURL': '/basic/greeting.jst' });
   * compiled(data);
   * // => find the source of "greeting.jst" under the Sources tab or Resources panel of the web inspector
   *
   * // using the `variable` option to ensure a with-statement isn't used in the compiled template
   * var compiled = _.template('hello <%= data.name %>!', null, { 'variable': 'data' });
   * compiled.source;
   * // => function(data) {
   *   var __t, __p = '', __e = _.escape;
   *   __p += 'hello ' + ((__t = ( data.name )) == null ? '' : __t) + '!';
   *   return __p;
   * }
   *
   * // using the `source` property to inline compiled templates for meaningful
   * // line numbers in error messages and a stack trace
   * fs.writeFileSync(path.join(cwd, 'jst.js'), '\
   *   var JST = {\
   *     "main": ' + _.template(mainText).source + '\
   *   };\
   * ');
   */
  function template(text, data, options) {
    // based on John Resig's `tmpl` implementation
    // http://ejohn.org/blog/javascript-micro-templating/
    // and Laura Doktorova's doT.js
    // https://github.com/olado/doT
    text || (text = '');
    options || (options = {});

    var isEvaluating,
        result,
        settings = lodash.templateSettings,
        index = 0,
        interpolate = options.interpolate || settings.interpolate || reNoMatch,
        source = "__p += '",
        variable = options.variable || settings.variable,
        hasVariable = variable;

    // compile regexp to match each delimiter
    var reDelimiters = RegExp(
      (options.escape || settings.escape || reNoMatch).source + '|' +
      interpolate.source + '|' +
      (interpolate === reInterpolate ? reEsTemplate : reNoMatch).source + '|' +
      (options.evaluate || settings.evaluate || reNoMatch).source + '|$'
    , 'g');

    text.replace(reDelimiters, function(match, escapeValue, interpolateValue, esTemplateValue, evaluateValue, offset) {
      interpolateValue || (interpolateValue = esTemplateValue);

      // escape characters that cannot be included in string literals
      source += text.slice(index, offset).replace(reUnescapedString, escapeStringChar);

      // replace delimiters with snippets
      source +=
        escapeValue ? "' +\n__e(" + escapeValue + ") +\n'" :
        evaluateValue ? "';\n" + evaluateValue + ";\n__p += '" :
        interpolateValue ? "' +\n((__t = (" + interpolateValue + ")) == null ? '' : __t) +\n'" : '';

      isEvaluating || (isEvaluating = evaluateValue || reComplexDelimiter.test(escapeValue || interpolateValue));
      index = offset + match.length;
    });

    source += "';\n";

    // if `variable` is not specified and the template contains "evaluate"
    // delimiters, wrap a with-statement around the generated code to add the
    // data object to the top of the scope chain
    if (!hasVariable) {
      variable = 'obj';
      if (isEvaluating) {
        source = 'with (' + variable + ') {\n' + source + '\n}\n';
      }
      else {
        // avoid a with-statement by prepending data object references to property names
        var reDoubleVariable = RegExp('(\\(\\s*)' + variable + '\\.' + variable + '\\b', 'g');
        source = source
          .replace(reInsertVariable, '$&' + variable + '.')
          .replace(reDoubleVariable, '$1__d');
      }
    }

    // cleanup code by stripping empty strings
    source = (isEvaluating ? source.replace(reEmptyStringLeading, '') : source)
      .replace(reEmptyStringMiddle, '$1')
      .replace(reEmptyStringTrailing, '$1;');

    // frame code as the function body
    source = 'function(' + variable + ') {\n' +
      (hasVariable ? '' : variable + ' || (' + variable + ' = {});\n') +
      'var __t, __p = \'\', __e = _.escape' +
      (isEvaluating
        ? ', __j = Array.prototype.join;\n' +
          'function print() { __p += __j.call(arguments, \'\') }\n'
        : (hasVariable ? '' : ', __d = ' + variable + '.' + variable + ' || ' + variable) + ';\n'
      ) +
      source +
      'return __p\n}';

    // use a sourceURL for easier debugging
    // http://www.html5rocks.com/en/tutorials/developertools/sourcemaps/#toc-sourceurl
    var sourceURL = useSourceURL
      ? '\n//@ sourceURL=' + (options.sourceURL || '/lodash/template/source[' + (templateCounter++) + ']')
      : '';

    try {
      result = Function('_', 'return ' + source + sourceURL)(lodash);
    } catch(e) {
      e.source = source;
      throw e;
    }

    if (data) {
      return result(data);
    }
    // provide the compiled function's source via its `toString` method, in
    // supported environments, or the `source` property as a convenience for
    // inlining compiled templates during the build process
    result.source = source;
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * Executes the `callback` function `n` times, returning an array of the results
   * of each `callback` execution. The `callback` is bound to `thisArg` and invoked
   * with one argument; (index).
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Utilities
   * @param {Number} n The number of times to execute the callback.
   * @param {Function} callback The function called per iteration.
   * @param {Mixed} [thisArg] The `this` binding of `callback`.
   * @returns {Array} Returns a new array of the results of each `callback` execution.
   * @example
   *
   * var diceRolls = _.times(3, _.partial(_.random, 1, 6));
   * // => [3, 6, 4]
   *
   * _.times(3, function(n) { mage.castSpell(n); });
   * // => calls `mage.castSpell(n)` three times, passing `n` of `0`, `1`, and `2` respectively
   *
   * _.times(3, function(n) { this.cast(n); }, mage);
   * // => also calls `mage.castSpell(n)` three times
   */
  function times(n, callback, thisArg) {
    n = +n || 0;
    var index = -1,
        result = Array(n);

    while (++index < n) {
      result[index] = callback.call(thisArg, index);
    }
    return result;
  }

  /**
   * The opposite of `_.escape`, this method converts the HTML entities
   * `&amp;`, `&lt;`, `&gt;`, `&quot;`, and `&#x27;` in `string` to their
   * corresponding characters.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Utilities
   * @param {String} string The string to unescape.
   * @returns {String} Returns the unescaped string.
   * @example
   *
   * _.unescape('Moe, Larry &amp; Curly');
   * // => "Moe, Larry & Curly"
   */
  function unescape(string) {
    return string == null ? '' : (string + '').replace(reEscapedHtml, unescapeHtmlChar);
  }

  /**
   * Generates a unique id. If `prefix` is passed, the id will be appended to it.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Utilities
   * @param {String} [prefix] The value to prefix the id with.
   * @returns {Number|String} Returns a numeric id if no prefix is passed, else
   *  a string id may be returned.
   * @example
   *
   * _.uniqueId('contact_');
   * // => 'contact_104'
   */
  function uniqueId(prefix) {
    var id = idCounter++;
    return prefix ? prefix + id : id;
  }

  /*--------------------------------------------------------------------------*/

  /**
   * Wraps the value in a `lodash` wrapper object.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Chaining
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to wrap.
   * @returns {Object} Returns the wrapper object.
   * @example
   *
   * var stooges = [
   *   { 'name': 'moe', 'age': 40 },
   *   { 'name': 'larry', 'age': 50 },
   *   { 'name': 'curly', 'age': 60 }
   * ];
   *
   * var youngest = _.chain(stooges)
   *     .sortBy(function(stooge) { return stooge.age; })
   *     .map(function(stooge) { return stooge.name + ' is ' + stooge.age; })
   *     .first()
   *     .value();
   * // => 'moe is 40'
   */
  function chain(value) {
    value = new lodash(value);
    value.__chain__ = true;
    return value;
  }

  /**
   * Invokes `interceptor` with the `value` as the first argument, and then
   * returns `value`. The purpose of this method is to "tap into" a method chain,
   * in order to perform operations on intermediate results within the chain.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Chaining
   * @param {Mixed} value The value to pass to `interceptor`.
   * @param {Function} interceptor The function to invoke.
   * @returns {Mixed} Returns `value`.
   * @example
   *
   * _.chain([1, 2, 3, 200])
   *  .filter(function(num) { return num % 2 == 0; })
   *  .tap(alert)
   *  .map(function(num) { return num * num })
   *  .value();
   * // => // [2, 200] (alerted)
   * // => [4, 40000]
   */
  function tap(value, interceptor) {
    interceptor(value);
    return value;
  }

  /**
   * Enables method chaining on the wrapper object.
   *
   * @name chain
   * @deprecated
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Chaining
   * @returns {Mixed} Returns the wrapper object.
   * @example
   *
   * _([1, 2, 3]).value();
   * // => [1, 2, 3]
   */
  function wrapperChain() {
    this.__chain__ = true;
    return this;
  }

  /**
   * Extracts the wrapped value.
   *
   * @name value
   * @memberOf _
   * @category Chaining
   * @returns {Mixed} Returns the wrapped value.
   * @example
   *
   * _([1, 2, 3]).value();
   * // => [1, 2, 3]
   */
  function wrapperValue() {
    return this.__wrapped__;
  }

  /*--------------------------------------------------------------------------*/

  /**
   * The semantic version number.
   *
   * @static
   * @memberOf _
   * @type String
   */
  lodash.VERSION = '0.9.2';

  // assign static methods
  lodash.after = after;
  lodash.bind = bind;
  lodash.bindAll = bindAll;
  lodash.chain = chain;
  lodash.clone = clone;
  lodash.compact = compact;
  lodash.compose = compose;
  lodash.contains = contains;
  lodash.countBy = countBy;
  lodash.debounce = debounce;
  lodash.defaults = defaults;
  lodash.defer = defer;
  lodash.delay = delay;
  lodash.difference = difference;
  lodash.escape = escape;
  lodash.every = every;
  lodash.extend = extend;
  lodash.filter = filter;
  lodash.find = find;
  lodash.first = first;
  lodash.flatten = flatten;
  lodash.forEach = forEach;
  lodash.forIn = forIn;
  lodash.forOwn = forOwn;
  lodash.functions = functions;
  lodash.groupBy = groupBy;
  lodash.has = has;
  lodash.identity = identity;
  lodash.indexOf = indexOf;
  lodash.initial = initial;
  lodash.intersection = intersection;
  lodash.invert = invert;
  lodash.invoke = invoke;
  lodash.isArguments = isArguments;
  lodash.isArray = isArray;
  lodash.isBoolean = isBoolean;
  lodash.isDate = isDate;
  lodash.isElement = isElement;
  lodash.isEmpty = isEmpty;
  lodash.isEqual = isEqual;
  lodash.isFinite = isFinite;
  lodash.isFunction = isFunction;
  lodash.isNaN = isNaN;
  lodash.isNull = isNull;
  lodash.isNumber = isNumber;
  lodash.isObject = isObject;
  lodash.isPlainObject = isPlainObject;
  lodash.isRegExp = isRegExp;
  lodash.isString = isString;
  lodash.isUndefined = isUndefined;
  lodash.keys = keys;
  lodash.last = last;
  lodash.lastIndexOf = lastIndexOf;
  lodash.lateBind = lateBind;
  lodash.map = map;
  lodash.max = max;
  lodash.memoize = memoize;
  lodash.merge = merge;
  lodash.min = min;
  lodash.mixin = mixin;
  lodash.noConflict = noConflict;
  lodash.object = object;
  lodash.omit = omit;
  lodash.once = once;
  lodash.pairs = pairs;
  lodash.partial = partial;
  lodash.pick = pick;
  lodash.pluck = pluck;
  lodash.random = random;
  lodash.range = range;
  lodash.reduce = reduce;
  lodash.reduceRight = reduceRight;
  lodash.reject = reject;
  lodash.rest = rest;
  lodash.result = result;
  lodash.shuffle = shuffle;
  lodash.size = size;
  lodash.some = some;
  lodash.sortBy = sortBy;
  lodash.sortedIndex = sortedIndex;
  lodash.tap = tap;
  lodash.template = template;
  lodash.throttle = throttle;
  lodash.times = times;
  lodash.toArray = toArray;
  lodash.unescape = unescape;
  lodash.union = union;
  lodash.uniq = uniq;
  lodash.uniqueId = uniqueId;
  lodash.values = values;
  lodash.where = where;
  lodash.without = without;
  lodash.wrap = wrap;
  lodash.zip = zip;

  // assign aliases
  lodash.all = every;
  lodash.any = some;
  lodash.collect = map;
  lodash.detect = find;
  lodash.drop = rest;
  lodash.each = forEach;
  lodash.foldl = reduce;
  lodash.foldr = reduceRight;
  lodash.head = first;
  lodash.include = contains;
  lodash.inject = reduce;
  lodash.methods = functions;
  lodash.select = filter;
  lodash.tail = rest;
  lodash.take = first;
  lodash.unique = uniq;

  // add pseudo private property to be used and removed during the build process
  lodash._iteratorTemplate = iteratorTemplate;

  /*--------------------------------------------------------------------------*/

  // add all static functions to `lodash.prototype`
  mixin(lodash);

  // add `lodash.prototype.chain` after calling `mixin()` to avoid overwriting
  // it with the wrapped `lodash.chain`
  lodash.prototype.chain = wrapperChain;
  lodash.prototype.value = wrapperValue;

  // add all mutator Array functions to the wrapper.
  forEach(['pop', 'push', 'reverse', 'shift', 'sort', 'splice', 'unshift'], function(methodName) {
    var func = arrayRef[methodName];

    lodash.prototype[methodName] = function() {
      var value = this.__wrapped__;
      func.apply(value, arguments);

      // avoid array-like object bugs with `Array#shift` and `Array#splice` in
      // Firefox < 10 and IE < 9
      if (hasObjectSpliceBug && value.length === 0) {
        delete value[0];
      }
      if (this.__chain__) {
        value = new lodash(value);
        value.__chain__ = true;
      }
      return value;
    };
  });

  // add all accessor Array functions to the wrapper.
  forEach(['concat', 'join', 'slice'], function(methodName) {
    var func = arrayRef[methodName];

    lodash.prototype[methodName] = function() {
      var value = this.__wrapped__,
          result = func.apply(value, arguments);

      if (this.__chain__) {
        result = new lodash(result);
        result.__chain__ = true;
      }
      return result;
    };
  });

  /*--------------------------------------------------------------------------*/

  // expose Lo-Dash
  // some AMD build optimizers, like r.js, check for specific condition patterns like the following:
  if (typeof define == 'function' && typeof define.amd == 'object' && define.amd) {
    // Expose Lo-Dash to the global object even when an AMD loader is present in
    // case Lo-Dash was injected by a third-party script and not intended to be
    // loaded as a module. The global assignment can be reverted in the Lo-Dash
    // module via its `noConflict()` method.
    window._ = lodash;

    // define as an anonymous module so, through path mapping, it can be
    // referenced as the "underscore" module
    define('lodash/lodash',[],function() {
      return lodash;
    });
  }
  // check for `exports` after `define` in case a build optimizer adds an `exports` object
  else if (freeExports) {
    // in Node.js or RingoJS v0.8.0+
    if (typeof module == 'object' && module && module.exports == freeExports) {
      (module.exports = lodash)._ = lodash;
    }
    // in Narwhal or RingoJS v0.7.0-
    else {
      freeExports._ = lodash;
    }
  }
  else {
    // in a browser or Rhino
    window._ = lodash;
  }
}(this));

define('lodash', ['lodash/lodash'], function (main) { return main; });

//     Backbone.js 0.9.2

//     (c) 2010-2012 Jeremy Ashkenas, DocumentCloud Inc.
//     Backbone may be freely distributed under the MIT license.
//     For all details and documentation:
//     http://backbonejs.org

(function(){

  // Initial Setup
  // -------------

  // Save a reference to the global object (`window` in the browser, `global`
  // on the server).
  var root = this;

  // Save the previous value of the `Backbone` variable, so that it can be
  // restored later on, if `noConflict` is used.
  var previousBackbone = root.Backbone;

  // Create a local reference to array methods.
  var ArrayProto = Array.prototype;
  var push = ArrayProto.push;
  var slice = ArrayProto.slice;
  var splice = ArrayProto.splice;

  // The top-level namespace. All public Backbone classes and modules will
  // be attached to this. Exported for both CommonJS and the browser.
  var Backbone;
  if (typeof exports !== 'undefined') {
    Backbone = exports;
  } else {
    Backbone = root.Backbone = {};
  }

  // Current version of the library. Keep in sync with `package.json`.
  Backbone.VERSION = '0.9.2';

  // Require Underscore, if we're on the server, and it's not already present.
  var _ = root._;
  if (!_ && (typeof require !== 'undefined')) _ = require('underscore');

  // For Backbone's purposes, jQuery, Zepto, or Ender owns the `$` variable.
  Backbone.$ = root.jQuery || root.Zepto || root.ender;

  // Runs Backbone.js in *noConflict* mode, returning the `Backbone` variable
  // to its previous owner. Returns a reference to this Backbone object.
  Backbone.noConflict = function() {
    root.Backbone = previousBackbone;
    return this;
  };

  // Turn on `emulateHTTP` to support legacy HTTP servers. Setting this option
  // will fake `"PUT"` and `"DELETE"` requests via the `_method` parameter and
  // set a `X-Http-Method-Override` header.
  Backbone.emulateHTTP = false;

  // Turn on `emulateJSON` to support legacy servers that can't deal with direct
  // `application/json` requests ... will encode the body as
  // `application/x-www-form-urlencoded` instead and will send the model in a
  // form param named `model`.
  Backbone.emulateJSON = false;

  // Backbone.Events
  // -----------------

  // Regular expression used to split event strings
  var eventSplitter = /\s+/;

  // A module that can be mixed in to *any object* in order to provide it with
  // custom events. You may bind with `on` or remove with `off` callback functions
  // to an event; `trigger`-ing an event fires all callbacks in succession.
  //
  //     var object = {};
  //     _.extend(object, Backbone.Events);
  //     object.on('expand', function(){ alert('expanded'); });
  //     object.trigger('expand');
  //
  var Events = Backbone.Events = {

    // Bind one or more space separated events, `events`, to a `callback`
    // function. Passing `"all"` will bind the callback to all events fired.
    on: function(events, callback, context) {
      var calls, event, list;
      if (!callback) return this;

      events = events.split(eventSplitter);
      calls = this._callbacks || (this._callbacks = {});

      while (event = events.shift()) {
        list = calls[event] || (calls[event] = []);
        list.push(callback, context);
      }

      return this;
    },

    // Remove one or many callbacks. If `context` is null, removes all callbacks
    // with that function. If `callback` is null, removes all callbacks for the
    // event. If `events` is null, removes all bound callbacks for all events.
    off: function(events, callback, context) {
      var event, calls, list, i;

      // No events, or removing *all* events.
      if (!(calls = this._callbacks)) return this;
      if (!(events || callback || context)) {
        delete this._callbacks;
        return this;
      }

      events = events ? events.split(eventSplitter) : _.keys(calls);

      // Loop through the callback list, splicing where appropriate.
      while (event = events.shift()) {
        if (!(list = calls[event]) || !(callback || context)) {
          delete calls[event];
          continue;
        }

        for (i = list.length - 2; i >= 0; i -= 2) {
          if (!(callback && list[i] !== callback || context && list[i + 1] !== context)) {
            list.splice(i, 2);
          }
        }
      }

      return this;
    },

    // Trigger one or many events, firing all bound callbacks. Callbacks are
    // passed the same arguments as `trigger` is, apart from the event name
    // (unless you're listening on `"all"`, which will cause your callback to
    // receive the true name of the event as the first argument).
    trigger: function(events) {
      var event, calls, list, i, length, args, all, rest;
      if (!(calls = this._callbacks)) return this;

      rest = [];
      events = events.split(eventSplitter);

      // Fill up `rest` with the callback arguments.  Since we're only copying
      // the tail of `arguments`, a loop is much faster than Array#slice.
      for (i = 1, length = arguments.length; i < length; i++) {
        rest[i - 1] = arguments[i];
      }

      // For each event, walk through the list of callbacks twice, first to
      // trigger the event, then to trigger any `"all"` callbacks.
      while (event = events.shift()) {
        // Copy callback lists to prevent modification.
        if (all = calls.all) all = all.slice();
        if (list = calls[event]) list = list.slice();

        // Execute event callbacks.
        if (list) {
          for (i = 0, length = list.length; i < length; i += 2) {
            list[i].apply(list[i + 1] || this, rest);
          }
        }

        // Execute "all" callbacks.
        if (all) {
          args = [event].concat(rest);
          for (i = 0, length = all.length; i < length; i += 2) {
            all[i].apply(all[i + 1] || this, args);
          }
        }
      }

      return this;
    }

  };

  // Aliases for backwards compatibility.
  Events.bind   = Events.on;
  Events.unbind = Events.off;

  // Backbone.Model
  // --------------

  // Create a new model, with defined attributes. A client id (`cid`)
  // is automatically generated and assigned for you.
  var Model = Backbone.Model = function(attributes, options) {
    var defaults;
    var attrs = attributes || {};
    if (options && options.collection) this.collection = options.collection;
    if (options && options.parse) attributes = this.parse(attributes);
    if (defaults = _.result(this, 'defaults')) {
      attrs = _.extend({}, defaults, attrs);
    }
    this.attributes = {};
    this._escapedAttributes = {};
    this.cid = _.uniqueId('c');
    this.changed = {};
    this._changes = {};
    this._pending = {};
    this.set(attrs, {silent: true});
    // Reset change tracking.
    this.changed = {};
    this._changes = {};
    this._pending = {};
    this._previousAttributes = _.clone(this.attributes);
    this.initialize.apply(this, arguments);
  };

  // Attach all inheritable methods to the Model prototype.
  _.extend(Model.prototype, Events, {

    // A hash of attributes whose current and previous value differ.
    changed: null,

    // A hash of attributes that have changed since the last time `change`
    // was called.
    _changes: null,

    // A hash of attributes that have changed since the last `change` event
    // began.
    _pending: null,

    // A hash of attributes with the current model state to determine if
    // a `change` should be recorded within a nested `change` block.
    _changing : null,

    // The default name for the JSON `id` attribute is `"id"`. MongoDB and
    // CouchDB users may want to set this to `"_id"`.
    idAttribute: 'id',

    // Initialize is an empty function by default. Override it with your own
    // initialization logic.
    initialize: function(){},

    // Return a copy of the model's `attributes` object.
    toJSON: function(options) {
      return _.clone(this.attributes);
    },

    // Proxy `Backbone.sync` by default.
    sync: function() {
      return Backbone.sync.apply(this, arguments);
    },

    // Get the value of an attribute.
    get: function(attr) {
      return this.attributes[attr];
    },

    // Get the HTML-escaped value of an attribute.
    escape: function(attr) {
      var html;
      if (html = this._escapedAttributes[attr]) return html;
      var val = this.get(attr);
      return this._escapedAttributes[attr] = _.escape(val == null ? '' : '' + val);
    },

    // Returns `true` if the attribute contains a value that is not null
    // or undefined.
    has: function(attr) {
      return this.get(attr) != null;
    },

    // Set a hash of model attributes on the object, firing `"change"` unless
    // you choose to silence it.
    set: function(attrs, options) {
      var attr, key, val;
      if (attrs == null) return this;

      // Handle both `"key", value` and `{key: value}` -style arguments.
      if (!_.isObject(attrs)) {
        key = attrs;
        (attrs = {})[key] = options;
        options = arguments[2];
      }

      // Extract attributes and options.
      var silent = options && options.silent;
      var unset = options && options.unset;
      if (attrs instanceof Model) attrs = attrs.attributes;
      if (unset) for (attr in attrs) attrs[attr] = void 0;

      // Run validation.
      if (!this._validate(attrs, options)) return false;

      // Check for changes of `id`.
      if (this.idAttribute in attrs) this.id = attrs[this.idAttribute];

      var changing = this._changing;
      var now = this.attributes;
      var escaped = this._escapedAttributes;
      var prev = this._previousAttributes || {};

      // For each `set` attribute...
      for (attr in attrs) {
        val = attrs[attr];

        // If the new and current value differ, record the change.
        if (!_.isEqual(now[attr], val) || (unset && _.has(now, attr))) {
          delete escaped[attr];
          this._changes[attr] = true;
        }

        // Update or delete the current value.
        unset ? delete now[attr] : now[attr] = val;

        // If the new and previous value differ, record the change.  If not,
        // then remove changes for this attribute.
        if (!_.isEqual(prev[attr], val) || (_.has(now, attr) !== _.has(prev, attr))) {
          this.changed[attr] = val;
          if (!silent) this._pending[attr] = true;
        } else {
          delete this.changed[attr];
          delete this._pending[attr];
          if (!changing) delete this._changes[attr];
        }

        if (changing && _.isEqual(now[attr], changing[attr])) delete this._changes[attr];
      }

      // Fire the `"change"` events.
      if (!silent) this.change(options);
      return this;
    },

    // Remove an attribute from the model, firing `"change"` unless you choose
    // to silence it. `unset` is a noop if the attribute doesn't exist.
    unset: function(attr, options) {
      options = _.extend({}, options, {unset: true});
      return this.set(attr, null, options);
    },

    // Clear all attributes on the model, firing `"change"` unless you choose
    // to silence it.
    clear: function(options) {
      options = _.extend({}, options, {unset: true});
      return this.set(_.clone(this.attributes), options);
    },

    // Fetch the model from the server. If the server's representation of the
    // model differs from its current attributes, they will be overriden,
    // triggering a `"change"` event.
    fetch: function(options) {
      options = options ? _.clone(options) : {};
      var model = this;
      var success = options.success;
      options.success = function(resp, status, xhr) {
        if (!model.set(model.parse(resp, xhr), options)) return false;
        if (success) success(model, resp, options);
      };
      return this.sync('read', this, options);
    },

    // Set a hash of model attributes, and sync the model to the server.
    // If the server returns an attributes hash that differs, the model's
    // state will be `set` again.
    save: function(attrs, options) {
      var key, current, done;

      // Handle both `"key", value` and `{key: value}` -style arguments.
      if (attrs != null && !_.isObject(attrs)) {
        key = attrs;
        (attrs = {})[key] = options;
        options = arguments[2];
      }
      options = options ? _.clone(options) : {};

      // If we're "wait"-ing to set changed attributes, validate early.
      if (options.wait) {
        if (!this._validate(attrs, options)) return false;
        current = _.clone(this.attributes);
      }

      // Regular saves `set` attributes before persisting to the server.
      var silentOptions = _.extend({}, options, {silent: true});
      if (attrs && !this.set(attrs, options.wait ? silentOptions : options)) {
        return false;
      }

      // Do not persist invalid models.
      if (!attrs && !this._validate(null, options)) return false;

      // After a successful server-side save, the client is (optionally)
      // updated with the server-side state.
      var model = this;
      var success = options.success;
      options.success = function(resp, status, xhr) {
        done = true;
        var serverAttrs = model.parse(resp, xhr);
        if (options.wait) serverAttrs = _.extend(attrs || {}, serverAttrs);
        if (!model.set(serverAttrs, options)) return false;
        if (success) success(model, resp, options);
      };

      // Finish configuring and sending the Ajax request.
      var xhr = this.sync(this.isNew() ? 'create' : 'update', this, options);

      // When using `wait`, reset attributes to original values unless
      // `success` has been called already.
      if (!done && options.wait) {
        this.clear(silentOptions);
        this.set(current, silentOptions);
      }

      return xhr;
    },

    // Destroy this model on the server if it was already persisted.
    // Optimistically removes the model from its collection, if it has one.
    // If `wait: true` is passed, waits for the server to respond before removal.
    destroy: function(options) {
      options = options ? _.clone(options) : {};
      var model = this;
      var success = options.success;

      var destroy = function() {
        model.trigger('destroy', model, model.collection, options);
      };

      options.success = function(resp) {
        if (options.wait || model.isNew()) destroy();
        if (success) success(model, resp, options);
      };

      if (this.isNew()) {
        options.success();
        return false;
      }

      var xhr = this.sync('delete', this, options);
      if (!options.wait) destroy();
      return xhr;
    },

    // Default URL for the model's representation on the server -- if you're
    // using Backbone's restful methods, override this to change the endpoint
    // that will be called.
    url: function() {
      var base = _.result(this, 'urlRoot') || _.result(this.collection, 'url') || urlError();
      if (this.isNew()) return base;
      return base + (base.charAt(base.length - 1) === '/' ? '' : '/') + encodeURIComponent(this.id);
    },

    // **parse** converts a response into the hash of attributes to be `set` on
    // the model. The default implementation is just to pass the response along.
    parse: function(resp, xhr) {
      return resp;
    },

    // Create a new model with identical attributes to this one.
    clone: function() {
      return new this.constructor(this.attributes);
    },

    // A model is new if it has never been saved to the server, and lacks an id.
    isNew: function() {
      return this.id == null;
    },

    // Call this method to manually fire a `"change"` event for this model and
    // a `"change:attribute"` event for each changed attribute.
    // Calling this will cause all objects observing the model to update.
    change: function(options) {
      var changing = this._changing;
      var current = this._changing = {};

      // Silent changes become pending changes.
      for (var attr in this._changes) this._pending[attr] = true;

      // Trigger 'change:attr' for any new or silent changes.
      var changes = this._changes;
      this._changes = {};

      // Set the correct state for this._changing values
      var triggers = [];
      for (var attr in changes) {
        current[attr] = this.get(attr);
        triggers.push(attr);
      }

      for (var i=0, l=triggers.length; i < l; i++) {
        this.trigger('change:' + triggers[i], this, current[triggers[i]], options);
      }
      if (changing) return this;

      // Continue firing `"change"` events while there are pending changes.
      while (!_.isEmpty(this._pending)) {
        this._pending = {};
        this.trigger('change', this, options);
        // Pending and silent changes still remain.
        for (var attr in this.changed) {
          if (this._pending[attr] || this._changes[attr]) continue;
          delete this.changed[attr];
        }
        this._previousAttributes = _.clone(this.attributes);
      }

      this._changing = null;
      return this;
    },

    // Determine if the model has changed since the last `"change"` event.
    // If you specify an attribute name, determine if that attribute has changed.
    hasChanged: function(attr) {
      if (attr == null) return !_.isEmpty(this.changed);
      return _.has(this.changed, attr);
    },

    // Return an object containing all the attributes that have changed, or
    // false if there are no changed attributes. Useful for determining what
    // parts of a view need to be updated and/or what attributes need to be
    // persisted to the server. Unset attributes will be set to undefined.
    // You can also pass an attributes object to diff against the model,
    // determining if there *would be* a change.
    changedAttributes: function(diff) {
      if (!diff) return this.hasChanged() ? _.clone(this.changed) : false;
      var val, changed = false, old = this._previousAttributes;
      for (var attr in diff) {
        if (_.isEqual(old[attr], (val = diff[attr]))) continue;
        (changed || (changed = {}))[attr] = val;
      }
      return changed;
    },

    // Get the previous value of an attribute, recorded at the time the last
    // `"change"` event was fired.
    previous: function(attr) {
      if (attr == null || !this._previousAttributes) return null;
      return this._previousAttributes[attr];
    },

    // Get all of the attributes of the model at the time of the previous
    // `"change"` event.
    previousAttributes: function() {
      return _.clone(this._previousAttributes);
    },

    // Check if the model is currently in a valid state. It's only possible to
    // get into an *invalid* state if you're using silent changes.
    isValid: function(options) {
      return !this.validate || !this.validate(this.attributes, options);
    },

    // Run validation against the next complete set of model attributes,
    // returning `true` if all is well. If a specific `error` callback has
    // been passed, call that instead of firing the general `"error"` event.
    _validate: function(attrs, options) {
      if (options && options.silent || !this.validate) return true;
      attrs = _.extend({}, this.attributes, attrs);
      var error = this.validate(attrs, options);
      if (!error) return true;
      if (options && options.error) options.error(this, error, options);
      this.trigger('error', this, error, options);
      return false;
    }

  });

  // Backbone.Collection
  // -------------------

  // Provides a standard collection class for our sets of models, ordered
  // or unordered. If a `comparator` is specified, the Collection will maintain
  // its models in sort order, as they're added and removed.
  var Collection = Backbone.Collection = function(models, options) {
    options || (options = {});
    if (options.model) this.model = options.model;
    if (options.comparator !== void 0) this.comparator = options.comparator;
    this._reset();
    this.initialize.apply(this, arguments);
    if (models) {
      if (options.parse) models = this.parse(models);
      this.reset(models, {silent: true, parse: options.parse});
    }
  };

  // Define the Collection's inheritable methods.
  _.extend(Collection.prototype, Events, {

    // The default model for a collection is just a **Backbone.Model**.
    // This should be overridden in most cases.
    model: Model,

    // Initialize is an empty function by default. Override it with your own
    // initialization logic.
    initialize: function(){},

    // The JSON representation of a Collection is an array of the
    // models' attributes.
    toJSON: function(options) {
      return this.map(function(model){ return model.toJSON(options); });
    },

    // Proxy `Backbone.sync` by default.
    sync: function() {
      return Backbone.sync.apply(this, arguments);
    },

    // Add a model, or list of models to the set. Pass **silent** to avoid
    // firing the `add` event for every new model.
    add: function(models, options) {
      var i, args, length, model, existing;
      var at = options && options.at;
      models = _.isArray(models) ? models.slice() : [models];

      // Begin by turning bare objects into model references, and preventing
      // invalid models from being added.
      for (i = 0, length = models.length; i < length; i++) {
        if (models[i] = this._prepareModel(models[i], options)) continue;
        throw new Error("Can't add an invalid model to a collection");
      }

      for (i = models.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
        model = models[i];
        existing = model.id != null && this._byId[model.id];

        // If a duplicate is found, splice it out and optionally merge it into
        // the existing model.
        if (existing || this._byCid[model.cid]) {
          if (options && options.merge && existing) {
            existing.set(model, options);
          }
          models.splice(i, 1);
          continue;
        }

        // Listen to added models' events, and index models for lookup by
        // `id` and by `cid`.
        model.on('all', this._onModelEvent, this);
        this._byCid[model.cid] = model;
        if (model.id != null) this._byId[model.id] = model;
      }

      // Update `length` and splice in new models.
      this.length += models.length;
      args = [at != null ? at : this.models.length, 0];
      push.apply(args, models);
      splice.apply(this.models, args);

      // Sort the collection if appropriate.
      if (this.comparator && at == null) this.sort({silent: true});

      if (options && options.silent) return this;

      // Trigger `add` events.
      while (model = models.shift()) {
        model.trigger('add', model, this, options);
      }

      return this;
    },

    // Remove a model, or a list of models from the set. Pass silent to avoid
    // firing the `remove` event for every model removed.
    remove: function(models, options) {
      var i, l, index, model;
      options || (options = {});
      models = _.isArray(models) ? models.slice() : [models];
      for (i = 0, l = models.length; i < l; i++) {
        model = this.getByCid(models[i]) || this.get(models[i]);
        if (!model) continue;
        delete this._byId[model.id];
        delete this._byCid[model.cid];
        index = this.indexOf(model);
        this.models.splice(index, 1);
        this.length--;
        if (!options.silent) {
          options.index = index;
          model.trigger('remove', model, this, options);
        }
        this._removeReference(model);
      }
      return this;
    },

    // Add a model to the end of the collection.
    push: function(model, options) {
      model = this._prepareModel(model, options);
      this.add(model, options);
      return model;
    },

    // Remove a model from the end of the collection.
    pop: function(options) {
      var model = this.at(this.length - 1);
      this.remove(model, options);
      return model;
    },

    // Add a model to the beginning of the collection.
    unshift: function(model, options) {
      model = this._prepareModel(model, options);
      this.add(model, _.extend({at: 0}, options));
      return model;
    },

    // Remove a model from the beginning of the collection.
    shift: function(options) {
      var model = this.at(0);
      this.remove(model, options);
      return model;
    },

    // Slice out a sub-array of models from the collection.
    slice: function(begin, end) {
      return this.models.slice(begin, end);
    },

    // Get a model from the set by id.
    get: function(id) {
      if (id == null) return void 0;
      return this._byId[id.id != null ? id.id : id];
    },

    // Get a model from the set by client id.
    getByCid: function(cid) {
      return cid && this._byCid[cid.cid || cid];
    },

    // Get the model at the given index.
    at: function(index) {
      return this.models[index];
    },

    // Return models with matching attributes. Useful for simple cases of `filter`.
    where: function(attrs) {
      if (_.isEmpty(attrs)) return [];
      return this.filter(function(model) {
        for (var key in attrs) {
          if (attrs[key] !== model.get(key)) return false;
        }
        return true;
      });
    },

    // Force the collection to re-sort itself. You don't need to call this under
    // normal circumstances, as the set will maintain sort order as each item
    // is added.
    sort: function(options) {
      if (!this.comparator) {
        throw new Error('Cannot sort a set without a comparator');
      }

      if (_.isString(this.comparator) || this.comparator.length === 1) {
        this.models = this.sortBy(this.comparator, this);
      } else {
        this.models.sort(_.bind(this.comparator, this));
      }

      if (!options || !options.silent) this.trigger('reset', this, options);
      return this;
    },

    // Pluck an attribute from each model in the collection.
    pluck: function(attr) {
      return _.invoke(this.models, 'get', attr);
    },

    // When you have more items than you want to add or remove individually,
    // you can reset the entire set with a new list of models, without firing
    // any `add` or `remove` events. Fires `reset` when finished.
    reset: function(models, options) {
      for (var i = 0, l = this.models.length; i < l; i++) {
        this._removeReference(this.models[i]);
      }
      this._reset();
      if (models) this.add(models, _.extend({silent: true}, options));
      if (!options || !options.silent) this.trigger('reset', this, options);
      return this;
    },

    // Fetch the default set of models for this collection, resetting the
    // collection when they arrive. If `add: true` is passed, appends the
    // models to the collection instead of resetting.
    fetch: function(options) {
      options = options ? _.clone(options) : {};
      if (options.parse === void 0) options.parse = true;
      var collection = this;
      var success = options.success;
      options.success = function(resp, status, xhr) {
        collection[options.add ? 'add' : 'reset'](collection.parse(resp, xhr), options);
        if (success) success(collection, resp, options);
      };
      return this.sync('read', this, options);
    },

    // Create a new instance of a model in this collection. Add the model to the
    // collection immediately, unless `wait: true` is passed, in which case we
    // wait for the server to agree.
    create: function(model, options) {
      var collection = this;
      options = options ? _.clone(options) : {};
      model = this._prepareModel(model, options);
      if (!model) return false;
      if (!options.wait) collection.add(model, options);
      var success = options.success;
      options.success = function(model, resp, options) {
        if (options.wait) collection.add(model, options);
        if (success) success(model, resp, options);
      };
      model.save(null, options);
      return model;
    },

    // **parse** converts a response into a list of models to be added to the
    // collection. The default implementation is just to pass it through.
    parse: function(resp, xhr) {
      return resp;
    },

    // Create a new collection with an identical list of models as this one.
    clone: function() {
      return new this.constructor(this.models);
    },

    // Proxy to _'s chain. Can't be proxied the same way the rest of the
    // underscore methods are proxied because it relies on the underscore
    // constructor.
    chain: function() {
      return _(this.models).chain();
    },

    // Reset all internal state. Called when the collection is reset.
    _reset: function(options) {
      this.length = 0;
      this.models = [];
      this._byId  = {};
      this._byCid = {};
    },

    // Prepare a model or hash of attributes to be added to this collection.
    _prepareModel: function(attrs, options) {
      if (attrs instanceof Model) {
        if (!attrs.collection) attrs.collection = this;
        return attrs;
      }
      options || (options = {});
      options.collection = this;
      var model = new this.model(attrs, options);
      if (!model._validate(model.attributes, options)) return false;
      return model;
    },

    // Internal method to remove a model's ties to a collection.
    _removeReference: function(model) {
      if (this === model.collection) delete model.collection;
      model.off('all', this._onModelEvent, this);
    },

    // Internal method called every time a model in the set fires an event.
    // Sets need to update their indexes when models change ids. All other
    // events simply proxy through. "add" and "remove" events that originate
    // in other collections are ignored.
    _onModelEvent: function(event, model, collection, options) {
      if ((event === 'add' || event === 'remove') && collection !== this) return;
      if (event === 'destroy') this.remove(model, options);
      if (model && event === 'change:' + model.idAttribute) {
        delete this._byId[model.previous(model.idAttribute)];
        if (model.id != null) this._byId[model.id] = model;
      }
      this.trigger.apply(this, arguments);
    }

  });

  // Underscore methods that we want to implement on the Collection.
  var methods = ['forEach', 'each', 'map', 'collect', 'reduce', 'foldl',
    'inject', 'reduceRight', 'foldr', 'find', 'detect', 'filter', 'select',
    'reject', 'every', 'all', 'some', 'any', 'include', 'contains', 'invoke',
    'max', 'min', 'sortedIndex', 'toArray', 'size', 'first', 'head', 'take',
    'initial', 'rest', 'tail', 'last', 'without', 'indexOf', 'shuffle',
    'lastIndexOf', 'isEmpty'];

  // Mix in each Underscore method as a proxy to `Collection#models`.
  _.each(methods, function(method) {
    Collection.prototype[method] = function() {
      var args = slice.call(arguments);
      args.unshift(this.models);
      return _[method].apply(_, args);
    };
  });

  // Underscore methods that take a property name as an argument.
  var attributeMethods = ['groupBy', 'countBy', 'sortBy'];

  // Use attributes instead of properties.
  _.each(attributeMethods, function(method) {
    Collection.prototype[method] = function(value, context) {
      var iterator = _.isFunction(value) ? value : function(model) {
        return model.get(value);
      };
      return _[method](this.models, iterator, context);
    };
  });

  // Backbone.Router
  // -------------------

  // Routers map faux-URLs to actions, and fire events when routes are
  // matched. Creating a new one sets its `routes` hash, if not set statically.
  var Router = Backbone.Router = function(options) {
    options || (options = {});
    if (options.routes) this.routes = options.routes;
    this._bindRoutes();
    this.initialize.apply(this, arguments);
  };

  // Cached regular expressions for matching named param parts and splatted
  // parts of route strings.
  var optionalParam = /\((.*?)\)/g;
  var namedParam    = /:\w+/g;
  var splatParam    = /\*\w+/g;
  var escapeRegExp  = /[-{}[\]+?.,\\^$|#\s]/g;

  // Set up all inheritable **Backbone.Router** properties and methods.
  _.extend(Router.prototype, Events, {

    // Initialize is an empty function by default. Override it with your own
    // initialization logic.
    initialize: function(){},

    // Manually bind a single named route to a callback. For example:
    //
    //     this.route('search/:query/p:num', 'search', function(query, num) {
    //       ...
    //     });
    //
    route: function(route, name, callback) {
      if (!_.isRegExp(route)) route = this._routeToRegExp(route);
      if (!callback) callback = this[name];
      Backbone.history.route(route, _.bind(function(fragment) {
        var args = this._extractParameters(route, fragment);
        callback && callback.apply(this, args);
        this.trigger.apply(this, ['route:' + name].concat(args));
        Backbone.history.trigger('route', this, name, args);
      }, this));
      return this;
    },

    // Simple proxy to `Backbone.history` to save a fragment into the history.
    navigate: function(fragment, options) {
      Backbone.history.navigate(fragment, options);
      return this;
    },

    // Bind all defined routes to `Backbone.history`. We have to reverse the
    // order of the routes here to support behavior where the most general
    // routes can be defined at the bottom of the route map.
    _bindRoutes: function() {
      if (!this.routes) return;
      var routes = [];
      for (var route in this.routes) {
        routes.unshift([route, this.routes[route]]);
      }
      for (var i = 0, l = routes.length; i < l; i++) {
        this.route(routes[i][0], routes[i][1], this[routes[i][1]]);
      }
    },

    // Convert a route string into a regular expression, suitable for matching
    // against the current location hash.
    _routeToRegExp: function(route) {
      route = route.replace(escapeRegExp, '\\$&')
                   .replace(optionalParam, '(?:$1)?')
                   .replace(namedParam, '([^\/]+)')
                   .replace(splatParam, '(.*?)');
      return new RegExp('^' + route + '$');
    },

    // Given a route, and a URL fragment that it matches, return the array of
    // extracted parameters.
    _extractParameters: function(route, fragment) {
      return route.exec(fragment).slice(1);
    }

  });

  // Backbone.History
  // ----------------

  // Handles cross-browser history management, based on URL fragments. If the
  // browser does not support `onhashchange`, falls back to polling.
  var History = Backbone.History = function() {
    this.handlers = [];
    _.bindAll(this, 'checkUrl');

    // #1653 - Ensure that `History` can be used outside of the browser.
    if (typeof window !== 'undefined') {
      this.location = window.location;
      this.history = window.history;
    }
  };

  // Cached regex for cleaning leading hashes and slashes.
  var routeStripper = /^[#\/]/;

  // Cached regex for stripping leading and trailing slashes.
  var rootStripper = /^\/+|\/+$/g;

  // Cached regex for detecting MSIE.
  var isExplorer = /msie [\w.]+/;

  // Cached regex for removing a trailing slash.
  var trailingSlash = /\/$/;

  // Has the history handling already been started?
  History.started = false;

  // Set up all inheritable **Backbone.History** properties and methods.
  _.extend(History.prototype, Events, {

    // The default interval to poll for hash changes, if necessary, is
    // twenty times a second.
    interval: 50,

    // Gets the true hash value. Cannot use location.hash directly due to bug
    // in Firefox where location.hash will always be decoded.
    getHash: function(window) {
      var match = (window || this).location.href.match(/#(.*)$/);
      return match ? match[1] : '';
    },

    // Get the cross-browser normalized URL fragment, either from the URL,
    // the hash, or the override.
    getFragment: function(fragment, forcePushState) {
      if (fragment == null) {
        if (this._hasPushState || !this._wantsHashChange || forcePushState) {
          fragment = this.location.pathname;
          var root = this.root.replace(trailingSlash, '');
          if (!fragment.indexOf(root)) fragment = fragment.substr(root.length);
        } else {
          fragment = this.getHash();
        }
      }
      return decodeURIComponent(fragment.replace(routeStripper, ''));
    },

    // Start the hash change handling, returning `true` if the current URL matches
    // an existing route, and `false` otherwise.
    start: function(options) {
      if (History.started) throw new Error("Backbone.history has already been started");
      History.started = true;

      // Figure out the initial configuration. Do we need an iframe?
      // Is pushState desired ... is it available?
      this.options          = _.extend({}, {root: '/'}, this.options, options);
      this.root             = this.options.root;
      this._wantsHashChange = this.options.hashChange !== false;
      this._wantsPushState  = !!this.options.pushState;
      this._hasPushState    = !!(this.options.pushState && this.history && this.history.pushState);
      var fragment          = this.getFragment();
      var docMode           = document.documentMode;
      var oldIE             = (isExplorer.exec(navigator.userAgent.toLowerCase()) && (!docMode || docMode <= 7));

      // Normalize root to always include a leading and trailing slash.
      this.root = ('/' + this.root + '/').replace(rootStripper, '/');

      if (oldIE && this._wantsHashChange) {
        this.iframe = Backbone.$('<iframe src="javascript:0" tabindex="-1" />').hide().appendTo('body')[0].contentWindow;
        this.navigate(fragment);
      }

      // Depending on whether we're using pushState or hashes, and whether
      // 'onhashchange' is supported, determine how we check the URL state.
      if (this._hasPushState) {
        Backbone.$(window).bind('popstate', this.checkUrl);
      } else if (this._wantsHashChange && ('onhashchange' in window) && !oldIE) {
        Backbone.$(window).bind('hashchange', this.checkUrl);
      } else if (this._wantsHashChange) {
        this._checkUrlInterval = setInterval(this.checkUrl, this.interval);
      }

      // Determine if we need to change the base url, for a pushState link
      // opened by a non-pushState browser.
      this.fragment = fragment;
      var loc = this.location;
      var atRoot = loc.pathname.replace(/[^\/]$/, '$&/') === this.root;

      // If we've started off with a route from a `pushState`-enabled browser,
      // but we're currently in a browser that doesn't support it...
      if (this._wantsHashChange && this._wantsPushState && !this._hasPushState && !atRoot) {
        this.fragment = this.getFragment(null, true);
        this.location.replace(this.root + this.location.search + '#' + this.fragment);
        // Return immediately as browser will do redirect to new url
        return true;

      // Or if we've started out with a hash-based route, but we're currently
      // in a browser where it could be `pushState`-based instead...
      } else if (this._wantsPushState && this._hasPushState && atRoot && loc.hash) {
        this.fragment = this.getHash().replace(routeStripper, '');
        this.history.replaceState({}, document.title, this.root + this.fragment + loc.search);
      }

      if (!this.options.silent) return this.loadUrl();
    },

    // Disable Backbone.history, perhaps temporarily. Not useful in a real app,
    // but possibly useful for unit testing Routers.
    stop: function() {
      Backbone.$(window).unbind('popstate', this.checkUrl).unbind('hashchange', this.checkUrl);
      clearInterval(this._checkUrlInterval);
      History.started = false;
    },

    // Add a route to be tested when the fragment changes. Routes added later
    // may override previous routes.
    route: function(route, callback) {
      this.handlers.unshift({route: route, callback: callback});
    },

    // Checks the current URL to see if it has changed, and if it has,
    // calls `loadUrl`, normalizing across the hidden iframe.
    checkUrl: function(e) {
      var current = this.getFragment();
      if (current === this.fragment && this.iframe) {
        current = this.getFragment(this.getHash(this.iframe));
      }
      if (current === this.fragment) return false;
      if (this.iframe) this.navigate(current);
      this.loadUrl() || this.loadUrl(this.getHash());
    },

    // Attempt to load the current URL fragment. If a route succeeds with a
    // match, returns `true`. If no defined routes matches the fragment,
    // returns `false`.
    loadUrl: function(fragmentOverride) {
      var fragment = this.fragment = this.getFragment(fragmentOverride);
      var matched = _.any(this.handlers, function(handler) {
        if (handler.route.test(fragment)) {
          handler.callback(fragment);
          return true;
        }
      });
      return matched;
    },

    // Save a fragment into the hash history, or replace the URL state if the
    // 'replace' option is passed. You are responsible for properly URL-encoding
    // the fragment in advance.
    //
    // The options object can contain `trigger: true` if you wish to have the
    // route callback be fired (not usually desirable), or `replace: true`, if
    // you wish to modify the current URL without adding an entry to the history.
    navigate: function(fragment, options) {
      if (!History.started) return false;
      if (!options || options === true) options = {trigger: options};
      fragment = this.getFragment(fragment || '');
      if (this.fragment === fragment) return;
      this.fragment = fragment;
      var url = this.root + fragment;

      // If pushState is available, we use it to set the fragment as a real URL.
      if (this._hasPushState) {
        this.history[options.replace ? 'replaceState' : 'pushState']({}, document.title, url);

      // If hash changes haven't been explicitly disabled, update the hash
      // fragment to store history.
      } else if (this._wantsHashChange) {
        this._updateHash(this.location, fragment, options.replace);
        if (this.iframe && (fragment !== this.getFragment(this.getHash(this.iframe)))) {
          // Opening and closing the iframe tricks IE7 and earlier to push a
          // history entry on hash-tag change.  When replace is true, we don't
          // want this.
          if(!options.replace) this.iframe.document.open().close();
          this._updateHash(this.iframe.location, fragment, options.replace);
        }

      // If you've told us that you explicitly don't want fallback hashchange-
      // based history, then `navigate` becomes a page refresh.
      } else {
        return this.location.assign(url);
      }
      if (options.trigger) this.loadUrl(fragment);
    },

    // Update the hash location, either replacing the current entry, or adding
    // a new one to the browser history.
    _updateHash: function(location, fragment, replace) {
      if (replace) {
        var href = location.href.replace(/(javascript:|#).*$/, '');
        location.replace(href + '#' + fragment);
      } else {
        // #1649 - Some browsers require that `hash` contains a leading #.
        location.hash = '#' + fragment;
      }
    }

  });

  // Create the default Backbone.history.
  Backbone.history = new History;

  // Backbone.View
  // -------------

  // Creating a Backbone.View creates its initial element outside of the DOM,
  // if an existing element is not provided...
  var View = Backbone.View = function(options) {
    this.cid = _.uniqueId('view');
    this._configure(options || {});
    this._ensureElement();
    this.initialize.apply(this, arguments);
    this.delegateEvents();
  };

  // Cached regex to split keys for `delegate`.
  var delegateEventSplitter = /^(\S+)\s*(.*)$/;

  // List of view options to be merged as properties.
  var viewOptions = ['model', 'collection', 'el', 'id', 'attributes', 'className', 'tagName'];

  // Set up all inheritable **Backbone.View** properties and methods.
  _.extend(View.prototype, Events, {

    // The default `tagName` of a View's element is `"div"`.
    tagName: 'div',

    // jQuery delegate for element lookup, scoped to DOM elements within the
    // current view. This should be prefered to global lookups where possible.
    $: function(selector) {
      return this.$el.find(selector);
    },

    // Initialize is an empty function by default. Override it with your own
    // initialization logic.
    initialize: function(){},

    // **render** is the core function that your view should override, in order
    // to populate its element (`this.el`), with the appropriate HTML. The
    // convention is for **render** to always return `this`.
    render: function() {
      return this;
    },

    // Clean up references to this view in order to prevent latent effects and
    // memory leaks.
    dispose: function() {
      this.undelegateEvents();
      if (this.model && this.model.off) this.model.off(null, null, this);
      if (this.collection && this.collection.off) this.collection.off(null, null, this);
      return this;
    },

    // Remove this view from the DOM. Note that the view isn't present in the
    // DOM by default, so calling this method may be a no-op.
    remove: function() {
      this.dispose();
      this.$el.remove();
      return this;
    },

    // For small amounts of DOM Elements, where a full-blown template isn't
    // needed, use **make** to manufacture elements, one at a time.
    //
    //     var el = this.make('li', {'class': 'row'}, this.model.escape('title'));
    //
    make: function(tagName, attributes, content) {
      var el = document.createElement(tagName);
      if (attributes) Backbone.$(el).attr(attributes);
      if (content != null) Backbone.$(el).html(content);
      return el;
    },

    // Change the view's element (`this.el` property), including event
    // re-delegation.
    setElement: function(element, delegate) {
      if (this.$el) this.undelegateEvents();
      this.$el = element instanceof Backbone.$ ? element : Backbone.$(element);
      this.el = this.$el[0];
      if (delegate !== false) this.delegateEvents();
      return this;
    },

    // Set callbacks, where `this.events` is a hash of
    //
    // *{"event selector": "callback"}*
    //
    //     {
    //       'mousedown .title':  'edit',
    //       'click .button':     'save'
    //       'click .open':       function(e) { ... }
    //     }
    //
    // pairs. Callbacks will be bound to the view, with `this` set properly.
    // Uses event delegation for efficiency.
    // Omitting the selector binds the event to `this.el`.
    // This only works for delegate-able events: not `focus`, `blur`, and
    // not `change`, `submit`, and `reset` in Internet Explorer.
    delegateEvents: function(events) {
      if (!(events || (events = _.result(this, 'events')))) return;
      this.undelegateEvents();
      for (var key in events) {
        var method = events[key];
        if (!_.isFunction(method)) method = this[events[key]];
        if (!method) throw new Error('Method "' + events[key] + '" does not exist');
        var match = key.match(delegateEventSplitter);
        var eventName = match[1], selector = match[2];
        method = _.bind(method, this);
        eventName += '.delegateEvents' + this.cid;
        if (selector === '') {
          this.$el.bind(eventName, method);
        } else {
          this.$el.delegate(selector, eventName, method);
        }
      }
    },

    // Clears all callbacks previously bound to the view with `delegateEvents`.
    // You usually don't need to use this, but may wish to if you have multiple
    // Backbone views attached to the same DOM element.
    undelegateEvents: function() {
      this.$el.unbind('.delegateEvents' + this.cid);
    },

    // Performs the initial configuration of a View with a set of options.
    // Keys with special meaning *(model, collection, id, className)*, are
    // attached directly to the view.
    _configure: function(options) {
      if (this.options) options = _.extend({}, this.options, options);
      for (var i = 0, l = viewOptions.length; i < l; i++) {
        var attr = viewOptions[i];
        if (options[attr]) this[attr] = options[attr];
      }
      this.options = options;
    },

    // Ensure that the View has a DOM element to render into.
    // If `this.el` is a string, pass it through `$()`, take the first
    // matching element, and re-assign it to `el`. Otherwise, create
    // an element from the `id`, `className` and `tagName` properties.
    _ensureElement: function() {
      if (!this.el) {
        var attrs = _.extend({}, _.result(this, 'attributes'));
        if (this.id) attrs.id = _.result(this, 'id');
        if (this.className) attrs['class'] = _.result(this, 'className');
        this.setElement(this.make(_.result(this, 'tagName'), attrs), false);
      } else {
        this.setElement(_.result(this, 'el'), false);
      }
    }

  });

  // Backbone.sync
  // -------------

  // Map from CRUD to HTTP for our default `Backbone.sync` implementation.
  var methodMap = {
    'create': 'POST',
    'update': 'PUT',
    'delete': 'DELETE',
    'read':   'GET'
  };

  // Override this function to change the manner in which Backbone persists
  // models to the server. You will be passed the type of request, and the
  // model in question. By default, makes a RESTful Ajax request
  // to the model's `url()`. Some possible customizations could be:
  //
  // * Use `setTimeout` to batch rapid-fire updates into a single request.
  // * Send up the models as XML instead of JSON.
  // * Persist models via WebSockets instead of Ajax.
  //
  // Turn on `Backbone.emulateHTTP` in order to send `PUT` and `DELETE` requests
  // as `POST`, with a `_method` parameter containing the true HTTP method,
  // as well as all requests with the body as `application/x-www-form-urlencoded`
  // instead of `application/json` with the model in a param named `model`.
  // Useful when interfacing with server-side languages like **PHP** that make
  // it difficult to read the body of `PUT` requests.
  Backbone.sync = function(method, model, options) {
    var type = methodMap[method];

    // Default options, unless specified.
    options || (options = {});

    // Default JSON-request options.
    var params = {type: type, dataType: 'json'};

    // Ensure that we have a URL.
    if (!options.url) {
      params.url = _.result(model, 'url') || urlError();
    }

    // Ensure that we have the appropriate request data.
    if (!options.data && model && (method === 'create' || method === 'update')) {
      params.contentType = 'application/json';
      params.data = JSON.stringify(model);
    }

    // For older servers, emulate JSON by encoding the request into an HTML-form.
    if (Backbone.emulateJSON) {
      params.contentType = 'application/x-www-form-urlencoded';
      params.data = params.data ? {model: params.data} : {};
    }

    // For older servers, emulate HTTP by mimicking the HTTP method with `_method`
    // And an `X-HTTP-Method-Override` header.
    if (Backbone.emulateHTTP) {
      if (type === 'PUT' || type === 'DELETE') {
        if (Backbone.emulateJSON) params.data._method = type;
        params.type = 'POST';
        params.beforeSend = function(xhr) {
          xhr.setRequestHeader('X-HTTP-Method-Override', type);
        };
      }
    }

    // Don't process data on a non-GET request.
    if (params.type !== 'GET' && !Backbone.emulateJSON) {
      params.processData = false;
    }

    var success = options.success;
    options.success = function(resp, status, xhr) {
      if (success) success(resp, status, xhr);
      model.trigger('sync', model, resp, options);
    };

    var error = options.error;
    options.error = function(xhr, status, thrown) {
      if (error) error(model, xhr, options);
      model.trigger('error', model, xhr, options);
    };

    // Make the request, allowing the user to override any Ajax options.
    return Backbone.ajax(_.extend(params, options));
  };

  // Set the default implementation of `Backbone.ajax` to proxy through to `$`.
  Backbone.ajax = function() {
    return Backbone.$.ajax.apply(Backbone.$, arguments);
  };

  // Helpers
  // -------

  // Helper function to correctly set up the prototype chain, for subclasses.
  // Similar to `goog.inherits`, but uses a hash of prototype properties and
  // class properties to be extended.
  var extend = function(protoProps, staticProps) {
    var parent = this;
    var child;

    // The constructor function for the new subclass is either defined by you
    // (the "constructor" property in your `extend` definition), or defaulted
    // by us to simply call the parent's constructor.
    if (protoProps && _.has(protoProps, 'constructor')) {
      child = protoProps.constructor;
    } else {
      child = function(){ parent.apply(this, arguments); };
    }

    // Add static properties to the constructor function, if supplied.
    _.extend(child, parent, staticProps);

    // Set the prototype chain to inherit from `parent`, without calling
    // `parent`'s constructor function.
    var Surrogate = function(){ this.constructor = child; };
    Surrogate.prototype = parent.prototype;
    child.prototype = new Surrogate;

    // Add prototype properties (instance properties) to the subclass,
    // if supplied.
    if (protoProps) _.extend(child.prototype, protoProps);

    // Set a convenience property in case the parent's prototype is needed
    // later.
    child.__super__ = parent.prototype;

    return child;
  };

  // Set up inheritance for the model, collection, router, and view.
  Model.extend = Collection.extend = Router.extend = View.extend = extend;

  // Throw an error when a URL is needed, and none is supplied.
  var urlError = function() {
    throw new Error('A "url" property or function must be specified');
  };

}).call(this);

define('backbone', ['backbone/backbone'], function (main) { return main; });

define("backbone/backbone", function(){});

// Testing module
define('modules/testing',[
  // Application.
  "backbone"
],

// Map dependencies from above array.
function (Backbone) {
  console.log(Backbone);
});

/*!
 * backbone.layoutmanager.js v0.7.1
 * Copyright 2012, Tim Branyen (@tbranyen)
 * backbone.layoutmanager.js may be freely distributed under the MIT license.
 */
(function(window) {



// Hoisted, referenced at the bottom of the source.  This caches a list of all
// LayoutManager options at definition time.
var keys;

// Localize global dependency references.
var Backbone = window.Backbone;
var _ = window._;
var $ = window.$;

// Maintain references to the two `Backbone.View` functions that are
// overwritten so that they can be proxied.
var _configure = Backbone.View.prototype._configure;
var render = Backbone.View.prototype.render;

// Cache these methods for performance.
var aPush = Array.prototype.push;
var aConcat = Array.prototype.concat;
var aSplice = Array.prototype.splice;

// LayoutManager is a wrapper around a `Backbone.View`.
var LayoutManager = Backbone.View.extend({
  // This named function allows for significantly easier debugging.
  constructor: function Layout(options) {
    // Options may not always be passed to the constructor, this ensures it is
    // always an object.
    options = options || {};

    // Grant this View superpowers.
    LayoutManager.setupView(this, options);

    // Have Backbone set up the rest of this View.
    Backbone.View.call(this, options);
  },

  // Shorthand to `setView` function with the `append` flag set.
  insertView: function(selector, view) {
    // If the `view` argument exists, then a selector was passed in.  This code
    // path will forward the selector on to `setView`.
    if (view) {
      return this.setView(selector, view, true);
    }

    // If no `view` argument is defined, then assume the first argument is the
    // View, somewhat now confusingly named `selector`.
    return this.setView(selector, true);
  },

  // Iterate over an object and ensure every value is wrapped in an array to
  // ensure they will be appended, then pass that object to `setViews`.
  insertViews: function(views) {
    // If an array of views was passed it should be inserted into the
    // root view. Much like calling insertView without a selector
    if (_.isArray(views)) {
      return this.setViews({'': views});
    }

    _.each(views, function(view, selector) {
      views[selector] = _.isArray(view) ? view : [view];
    });

    return this.setViews(views);
  },

  // Returns the View that matches the `getViews` filter function.
  getView: function(fn) {
    return this.getViews(fn).first().value();
  },

  // Provide a filter function to get a flattened array of all the subviews.
  // If the filter function is omitted it will return all subviews.  If a 
  // String is passed instead, it will return the Views for that selector.
  getViews: function(fn) {
    // Generate an array of all top level (no deeply nested) Views flattened.
    var views = _.chain(this.views).map(function(view) {
      return _.isArray(view) ? view : [view];
    }, this).flatten().value();

    // If the filter argument is a String, then return a chained Version of the
    // elements.
    if (typeof fn === "string") {
      return _.chain([this.views[fn]]).flatten();
    }

    // If a filter function is provided, run it on all Views and return a
    // wrapped chain. Otherwise, simply return a wrapped chain of all Views.
    return _.chain(typeof fn === "function" ? _.filter(views, fn) : views);
  },

  // This takes in a partial name and view instance and assigns them to
  // the internal collection of views.  If a view is not a LayoutManager
  // instance, then mix in the LayoutManager prototype.  This ensures
  // all Views can be used successfully.
  //
  // Must definitely wrap any render method passed in or defaults to a
  // typical render function `return layout(this).render()`.
  setView: function(name, view, append) {
    var manager, existing, options;
    // Parent view, the one you are setting a View on.
    var root = this;

    // If no name was passed, use an empty string and shift all arguments.
    if (typeof name !== "string") {
      append = view;
      view = name;
      name = "";
    }

    // If the parent views object doesn't exist... create it.
    this.views = this.views || {};

    // Shorthand the `__manager__` property.
    manager = view.__manager__;

    // Shorthand the View that potentially already exists.
    existing = this.views[name];

    // If the View has not been properly set up, throw an Error message
    // indicating that the View needs `manage: true` set.
    if (!manager) {
      throw new Error("Please set `View#manage` property with selector '" +
        name + "' to `true`.");
    }

    // Assign options.
    options = view._options();

    // Add reference to the parentView.
    manager.parent = root;

    // Add reference to the placement selector used.
    manager.selector = name;

    // Code path is less complex for Views that are not being appended.  Simply
    // remove existing Views and bail out with the assignment.
    if (!append) {
      // If the View we are adding has already been rendered, simply inject it
      // into the parent.
      if (manager.hasRendered) {
        options.partial(root.el, manager.selector, view.el, manager.append); 
      }

      // Ensure remove is called when swapping View's.
      if (existing) {
        // If the views are an array, iterate and remove each individually.
        _.each(aConcat.call([], existing), function(nestedView) {
          nestedView.remove();
        });
      }

      // Assign to main views object and return for chainability.
      return this.views[name] = view;
    }

    // Ensure this.views[name] is an array and push this View to the end.
    this.views[name] = aConcat.call([], existing || [], view);

    // Put the view into `append` mode.
    manager.append = true;

    return view;
  },

  // Allows the setting of multiple views instead of a single view.
  setViews: function(views) {
    // Iterate over all the views and use the View's view method to assign.
    _.each(views, function(view, name) {
      // If the view is an array put all views into insert mode.
      if (_.isArray(view)) {
        return _.each(view, function(view) {
          this.insertView(name, view);
        }, this);
      }

      // Assign each view using the view function.
      this.setView(name, view);
    }, this);

    // Allow for chaining
    return this;
  },

  // By default this should find all nested views and render them into
  // the this.el and call done once all of them have successfully been
  // resolved.
  //
  // This function returns a promise that can be chained to determine
  // once all subviews and main view have been rendered into the view.el.
  render: function() {
    var root = this;
    var options = root._options();
    var manager = root.__manager__;
    var parent = manager.parent;
    var rentManager = parent && parent.__manager__;
    var def = options.deferred();

    // Triggered once the render has succeeded.
    function resolve() {
      var next;

      // If there is a parent, attach.
      if (parent) {
        if (!options.contains(parent.el, root.el)) {
          options.partial(parent.el, manager.selector, root.el,
            manager.append);
        }
      }

      // Ensure events are always correctly bound after rendering.
      root.delegateEvents();

      // Resolve the deferred.
      def.resolveWith(root, [root]);

      // Set this View as successfully rendered.
      manager.hasRendered = true;

      // Only process the queue if it exists.
      if (next = manager.queue.shift()) {
        // Ensure that the next render is only called after all other
        // `done` handlers have completed.  This will prevent `render`
        // callbacks from firing out of order.
        next();
      } else {
        // Once the queue is depleted, remove it, the render process has
        // completed.
        delete manager.queue;
      }

      // Reusable function for triggering the afterRender callback and event
      // and setting the hasRendered flag.
      function completeRender() {
        var afterRender = options.afterRender;

        if (afterRender) {
          afterRender.call(root, root);
        }

        // Always emit an afterRender event.
        root.trigger("afterRender", root);
      }

      // Special case for when a parent View that has not been rendered is
      // involved.
      if (rentManager && !rentManager.hasRendered) {
        // Wait until the parent View has finished rendering, which could be
        // asynchronous, and trigger afterRender on this View once it has
        // compeleted.
        return parent.on("afterRender", function() {
          // Wish we had `once` for this...
          parent.off("afterRender", null, this);

          // Trigger the afterRender and set hasRendered.
          completeRender();
        }, root);
      }

      // This View and its parent have both rendered.
      completeRender();
    }

    // Actually facilitate a render.
    function actuallyRender() {
      var options = root._options();
      var manager = root.__manager__;
      var parent = manager.parent;
      var rentManager = parent && parent.__manager__;

      // The `_viewRender` method is broken out to abstract away from having
      // too much code in `processRender`.
      root._render(LayoutManager._viewRender, options).done(function() {
        // If there are no children to worry about, complete the render
        // instantly.
        if (!_.keys(root.views).length) {
          return resolve();
        }

        // Create a list of promises to wait on until rendering is done.
        // Since this method will run on all children as well, its sufficient
        // for a full hierarchical. 
        var promises = _.map(root.views, function(view) {
          var append = _.isArray(view);

          // If items are being inserted, they will be in a non-zero length
          // Array.
          if (append && view.length) {
            // Only need to wait for the first View to complete, the rest
            // will be synchronous, by virtue of having the template cached.
            return view[0].render().pipe(function() {
              // Map over all the View's to be inserted and call render on
              // them all.  Once they have all resolved, resolve the other
              // deferred.
              return options.when(_.map(view.slice(1), function(insertView) {
                return insertView.render();
              }));
            });
          }

          // Only return the fetch deferred, resolve the main deferred after
          // the element has been attached to it's parent.
          return !append ? view.render() : view;
        });

        // Once all nested Views have been rendered, resolve this View's
        // deferred.
        options.when(promises).done(function() {
          resolve();
        });
      });
    }

    // Another render is currently happening if there is an existing queue, so
    // push a closure to render later into the queue.
    if (manager.queue) {
      aPush.call(manager.queue, function() {
        actuallyRender();
      });
    } else {
      manager.queue = [];

      // This the first `render`, preceeding the `queue` so render
      // immediately.
      actuallyRender(root, def);
    }

    // Add the View to the deferred so that `view.render().view.el` is
    // possible.
    def.view = root;
    
    // This is the promise that determines if the `render` function has
    // completed or not.
    return def;
  },

  // Ensure the cleanup function is called whenever remove is called.
  remove: function() {
    // Force remove itself from its parent.
    LayoutManager._removeView(this, true);

    // Call the original remove function.
    return this._remove.apply(this, arguments);
  },

  // Merge instance and global options.
  _options: function() {
    // Instance overrides take precedence, fallback to prototype options.
    return _.extend({}, this, LayoutManager.prototype.options, this.options);
  }
},
{
  // Clearable cache.
  _cache: {},

  // Creates a deferred and returns a function to call when finished.
  _makeAsync: function(options, done) {
    var handler = options.deferred();

    // Used to handle asynchronous renders.
    handler.async = function() {
      handler._isAsync = true;

      return done;
    };

    return handler;
  },

  // This gets passed to all _render methods.  The `root` value here is passed
  // from the `manage(this).render()` line in the `_render` function
  _viewRender: function(root, options) {
    var url, contents, fetchAsync;
    var manager = root.__manager__;

    // This function is responsible for pairing the rendered template into
    // the DOM element.
    function applyTemplate(rendered) {
      // Actually put the rendered contents into the element.
      if (rendered) {
        options.html(root.el, rendered);
      }

      // Resolve only after fetch and render have succeeded.
      fetchAsync.resolveWith(root, [root]);
    }

    // Once the template is successfully fetched, use its contents to proceed.
    // Context argument is first, since it is bound for partial application
    // reasons.
    function done(context, contents) {
      // Store the rendered template someplace so it can be re-assignable.
      var rendered;
      // This allows the `render` method to be asynchronous as well as `fetch`.
      var renderAsync = LayoutManager._makeAsync(options, function(rendered) {
        applyTemplate(rendered);
      });

      // Ensure the cache is up-to-date.
      LayoutManager.cache(url, contents);

      // Render the View into the el property.
      if (contents) {
        rendered = options.render.call(renderAsync, contents, context);
      }

      // If the function was synchronous, continue execution.
      if (!renderAsync._isAsync) {
        applyTemplate(rendered);
      }
    }

    return {
      // This `render` function is what gets called inside of the View render,
      // when `manage(this).render` is called.  Returns a promise that can be
      // used to know when the element has been rendered into its parent.
      render: function() {
        var context;
        var data = options.data || options.serialize;
        var template = root.template || options.template;

        // If data is a function, immediately call it.
        if (_.isFunction(data)) {
          data = data.call(root);
        }

        // This allows for `var done = this.async()` and then `done(contents)`.
        fetchAsync = LayoutManager._makeAsync(options, function(contents) {
          done(data, contents);
        });

        // Set the url to the prefix + the view's template property.
        if (typeof template === "string") {
          url = options.prefix + template;
        }

        // Check if contents are already cached and if they are, simply process
        // the template with the correct data.
        if (contents = LayoutManager.cache(url)) {
          done(data, contents, url);

          return fetchAsync;
        }

        // Fetch layout and template contents.
        if (typeof template === "string") {
          contents = options.fetch.call(fetchAsync, options.prefix + template);
        // If its not a string just pass the object/function/whatever.
        } else if (template != null) {
          contents = options.fetch.call(fetchAsync, template);
        }

        // If the function was synchronous, continue execution.
        if (!fetchAsync._isAsync) {
          done(data, contents);
        }

        return fetchAsync;
      }
    };
  },

  // Remove all nested Views.
  _removeViews: function(root, force) {
    // Shift arguments around.
    if (typeof root === "boolean") {
      force = root;
      root = this;
    }

    // Allow removeView to be called on instances.
    root = root || this;

    // Iterate over all of the nested View's and remove.
    root.getViews().each(function(view) {
      // Force doesn't care about if a View has rendered or not.
      if (view.__manager__.hasRendered || force) {
        LayoutManager._removeView(view, force);
      }
    });
  },

  // Remove a single nested View.
  _removeView: function(view, force) {
    var parentViews;
    // Shorthand the manager for easier access.
    var manager = view.__manager__;
    // Test for keep.
    var keep = typeof view.keep === "boolean" ? view.keep : view.options.keep;

    // Only remove views that do not have `keep` attribute set, unless the
    // View is in `append` mode and the force flag is set.
    if (!keep && (manager.append === true || force)) {
      // Clean out the events.
      LayoutManager.cleanViews(view);

      // Since we are removing this view, force subviews to remove
      view._removeViews(true);  
           
      // Remove the View completely.
      view.$el.remove();

      // Bail out early if no parent exists.
      if (!manager.parent) { return; }

      // Assign (if they exist) the sibling Views to a property.
      parentViews = manager.parent.views[manager.selector];

      // If this is an array of items remove items that are not marked to
      // keep.
      if (_.isArray(parentViews)) {
        // Remove duplicate Views.
        return _.each(_.clone(parentViews), function(view, i) {
          // If the managers match, splice off this View.
          if (view && view.__manager__ === manager) {
            aSplice.call(parentViews, i, 1);
          }
        });
      }

      // Otherwise delete the parent selector.
      delete manager.parent.views[manager.selector];
    }
  },

  // Accept either a single view or an array of views to clean of all DOM
  // events internal model and collection references and all Backbone.Events.
  cleanViews: function(views) {
    // Clear out all existing views.
    _.each(aConcat.call([], views), function(view) {
      // Remove all custom events attached to this View.
      view.unbind();

      // Automatically unbind `model`.
      if (view.model instanceof Backbone.Model) {
        view.model.off(null, null, view);
      }

      // Automatically unbind `collection`.
      if (view.collection instanceof Backbone.Collection) {
        view.collection.off(null, null, view);
      }

      // If a custom cleanup method was provided on the view, call it after
      // the initial cleanup is done
      if (view.cleanup) {
        view.cleanup.call(view);
      }
    });
  },

  // Cache templates into LayoutManager._cache.
  cache: function(path, contents) {
    // If template path is found in the cache, return the contents.
    if (path in this._cache) {
      return this._cache[path];
    // Ensure path and contents aren't undefined.
    } else if (path != null && contents != null) {
      return this._cache[path] = contents;
    }

    // If the template is not in the cache, return undefined.
  },

  // This static method allows for global configuration of LayoutManager.
  configure: function(opts) {
    _.extend(LayoutManager.prototype.options, opts);

    // Allow LayoutManager to manage Backbone.View.prototype.
    if (opts.manage) {
      Backbone.View.prototype.manage = true;
    }
  },

  // Configure a View to work with the LayoutManager plugin.
  setupView: function(view, options) {
    // If the View has already been setup, no need to do it again.
    if (view.__manager__) {
      return;
    }

    var views, declaredViews, viewOptions;
    var proto = Backbone.LayoutManager.prototype;
    var viewOverrides = _.pick(view, keys);

    // Ensure necessary properties are set.
    _.defaults(view, {
      // Ensure a view always has a views object.
      views: {},

      // Internal state object used to store whether or not a View has been
      // taken over by layout manager and if it has been rendered into the DOM.
      __manager__: {},

      // Add the ability to remove all Views.
      _removeViews: LayoutManager._removeViews,

      // Add the ability to remove itself.
      _removeView: LayoutManager._removeView

    // Mix in all LayoutManager prototype properties as well.
    }, LayoutManager.prototype);

    // Extend the options with the prototype and passed options.
    options = view.options = _.defaults(options || {}, view.options,
      proto.options);

    // Ensure view events are properly copied over.
    viewOptions = _.pick(options, aConcat.call(["events"],
      _.values(options.events)));

    // Merge the View options into the View.
    _.extend(view, viewOptions);

    // If the View still has the Backbone.View#render method, remove it.  Don't
    // want it accidentally overriding the LM render.
    if (viewOverrides.render === LayoutManager.prototype.render ||
      viewOverrides.render === Backbone.View.prototype.render) {
      delete viewOverrides.render;
    }

    // Pick out the specific properties that can be dynamically added at
    // runtime and ensure they are available on the view object.
    _.extend(options, viewOverrides);

    // By default the original Remove function is the Backbone.View one.
    view._remove = Backbone.View.prototype.remove;

    // Always use this render function when using LayoutManager.
    view._render = function(manage, options) {
      // Keep the view consistent between callbacks and deferreds.
      var view = this;
      // Shorthand the manager.
      var manager = view.__manager__;
      // Cache these properties.
      var beforeRender = options.beforeRender;

      // Ensure all nested Views are properly scrubbed if re-rendering.
      if (manager.hasRendered) {
        this._removeViews();
      }

      // If a beforeRender function is defined, call it.
      if (beforeRender) {
        beforeRender.call(this, this);
      }

      // Always emit a beforeRender event.
      this.trigger("beforeRender", this);

      // Render!
      return manage(this, options).render();
    };

    // Ensure the render is always set correctly.
    view.render = LayoutManager.prototype.render;

    // If the user provided their own remove override, use that instead of the
    // default.
    if (view.remove !== proto.remove) {
      view._remove = view.remove;
      view.remove = proto.remove;
    }
    
    // Normalize views to exist on either instance or options, default to
    // options.
    views = options.views || view.views;

    // Set the internal views, only if selectors have been provided.
    if (_.keys(views).length) {
      // Keep original object declared containing Views.
      declaredViews = views;

      // Reset the property to avoid duplication or overwritting.
      view.views = {};

      // Set the declared Views.
      view.setViews(declaredViews);
    }

    // If a template is passed use that instead.
    if (view.options.template) {
      view.options.template = options.template;
    // Ensure the template is mapped over.
    } else if (view.template) {
      options.template = view.template;

      // Remove it from the instance.
      delete view.template;
    }
  }
});

// Convenience assignment to make creating Layout's slightly shorter.
Backbone.Layout = Backbone.LayoutView = Backbone.LayoutManager = LayoutManager;
// Tack on the version.
LayoutManager.VERSION = "0.7.1";

// Override _configure to provide extra functionality that is necessary in
// order for the render function reference to be bound during initialize.
Backbone.View.prototype._configure = function() {
  // Run the original _configure.
  var retVal = _configure.apply(this, arguments);

  // If manage is set, do it!
  if (this.manage) {
    // Set up this View.
    LayoutManager.setupView(this);
  }

  // Act like nothing happened.
  return retVal;
};

// Default configuration options; designed to be overriden.
LayoutManager.prototype.options = {
  // Prefix template/layout paths.
  prefix: "",

  // Can be used to supply a different deferred implementation.
  deferred: function() {
    return $.Deferred();
  },

  // Fetch is passed a path and is expected to return template contents as a
  // function or string.
  fetch: function(path) {
    return _.template($(path).html());
  },

  // This is the most common way you will want to partially apply a view into
  // a layout.
  partial: function(root, name, el, append) {
    // If no selector is specified, assume the parent should be added to.
    var $root = name ? $(root).find(name) : $(root);

    // Use the append method if append argument is true.
    this[append ? "append" : "html"]($root, el);
  },

  // Override this with a custom HTML method, passed a root element and an
  // element to replace the innerHTML with.
  html: function(root, el) {
    $(root).html(el);
  },

  // Very similar to HTML except this one will appendChild.
  append: function(root, el) {
    $(root).append(el);
  },

  // Return a deferred for when all promises resolve/reject.
  when: function(promises) {
    return $.when.apply(null, promises);
  },

  // By default, render using underscore's templating.
  render: function(template, context) {
    return template(context);
  },

  // A method to determine if a View contains another.
  contains: function(parent, child) {
    return $.contains(parent, child);
  }
};

// Maintain a list of the keys at define time.
keys = _.keys(LayoutManager.prototype.options);

})(this);


define('backbone.layoutmanager', ['backbone.layoutmanager/backbone.layoutmanager'], function (main) { return main; });

define("backbone.layoutmanager/backbone.layoutmanager", function(){});

define('app',[
  "modules/testing",
  "backbone.layoutmanager"
], function() {

  // Provide a global location to place configuration settings and module
  // creation.
  var app = {
    // The root path to run the application.
    root: "/"
  };

  // Localize or create a new JavaScript Template object.
  var JST = window.JST = window.JST || {};

  // Configure LayoutManager with Backbone Boilerplate defaults.
  Backbone.LayoutManager.configure({
    // Allow LayoutManager to augment Backbone.View.prototype.
    manage: true,

    prefix: "app/templates/",

    fetch: function(path) {
      // Concatenate the file extension.
      path = path + ".html";

      // If cached, use the compiled template.
      if (JST[path]) {
        return JST[path];
      }

      // Put fetch into `async-mode`.
      var done = this.async();

      // Seek out the template asynchronously.
      $.get(app.root + path, function(contents) {
        done(JST[path] = _.template(contents));
      });
    }
  });

  // Mix Backbone.Events, modules, and layout management into the app object.
  return _.extend(app, {
    // Create a custom object with a nested Views object.
    module: function(additionalProps) {
      return _.extend({ Views: {} }, additionalProps);
    },

    // Helper for using layouts.
    useLayout: function(name, options) {
      // Enable variable arity by allowing the first argument to be the options
      // object and omitting the name argument.
      if (_.isObject(name)) {
        options = name;
      }

      // Ensure options is an object.
      options = options || {};

      // If a name property was specified use that as the template.
      if (_.isString(name)) {
        options.template = name;
      }

      // Create a new Layout with options.
      var layout = new Backbone.Layout(_.extend({
        el: "#main"
      }, options));

      // Cache the refererence.
      return this.layout = layout;
    }
  }, Backbone.Events);

});

define('router',[
  // Application.
  "app"
],

function(app) {

  // Defining the application router, you can attach sub routers here.
  var Router = Backbone.Router.extend({
    routes: {
      "": "index"
    },

    index: function() {

    }
  });

  return Router;

});

require([
  // Application.
  "app",

  // Main Router.
  "router"
],

function(app, Router) {

  // Define your master router on the application namespace and trigger all
  // navigation from this instance.
  app.router = new Router();

  // Trigger the initial route and enable HTML5 History API support, set the
  // root folder to '/' by default.  Change in app.js.
  Backbone.history.start({ pushState: true, root: app.root });

  // All navigation that is relative should be passed through the navigate
  // method, to be processed by the router. If the link has a `data-bypass`
  // attribute, bypass the delegation completely.
  $(document).on("click", "a[href]:not([data-bypass])", function(evt) {
    // Get the absolute anchor href.
    var href = { prop: $(this).prop("href"), attr: $(this).attr("href") };
    // Get the absolute root.
    var root = location.protocol + "//" + location.host + app.root;

    // Ensure the root is part of the anchor href, meaning it's relative.
    if (href.prop.slice(0, root.length) === root) {
      // Stop the default event to ensure the link will not cause a page
      // refresh.
      evt.preventDefault();

      // `Backbone.history.navigate` is sufficient for all Routers and will
      // trigger the correct events. The Router's internal `navigate` method
      // calls this anyways.  The fragment is sliced from the root.
      Backbone.history.navigate(href.attr, true);
    }
  });

});

define("main", function(){});

// Set the require.js configuration for your application.
require.config({

  // Initialize the application with the main application file and the JamJS
  // generated configuration file.
  deps: ["../vendor/jam/require.config", "main"],

  paths: {
    // Put paths here.
  },

  shim: {
    // Put shims here.
  }

});

define("config", function(){});

grunt.js

// This is the main application configuration file.  It is a Grunt
// configuration file, which you can learn more about here:
// https://github.com/cowboy/grunt/blob/master/docs/configuring.md
module.exports = function(grunt) {

  grunt.initConfig({

    // The lint task will run the build configuration and the application
    // JavaScript through JSHint and report any errors.  You can change the
    // options for this task, by reading this:
    // https://github.com/cowboy/grunt/blob/master/docs/task_lint.md
    lint: {
      files: [
        "build/config.js", "app/**/*.js"
      ]
    },

    // The jshint option for scripturl is set to lax, because the anchor
    // override inside main.js needs to test for them so as to not accidentally
    // route.
    jshint: {
      options: {
        scripturl: true
      }
    },

    // The jst task compiles all application templates into JavaScript
    // functions with the underscore.js template function from 1.2.4.  You can
    // change the namespace and the template options, by reading this:
    // https://github.com/gruntjs/grunt-contrib/blob/master/docs/jst.md
    //
    // The concat task depends on this file to exist, so if you decide to
    // remove this, ensure concat is updated accordingly.
    jst: {
      "dist/debug/templates.js": [
        "app/templates/**/*.html"
      ]
    },

    // This task simplifies working with CSS inside Backbone Boilerplate
    // projects.  Instead of manually specifying your stylesheets inside the
    // configuration, you can use `@imports` and this task will concatenate
    // only those paths.
    styles: {
      // Out the concatenated contents of the following styles into the below
      // development file path.
      "dist/debug/index.css": {
        // Point this to where your `index.css` file is location.
        src: "app/styles/index.css",

        // The relative path to use for the @imports.
        paths: ["app/styles"],

        // Point to where styles live.
        prefix: "app/styles/",

        // Additional production-only stylesheets here.
        additional: []
      }
    },

    // This task uses James Burke's excellent r.js AMD build tool.  In the
    // future other builders may be contributed as drop-in alternatives.
    requirejs: {
      // Include the main configuration file.
      mainConfigFile: "app/config.js",

      // Also include the JamJS configuration file.
      jamConfig: "/vendor/jam/require.config.js",

      // Output file.
      out: "dist/debug/require.js",

      // Root application module.
      name: "config",

      // Do not wrap everything in an IIFE.
      wrap: false
    },

    // The concatenate task is used here to merge the almond require/define
    // shim and the templates into the application code.  It's named
    // dist/debug/require.js, because we want to only load one script file in
    // index.html.
    concat: {
      dist: {
        src: [
          "vendor/js/libs/almond.js",
          "dist/debug/templates.js",
          "dist/debug/require.js"
        ],

        dest: "dist/debug/require.js",

        separator: ";"
      }
    },

    // This task uses the MinCSS Node.js project to take all your CSS files in
    // order and concatenate them into a single CSS file named index.css.  It
    // also minifies all the CSS as well.  This is named index.css, because we
    // only want to load one stylesheet in index.html.
    mincss: {
      "dist/release/index.css": [
        "dist/debug/index.css"
      ]
    },

    // Takes the built require.js file and minifies it for filesize benefits.
    min: {
      "dist/release/require.js": [
        "dist/debug/require.js"
      ]
    },

    // Running the server without specifying an action will run the defaults,
    // port: 8000 and host: 127.0.0.1.  If you would like to change these
    // defaults, simply add in the properties `port` and `host` respectively.
    // Alternatively you can omit the port and host properties and the server
    // task will instead default to process.env.PORT or process.env.HOST.
    //
    // Changing the defaults might look something like this:
    //
    // server: {
    //   host: "127.0.0.1", port: 9001
    //   debug: { ... can set host and port here too ...
    //  }
    //
    //  To learn more about using the server task, please refer to the code
    //  until documentation has been written.
    server: {
      // Ensure the favicon is mapped correctly.
      files: { "favicon.ico": "favicon.ico" },

      // For styles.
      prefix: "app/styles/",

      debug: {
        // Ensure the favicon is mapped correctly.
        files: "<config:server.files>",

        // Map `server:debug` to `debug` folders.
        folders: {
          "app": "dist/debug",
          "vendor/js/libs": "dist/debug",
          "app/styles": "dist/debug"
        }
      },

      release: {
        // This makes it easier for deploying, by defaulting to any IP.
        host: "0.0.0.0",

        // Ensure the favicon is mapped correctly.
        files: "<config:server.files>",

        // Map `server:release` to `release` folders.
        folders: {
          "app": "dist/release",
          "vendor/js/libs": "dist/release",
          "app/styles": "dist/release"
        }
      }
    },

    // The headless QUnit testing environment is provided for "free" by Grunt.
    // Simply point the configuration to your test directory.
    qunit: {
      all: ["test/qunit/*.html"]
    },

    // The headless Jasmine testing is provided by grunt-jasmine-task. Simply
    // point the configuration to your test directory.
    jasmine: {
      all: ["test/jasmine/*.html"]
    },

    // The watch task can be used to monitor the filesystem and execute
    // specific tasks when files are modified.  By default, the watch task is
    // available to compile CSS if you are unable to use the runtime compiler
    // (use if you have a custom server, PhoneGap, Adobe Air, etc.)
    watch: {
      files: ["grunt.js", "vendor/**/*", "app/**/*"],
      tasks: "styles"
    },

    // The clean task ensures all files are removed from the dist/ directory so
    // that no files linger from previous builds.
    clean: ["dist/"],

    // If you want to generate targeted `index.html` builds into the `dist/`
    // folders, uncomment the following configuration block and use the
    // conditionals inside `index.html`.
    //targethtml: {
    //  debug: {
    //    src: "index.html",
    //    dest: "dist/debug/index.html"
    //  },
    //
    //  release: {
    //    src: "index.html",
    //    dest: "dist/release/index.html"
    //  }
    //},
    
    // This task will copy assets into your build directory,
    // automatically.  This makes an entirely encapsulated build into
    // each directory.
    //copy: {
    //  debug: {
    //    files: {
    //      "dist/debug/app/": "app/**",
    //      "dist/debug/vendor/": "vendor/**"
    //    }
    //  },

    //  release: {
    //    files: {
    //      "dist/release/app/": "app/**",
    //      "dist/release/vendor/": "vendor/**"
    //    }
    //  }
    //}

  });

  // The debug task will remove all contents inside the dist/ folder, lint
  // all your code, precompile all the underscore templates into
  // dist/debug/templates.js, compile all the application code into
  // dist/debug/require.js, and then concatenate the require/define shim
  // almond.js and dist/debug/templates.js into the require.js file.
  grunt.registerTask("debug", "clean lint jst requirejs concat styles");

  // The release task will run the debug tasks and then minify the
  // dist/debug/require.js file and CSS files.
  grunt.registerTask("release", "debug min mincss");

};

modules_testing.js

// Testing module
define([
  // Application.
  "backbone"
],

// Map dependencies from above array.
function (Backbone) {
  console.log(Backbone);
});

vendor_jam_require.js

var jam = {
    "packages": [
        {
            "name": "backbone",
            "location": "../vendor/jam/backbone",
            "main": "backbone.js"
        },
        {
            "name": "backbone.layoutmanager",
            "location": "../vendor/jam/backbone.layoutmanager",
            "main": "backbone.layoutmanager.js"
        },
        {
            "name": "jquery",
            "location": "../vendor/jam/jquery",
            "main": "jquery.js"
        },
        {
            "name": "lodash",
            "location": "../vendor/jam/lodash",
            "main": "./lodash.js"
        }
    ],
    "version": "0.2.11",
    "shim": {
        "backbone": {
            "deps": [
                "jquery",
                "lodash"
            ],
            "exports": "Backbone"
        },
        "backbone.layoutmanager": {
            "deps": [
                "jquery",
                "backbone",
                "lodash"
            ],
            "exports": "Backbone.LayoutManager"
        }
    }
};

if (typeof require !== "undefined" && require.config) {
    require.config({packages: jam.packages, shim: jam.shim});
}
else {
    var require = {packages: jam.packages, shim: jam.shim};
}

if (typeof exports !== "undefined" && typeof module !== "undefined") {
    module.exports = jam;
}