japanese_notes.md

Japanese

• Grammar
• Constructs

Grammar

• Particles
• Verbs
• Adjectives
• Counters and Numbers
• Adverbs

Particles

は

I-42 (as topic marker) I-93 (as subject marker, directing attention) I-257 (use in negative sentences, following に or で)

は (prounced わ) denotes the topic, which is usually omitted if context allows.

• 私の専攻は日本語です - My major is Japanese
• Alternatively (omitting は in the reply):
  • トムさん、専攻はなんですか。
  • ああ、日本語です。

The topic phrase "私の専攻は日本語です" is the subject of that sentence, but that need not be the case:

• メアリーさん、週末はたいてい何をしますか - Mary, what do you usually do on the weekends?
  • The time expression 週末 is promoted to the topic of the sentence
  • Could also be translated as "Let's talk about weekends; what do you usually do?"
• 今日は京都に行きます - I'm going to Kyoto today
  • Alternatively: "Let me say what I will do today; I will go to Kyoto"

は can be used to direct the listener's attention and invite further comment:

• 晩御飯は？　食べません - How about dinner? I'm not going to eat.
  • The broached topic (晩御飯) is not the subject of the verb, but is its direct object (???)

は is often used in negative sentences in place of が, を, and sometimes で and に, as negative sentences usually contain at least one は phrase. If 私は is present in the sentence, the substitution is unnecessary.

• テレビを見ますか。　いいえ、テレビは見ません。
• Generally, negative sentences already contain a は phrase. If "私は" is added to the above sentence, は doesn't need to be used after "テレビ"

は can follow に or で:

• 英語では話したくない - I don't want to speak English
• 広島には行ったことがない - I've never been to Hiroshima
• は often follows に when describing a place in terms of the things that are found there (see には)

が

I-195

• When using a question word such as だれ or 何, always use が.

  • 誰が沖縄に行きましたか - Who went to Okinawa?

• When a subject of a sentence answers a lingering question (filling in a blank), use が. This presents the subject

  • ロバートは沖縄に行きました - Robert went to Okinawa
    • Robert is the subject of the verb "行く" and is presented as the topic of the sentence by は
      • "As for Robert, he went to Okinawa"
    • Not presented as an answer to the above question
  • ロバートが沖縄に行きました - It was specifically Robert who went to Okinawa
    • Answers the above question with a "new piece of information" (it was Robert who went)
    • が presents the subject as the new information (to "fill in the blank" posited by the question)

• TODO: expand this

か

I-43, I-196, I-235

At the end of a sentence, indicates that it is a question. Is not used in informal questions sentences.

After 何, means "something". After どこ, means "somewhere". After だれ, means "someone".

も

I-65, I-111, I-196, I-235, II-58 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 1 - amount + も to mean "as many as"

• Denotes similarity: たけしさんは日本人です。たなかさんも日本人です。
• Applies to activities as well:
  • 私は東京に行きました。たけしさんも東京に行きました。
  • 靴を買いました。カバンも買いました。

Like か, も can be placed after 何, どこ, だれ, or similar, but instead means "nothing", "nowhere", "noone" when used in negative sentences. In this negated form, the original particle goes between the word and も, instead of after the word and か:

• どこかへ行きましたか。
• いいえ、どこへも行きませんでした。

When placed after a counter, it means "as many as":

• Only used when the amount is considered to be a lot.
  • Contrast with しか＿ない (see below)

Examples:

• 母は猫を三匹も飼っています - My mom has three cats (so many!).

When placed after "なん + counter", it means "any number of", or "many":

• この本は面白かったので、何回も読みました - Since this book is so interesting, I've read it countless times.

しか

II-58

When placed after a counter with a negative predicate, it means "as few as/only":

• この会社にはパソコンが二台しかありません。

〜ね

I-66

Seeks the listener's confirmation or agreement with what has been said.

〜よ

I-66

Added to the end of a statement to assure the listener of what has been said by making it an authoritative decree.

を

I-90

を　(pronounced お) indicates direct objects directly involved in or affected by the event.

で

I-90

Indicates where the event described takes place.

TODO: expand

に

I-90, I-257

• The goal toward which things move
• The time at which an event takes place
  • Approximate time references can be made by substituting に with ごろ or ごろに
  • に is needed with days of the week and numerical time expressions like 10:45 or September. It is NOT USED with:
    • time expressions relative to the current moment (today or tomorrow)
    • expressions describing regular invervals (every day)
    • "when" (いつ)
  • に is optional parts of the day (in the morning) or for the weekend.

Can be used to indicate the occasion on which something is done: 晩御飯にサラダを食べました。 Can also indicate the role you want something to play: お土産に絵葉書を買いました - bought a postcard as a souvenir

には

I-175 (counting people) I-257 (describing a place in terms of what is found there)

Often follows the place expression when counting people:

• クラスには学生が二人います - There are two students in the class

Used in describing a place in terms of what is found there:

• 東京にデパートがたくさんあります - There are many department stores in Tokyo
  • Suitable as a response to "where are there many department stores?"
• 東京にはデパートがたくさんなります - ditto
  • Suitable as a response to "what is Tokyo like?"
  • This is kind of like using が instead of は when asking or answering a question

へ

I-90

へ (pronounced え) also indicates the goal of movement and may replace に when used in that sense.

と

I-113 (connect two nouns, doing things together) II-103 (といい) II-146 (cause and effect) JP101 Level 3 Lesson 10 - と言われている JP101 Level 3 Lesson 27 - as a conditional JP101 Level 3 Lesson 28 - compared to たら JP101 Level 3 Lesson 28 - compared to たら and 〜ば

Connects two nouns A and B: 英語と日本語をはします

• For verbs and adjectives, use て form

Doing something with someone else: たけしさんはスーさんと東京に行きました

Cause and effect: [Clause A] と [clause B] -> Whenever A happens, B also happens

• B is a natural consequence of A. B is often a fact or habitual event
  • Unlike たら (but like 〜ば), B cannot express the speaker's intention, wish, request, or suggestion
  • Often used when talking about:
    • how to use machines
    • giving directions
    • talking about natural phenomena
• A, the cause, is present tense informal
• B (the effect) can be:
  • present tense:
    • 道が込んでいると時間があかかる - Whenever the streets are crowded, it takes longer to get there
  • past tense:
    • 子供の時、冬になるとかぜを引きました - When I was young, I would catch a cold whenever winter began
• B must follow A completely (B cannot occur while A is taking place)
  • e.g., "whenever I talk with her, we go to a coffee shop" would not use this form
• To use an adjective for B, use 〜くなる/〜になる
  • 秋になると木が赤くなります - Trees turn red when fall begins
  • 夜になると町が静かになります - When night falls, the town becomes quiet

Combine with present progressive passive 言う for "it is often said...":

• 東京は安全だと言われている - It is often said that Tokyo is safe

• 。。。といいですね expresses hope that something nice happens for someone else.

  • といいんですが can be used to hope for something for my own good. The informal version is といいんだけど
  • To express hope that you do something for me, te+form + くれるといいんですが can be used
  • These cannot be used for cases where the intended outcome is under your control.

から

I-153, I-215

Ending a sentence with から makes it an explanation of a situation or proposal. Sentences can also be formed as "explanation + から + situation".

から can be preceded by either formal or informal verb forms.

ので

I-273

More formal version of から.

Always follows an informal predicate. When following a な adjective or noun, な comes in between.

し

II-31

Used to convey multiple reasons for something, rather than just one as with から. Using one or more し statements conveys that they are not the only reasons.

Always follows an informal predicate. When following a な adjective or noun, だ comes in between.

の

I-44, I-233, II-59

Used to represent ownership.

Used to combine nouns: the main noun comes at the end, and descriptions are placed before it: 日本語の先生

Used to replace a known subject:

• with an い or な adjective:
  • 黒いセーターを持っています。 - I have a black sweater
  • 赤いのも持っています。 - I also have a red one
• with a noun:
  • これはスーさんのカバンですか。 - is this sue's bag?
  • いいえ、それはメアリーさんのです。 - no, it's mary's

Can replace んです at the end of a sentence.

や

I-256

Used to connect two nouns in a list, like と, to suggest that the items are examples, and the list is not exhaustive.

なら

II-34 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 31

"noun + なら + predicate" says that the predicate only applies to the noun and is not more generally applicable. (???)

• Ex: ひらがななら日本語がわかります。 - I only understand Japanese in hiragana

S1 (の) なら S2

• の is emphatic, and often becomes ん in conversation.

Verbs:

• Present + (の) なら
• Past + (の) なら Adjectives:
• i + (の) なら
• na
  • な -> なら (can't insert の)
  • Past: だった (の) なら Nouns:
• Present: noun + なら (can't insert の)
• Past: noun + だった (の) なら

Two possible meanings:

• S1 expresses a respose to something someone else says, a situation, or a condition; S2 often indicates the speaker's will, advice, request, etc
  • Ex: 京都に行くなら、お土産買ってきてよ
• S1 expresses a prediction for a future or present event; S2 is a request, obligcation, expression of will, judgement, etc
  • Ex: 海に行くなら、新しい水着を買おう (S2 -> S1)
  • If S1 is non-past, S2 comes before S1
    • Ex: アメリカに留学したのなら、英語ができるはずだ (S1 -> S2)

For たら, S1 always takes place before S2, but no so in なら:

• 大学に入るなら、真面目に勉強しなくてわならない
  • In order to get into university, you have to study hard
• 大学に入ったら、真面目に勉強しなくてわならない
  • If you get into university (i.e. after getting in), you have to study hard

飲んだら乗るな。乗るなら飲むな。

• If you drink, don't drive. (S1 -> S2)
  • don't drive after drinking
• If you're going to drive, don't drink (S2 -> S1)
  • don't drink before driving

のに

II-238 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 8 - intro JP101 Level 3 Lesson 34 - compared to ても

A のに B - B holds in spite of the expectation that if A is true, B should not be true: B despite the fact that A. A is in the informal form. If A ends with a な adjective or noun, it is followed by な before the のに. A and B must be factual statements.

• B often indicates feelings of surprise or dissatisfaction
• Ex: この会社はお金があるのに、給料は安いです。

ところ

JP101 Level 3 Lesson 8

ところ means "place", "point in time", or "state":

• もっと広いところに引越ししたい - I want to move to a bigger place
• 分からないところがありますか - Is there anything (any parts) you don't understand?
• ドアのところで待っています - I'll be waiting for you at/near the door

When a verb precedes ところ, the form matters:

• Verb + ところ denotes "just about to do [verb]"
  • お昼ご飯を作るところです - I'm just about to make lunch
• Verb + ている + ところ denotes "be in the middle of [verb]":
  • お昼ご飯を作っているところです - I'm currently making lunch
• Verb past + ところ denotes "have just done [verb]":
  • お昼ご飯を作ったところです - I just made lunch

たび (度)

JP101 Level 3 Lesson 9

X たび(に) Y -> Whenever X happens, Y also happens

• If X is a verb, it's informal present

Examples:

• 旅行に行くたびお土産を買う - Whenever I travel, I buy souvenirs
• 雪のたびに会社を休む - Whenever it snows, I skip work
• ケンは日本に行くたび、日本語が上手になる - Whenever Ken goes to Japan, his Japanese gets better

〜て以来 (〜ていらい)

JP101 Level 3 Lesson 9

X 以来 Y -> Y has happened since X happened

• If X is a verb, it's te-form

Examples:

• 旅行から帰って以来体調が悪い - I've been feeling sick since I came back from that trip
• 去年の二月以来彼女に会っていない - I haven't seen my girlfriend since last February
• ケンは日本に行って以来、日本が好きになった - Since Ken went to Japan, he has liked it

とたん (途端)

JP101 Level 3 Lesson 9

X とたん(に) Y -> As soon as X happened, Y happened

• If X is a verb, it's informal past

Examples

• 九月になったとたん寒くなった - Just as September began, it became cold
• 結婚したとたんに太った - Right when I got married, I gained weight
• ケンは日本に行ったとたん、インフルエンザになった - Just when Ken arrived in Japan, he got the flu

Verbs

I-170

There are three types of verb:

• verbs that describe continuous states - ある, いる
• verbs that describe activities that last for some time - 食べる, 読む, まつ
• verbs that describe changes that are more or less instantaneous - 結婚する, 座る, 起きる
  • 行く and 来る are in this group
  • determining whether a verb is in this or the previous group can be done by trying to use the verb in a sentence such as "I ate for an hour" vs "I went home for an hour"

Present tense

I-88 (formal), I-190 (informal)

• Affirmative: 食べる／食べます
• Negative: 食べない／食べませんでした

Indicates either that:

• A person regularly engages in the activity
• A person will, or is planning to, perform the activity in the future

Past tense

I-110 (formal), I-212 (informal)

• Affirmative: 食べた／食べました
• Negative: 食べなかった／食べませんでした。

ru-verb: 食べる -> 食べた

u-verb:

• う, つ, る replaced with った:
  • 会う -> 会った
  • 待つ -> 待った
  • 取る -> 取った
• む, ぶ, ぬ replaced with んだ:
  • 読む -> 読んだ
  • 遊ぶ -> 遊んだ
  • 死ぬ -> 死んだ
• く replaced with いた:
  • 書く -> 書いた
  • EXCEPT 行く -> 行った
• ぐ replaced with いだ:
  • 泳ぐ -> 泳いだ
• す replaced with した:
  • 話す -> 話した

irregulars:

• する -> した
• 来る -> きた

Volitional tense

I-135 (formal), II-78 (informal)

Formal:

• 食べましょう

Informal:

• ru-verbs: drop る, add よう - 食べよう
• u-verbs: drop う, add おう
• 来る - こよう
• する - しよう

Potential tense

II-30

Expresses when someone can or has the ability to do something, or that something is possible. All forms conjugate as ru-verbs

ru-verb: 食べる -> 食べられる

• the ら can be dropped by younger speakers

u-verb:

• 会う -> 会える
• 待つ -> 待てる
• 取る -> 取れる
• 読む -> 読める
• 遊ぶ -> 遊べる
• 死ぬ -> 死ねる
• 書く -> 書ける
• 泳ぐ -> 泳げる
• 話す -> 話せる

irregulars:

• する -> できる
• 来る -> 来られる (こられる)

Can also be expressed with the construct "[verb] + ことができる", which is mostly found in written language.

Te-form

I-150

Same as past tense but with 〜て instead of 〜た.

Ba-form (〜ば)

II-148, II-238 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 29 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 30 - compared to と and たら

Verbs:

• Positive - replace u with eba
• Negative - replace nai with nakereba Adjectives:
• i - replace i with kereba
• na and nouns - da becomes nara (静かなら, 夏なら)

Indicates "if A, then B". A describes a condition, provided that the consequences described in B will follow. Usually used when A guarantees a good result in B. This form is often used to A.

• It is implied that A has not taken place when spoken, so A cannot be past tense
• Like と, cannot be used to express the speaker's intention, permission, request, or order
  • HOWEVER, if the verb in A is NOT an action (aru, iru, potential form verb, adjective), this can be done
  • Examples:
    • i adjective:
      • X 日本に行けば、お寿司を食べようと思います
      • O 高くなければ、お寿司を食べようと思います
    • aru:
      • X 日本に行けば、お土産を買ってください
      • O お金があれば、お土産を買ってください
    • potential form verb:
      • X 日本に行けば、好きなことをしていいです
      • O 責任を持てれば、好きなことをしていいです

To express a negative result, use たら

Like たら, ば is often followed by いい to indicate that "it would be good if you..." as advice

Passive Form (受け身/うけみ)

II-212 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 10 - conjugation JP101 Level 3 Lesson 11 - inconvenience

(Subject/victim) は (actor) に (act) - (always used with human subjects)

Passive form is usually used to indicate that something inconvenient was done to the subject/victim:

• Objective: 友達が車を使いました - my friend used my car
• Passive: 私は友達に車を使われました - my car was used by my friend (beyond my control/illegitimately)

ru-verb: 食べる -> 食べられる (same as potential)

u-verb:

• 行く -> 行かれる
• 待つ -> 待たれる
• 読む -> 読まれる
• 泳ぐ -> 泳がれる
• 買う -> 買われる
• 話す -> 話される
• 死ぬ -> 死なれる
• 取る -> 取られる
• 遊ぶ -> 遊ばれる

irregulars:

• 来る -> 来られる (こられる, same as potential)
• する -> される

Examples:

• ケンは犬に逃げられた - Ken's dog escaped (on him)
• 花子は子供に泣かれた - Hanako was troubled because the child cried
• 雨に降られた - It rained (and it annoyed me)
• 隣の人はタバコを吸った - The person next to me smoked (no inconvenience implied)
• 隣の人にタバコを吸われた - The person next to me smoked (and it annoyed me)

There is no corresponding form for adjectives (e.g. the weather was bad), or for someone failing to do something. It's not always negative:

• 私はその人にデートに誘われました。 - I was asked out by that person for a date

When depicting "objective reality", an inanimate subject is used instead, and によって marks the actor:

• ハムレットはシェークスピアによって書かれた - Hamlet was written by Shakespeare

When the actor is unknown or irrelevant, they are omitted:

• ひらがなは千年以上前に作られました - Hiragana was made more than 1000 years ago

Causative Form

II-234 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 12 - basics JP101 Level 3 Lesson 13 - emotion JP101 Level 3 Lesson 14 - 〜させてください JP101 Level 3 Lesson 15 - 〜させてくれる/もらう

(director) は (cast) に (action)

Can mean either the director let the cast do something, or made them do it:

• を is used instead of に to mark the cast when:
  • The verb has no object AND the cast is being forced
  • The verb relates to human emotion
• When the caused action is a reflex, or the cast was forced to do the action, を is used instead of に
  • When the verb does not originally call for を, を is available
• If the verb is in the form te-form + あげる/くれる/もらう, it almost always means "let".

Causative + te-form + ください - ask permission to do something or to volunteer to do something

• 写真を撮らせてください - Please allow me to take a picture
• 考えさせてください - Please let me think (can be a polite rejection)

Causative + te-form + くれる - "someone kindly let me to [verb]"

• (Permission giver) は/が (私) に/を 〜させてくれる
• 大学生の時、親は留学させてくれた - When I was a college student, my parents (kindly) let me study abroad

Causative + te-form + もらう - "I have someone kindly allowed me to [verb]":

• (私) は/が (permission giver) に 〜させてくれる
• 大学生の時、親に留学させてもらった - When I was a college student, my parents (kindly) let me study abroad

ru-verb: 食べる -> 食べされる (same as potential)

u-verb:

• 行く -> 行かせる
• 待つ -> 待たせる
• 読む -> 読ませる
• 泳ぐ -> 泳がせる
• 買う -> 買わせる
• 話す -> 話させる
• 死ぬ -> 死なせる
• 取る -> 取らせる
• 遊ぶ -> 遊ばせる

irregulars:

• 来る -> 来させる
• する -> させる

Examples:

• 私は夫に料理を作らせる - I make/let my husband cook
  • The verb has an object (料理), so we use に
• 息子にアメリカに行かせた - I let my son go to the US (no object, permissive causative)
• 息子をアメリカを行かせた - I made my son go to the US (no object, coercive causative)
• 私は両親を心配させたくなかった - I didn't want to make my parents worry (emotion)

Causative-Passive Form

II-256 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 16

Used to talk about something you were made to do, harassed or talked into doing, generally something you did not want to do.

(Subject/victim) は (actor) に action

The "victim" is forced to perform the action by the "actor". The action is described by the causative-passive verb.

• ゆみはお母さんに勉強させられました。- Yumi was forced by her mother to study
• 母に野菜を食べさせられた - I was forced by my mother to eat vegetables

ru-verb: 食べる -> 食べさせられる

u-verb:

• 行く -> 行かされる (or 行かせられる?)
• 待つ -> 待たされる (or 待たせられる)
• 読む -> 読まされる (or 読ませられる)
• 泳ぐ -> 泳がされる (or 泳がせられる)
• 買う -> 買わされる (or 買わせられる)
• 話す -> 話させられる (different from the rest)
• 死ぬ -> 死なされる (or 死なせられる)
• 取る -> 取らされる (or 取らせられる)
• 遊ぶ -> 遊ばされる (or 遊ばせられる)

irregulars:

• 来る -> 来させられる
• する -> させられる

Adjectives

I-132

い adjectives

End with い when they modify nouns.

Tenses:

• Present affirmative: 寒い（です）
• Past affirmative: 寒かった（です）
• Present negative: 寒くない（です）
• Past negative: 寒くなかった（です）
• Te-form: 寒くて

な adjectives

End with な when they modify nouns. Conjugated by removing な and adding a conjugated です.

Turning い adjectives into nouns

II-107

い adjectives can be turned into nouns by replacing い with さ.

• 大きさ - size
• 優しさ（やさしさ）- sadness
• 寂しさ（さびしさ）- loneliness

Counters and Numbers

Counters

I-136

Counting involves finding the right counter. Numbers used for counting come after the items being counted.

切手を三枚買いました。

noun が/を number

II-58

The basic structure for expressing numbers is "noun + か/を + number":

• 家には猫が三匹います - We have three cats (in our home)

Reading decimals

JP101 Level 3 Lesson 5

• Numbers before the decimal are read as normal
• The decimal is てん (点, "dot")
• Numbers after the decimal are read one by one
• Zero is れい (零)

Examples:

• 0.1: れい点一 or ゼロ点一
• 2.56: 二点五六
• 8.9: 八点九 (はってんきゅう or はちてんきゅう)
• 10.1: 十点一 (じゅってんいち)

Common fractions

JP101 Level 3 Lesson 5

• 1/2: 二分の一 (にぶんのいち)
• 1/3: 三分の一
• 3/5: 五分の三

Math symbols

JP101 Level 3 Lesson 5

• + : 足す (たす)
• - : 引く (ひく)
• * : 掛ける (かける)
• / : 割る (わる)
• = : は (read わ) or イコール
• Negative number (-n): マイます
  • -4: マイナス四

Percentages

• Generally, number + パーセント
• 割 (わり) - unit for "ten percent"

Examples:

• 二割引き - 20% off (the original price)

Adverbs

Frequency adverbs

I-93

毎日 - every day よく - often 時々 - once in a while あまり - not much 全然 - never (with negative verb), totally, completely (with positive verb) 全部 - always 全て - always (more formal)

あまり and 全然 require a negative end of a sentence

Constructs

• Statement of Fact
• Explanations
• Polite Expressions
• Predictions and Invitations
• Requests, Admonishments, Advice
• Speculation
• Clauses within Sentences
• Conversational Speech
• Formal Speech

Statement of Fact

Xがある／いる

I-102

There is X. ある is for nonliving things, いる is for people and mammals.

Particles:

• Use に for place description, rather than で - あそこに銀行があります。
  • When used in the sense of an event taking place somewhere, use で - 東京でお祭りがあります。
  • When used in the sense of an event taking place at a time, use に - 日曜日にお祭りがあります。
• Use が rather than は

Negative form of ある is ない

ある + noun

JP101 Level 3 Lesson 14

• ある人 - A certain person
• ある所 - A certain place
• ある時 - At one time

まだ + Te-form + いません

I-214

Expresses "I have not yet done something"

I did not do the homework yesterday - きのう宿題をしませんでした I have not yet done the homework - まだ宿題をしていません

こと and の to create nouns

I-194 (のが好きです) I-256 (〜ことがある) JP101 Level 3 Lesson 39 - intro

[Verb, i adjective, noun, na adjective] + こと (の) ...

• For present informal na adjectives and nouns, の is preferred over こと
  • 有名なの (negative: 有名じゃないこと (の))
  • 日本なの (日本じゃないこと (の))
• Generally, の is more conversational than こと.
  • の is used when someone sees or hears someone doing something:
    • 洋子が友達と歩いているのを見た - I saw Yoko walking with friends
    • 子どもたちが外で遊んでいるのが聞こえた - I heard children playing outside
  • Verb + のが好きです expresses enjoyment of doing something:
    • 食べるのが好きです
    • 下手, 上手, and 嫌い also apply
  • Only こと is used when, for "A は B です", B is a noun phrase:
    • 嫌いなことは待つことです - The thing I hate is waiting
    • 父の趣味は野球をすることです
• Past tense informal + ことがある describes that you have done something in the past:
  • ミルクパンを食べたことがありますか - Have you eaten milk bread?
  • The negative form indicates that you have never done the thing:
    • フランスに行ったことがありません - I've never been to France

Examples:

• 今日地震があったことを知っていますか
• 趣味は、映画を見ることです
• 彼女の出身が大阪なのを知った - I found out she was from Osaka
• 彼の話は、いつもわかりやすいのがいい - it's a good thing that his stories are easy to follow

Te-form for joining statements

I-152, I-173

Te-form can be used to combine multiple verbs. The tense of the final verb determines the tense of the whole sentence. The order of verbs suggests the order that the activities took place in, and that only those activities took place (see 〜たり)

Te-form can also be used to combine multiple adjectives and/or nouns:

• い adjectives: replace い with くて
• な adjectives: replace な with で
• noun です: replace です with で

Te-form + みる

II-34

Expresses doing something tentatively, trying it out.

Te-form + おく

II-80

Describes an action performed in preparation for something. Often shortened to とく.

• 明日試験があるので、勉強しておきます。

Te-form + すみませんでした

II-106

Used to apologize for having done something (なくて can be used for not having done something).

Te-form + 良かったです

II-171

Means "I'm glad that [something] is the case". The negative なくて form can be used.

Te-form + いる

I-170

Used with verbs that describe activities that last for some time, this describes:

• action in progress (食べています - I am eating)
• something done habitually (英語を教えています - I teach english/I am teaching english right now).

Used with verbs that describe changes that are more or less instantaneous, this describes a past occurrence of a change which has retained its significance until the present moment. Thus it describes the result of a change.

• 起きている - I am awake
• シャツを着ている - I am wearing a shirt

Used with intransitive verbs.

Te-form + ある

II-214

Denotes a situation which has been brought about by someone unnamed in the sentence.

• 寒いので、ヒーターが付けてあります。 - The heater is on because it is cold.

Used with transitive verbs. These sentences imply human action caused something to be the case, where te-form + いる sentences have no such implication.

Te-form + 行く/来る (いく/くる)

JP101 Level 3 Lesson 17 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 18 - Te-form + 来る to indicate a beginning or continuing process JP101 Level 3 Lesson 19 - Te-form + 行く to indicate a continuing process

Conveys movement AFTER the action.

• いく indicates movement away from the speaker
• くる indicates movement toward the speaker

Examples:

• パーティーにワインを買って行きます
  • lit: I'm going to buy some wine and then go to the party
  • meaning: I'll bring some wine to the party
• ちょっと見て来ます
  • lit: I'll take a look and come back
  • meaning: I'll go check it out
• 朝ごはんを食べて来ました
  • lit: I had breakfast and came here
  • meaning: I've already had breakfast

Te-form + 来る can also express:

• The beginning of a process, when following a verb that indicates change or takes some time to complete:
  • 最近暖かくなって来た - It's become warm recently
  • 留学生の数が増えて来る - The number of students from overseas begins to increase
  • 結構してから、僕の髪の毛は少なくなって来ている
    • lit: My hair is beginning to increase since my marriage
    • meaning: I've started losing my hair since I got married
• The continuation of a process up TO the current point in time
  • 十二年間この会社で働いてきた - He's been working at this company for 12 years (up until this point)
  • 全く本を読んでこなかった - I haven't been reading at all (up until this point)

Te-form + 行く can also express continuation of a process FROM the current point in time, into the future:

• 留学生の数が増えて行く - The number of students from overseas will go on increasing
• これからはたくさん本を読んで行きたい - From now on, I want to read a lot of books

〜たり〜たりする

I-255

Used to imply that the activities listed are examples, but not the exhaustive ordered list, as a te-form list would be. Attach り to informal past tense verbs. The する at the end is used to indicate tense.

Duration of activity - 〜時間

I-112

Duration of activity is not followed by any particles. For approximations, add ぐらい. To say half, add 半 immediately after 〜時間

Frequency of events - 一週間に三回

II-35

Describes the frequency of events over a period of time.

Quantity - たくさん

I-112

Quantity words like たくさん can be added

• before a noun: たくさん写真を撮った
• after the particle: 写真をたくさん撮った

Comparison

I-232

A の方が B より [property] です。 - A is more [property] than B

• NOTE: this can be reversed: B より A の方が [property] です。 - same meaning
• Ex: 中国の方が日本より大きいです。 - china is bigger than japan

A と B と どちらの方が [property] ですか。 - which is more [property], A or B

[class of items] の中で A が一番 [property] です。 - A is most [property] out of all in its class A が一番 [property] と思います。 - I think A is the most [property]

Number + だけ

I-257

Talk about having just that many items/much time/etc. Implies that that much is fine but could be higher (see しか for not having enough).

一回だけ - just once 三十分だけ - exactly/just thirty minutes

Verb stem + に行く

I-174 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 3

destination に/へ purpose of movement verb stem に行く/来る/帰る

• レストランに寿司を食べに行きました - I went to a restaurant to eat sushi
• 実は宿題を忘れたので、先生謝りに行った - Since Minoru forgot his homework, he went to apologize to the teacher

Qualifying Nouns

I-213

Informal verbs can be used to qualify nouns, along with い and な adjectives.

なる

I-234 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 42 - なる vs する

Indicates a change, intransitively (a result of natural change, no indication of responsibility). Contrast with する, which indicates transitive action (emphasis on the performer, indicates responsibility). Attaches to adjectives and verbs:

• i-adjectives: い -> く + なる・する
  • 涼しくする -> to cool off
  • 涼しくなる -> to become cool
• na-adjectives: な -> に + なる・する
  • きれいにする -> to clean
  • きれいになる -> to become clean
• Verbs: informal + ように + なる・する
  • 食べるようにする -> to make an effort to eat
    • 健康のために、嫌いな納豆を食べるように -> For my health, I make an effort to eat natto, which I don't like
  • 食べるようになる -> to be in the state of eating
    • 大人になったら、納豆を食べるようになった -> After becoming an adult, I became able to eat natto

Verb + ようになる

JP101 Level 3 Lesson 6

Indicates "it has come to be that...":

• 妻はタバコを吸うようになった - My wife has started smoking
  • Alternatively: "My wife has reached the point where she smokes"

Two ways to negate this:

• 妻はタバコを吸わないようになった (implies the change occurred gradually)
• 妻はタバコを吸わなくなった (less gradual)

adjective + する

II-216

Means "to make":

• 冷たくする - make colder

• 簡単にする - make simpler

• special case - 静かになる

Verb stem + たい

I-254

Indicates one's own hope or aspiration. Conjugates as an い adjective. A verb that takes the particle を can have either を or が. Other particles don't change.

If it's a wish you've had for some time, use 〜たいと思っています

Someone else's desires are usually reported as quotations, observations, or guesses. To describe that somebody wants to do something, use the special verb たがる as たがっている, and を is always retained.

Giving - 上げる, くれる, もらう

II-56, II-100

上げる - giving outwards くれる - giving inwards (receiving)

giver は/が recipient に verb

もらう - receiving

recipient は/が giver に/から もらう

When used with a verb in the te-form, it indicates an action given/received

できる

II-60

Can mean multiple things:

• To be able to do (or do well) - 日本語ができます
• Be completed/finished - 晩御飯ができました
• Appear/come into existence/be made - 友達ができました, 新しい店ができました

という

II-193 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 41 - with modifying clauses

Used to indicate what something is named:

• ポチという犬 - dog called Pochi
• 「花」という歌 - the song "Hana"

という is inserted between a modifying clause and the noun it modifies, when the clause tells more about the content of an utterance, idea, or thought (意見、噂、考え、訴え、命令)

• 社長が辞めるという噂を聞いた
• 新しい部長を田中さんしようという意見が多い - Many people think that Tanaka should be the new manager
• When the noun is the formal noun こと, という is use because the content in the clause expresses hearsay:
  • 星野さんが結婚するということを聞いた
• Cannot be used with nouns related to sensation or perception (音、味、匂い、痛み、写真、絵)
  • グラスが割れる音がした - I heard the sound of glass breaking

〜時

II-104 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 7 (に for emphasis)

[statement A (informal form)] 時, [statement B]

When describing a state or situation, the tense of the whole sentence is determined by B, so the tense of statement A can be past or present:

• 私は大学生の時、会社を作った or 私は大学生だった時、会社を作った - When I was a college student, I formed a company
• ユーロが安い時、ヨーロッパに行った or ユーロが安かった時、ヨーロッパに行った - When the Euro was cheap, I went to Europe

When describing an action, the tense of A matters:

• If A takes place during or in the future relative to B, irrespective of the tense of B, A is present tense. The action in A hasn't taken place when the action in B occurs/occurred:
  • 部屋を掃除する時、窓を開ける - I'll open the window before (or "when", or "while") I clean the room
  • 部屋を掃除する時、窓を開けた - I opened the window before I cleaned the room
  • | A | (clean room)
  • |B or B | (open window)
  • 寂しい時、友達に電話します - I call my friends when I'm lonely
    • If A ends in a verb, use ている below (?)
• If A takes place before B, A is past tense, even if A and B have yet to take place
  • 部屋を掃除した時、窓を開ける - I'll open the window after I clean the room
    • 掃除した here does not denote an actual past action
  • 部屋を掃除した時、窓を開けた - I opened the window after I cleaned the room
    • Here it does, because B is in the past
  • | A | (clean room)
  • | B | (open window)
• When indicating movement with 行く, くる, or 帰る before 時, it can mean "on the way to..."
  • アメリカに行く時、お土産を買う - I'll buy a souvenir before I leave for (or, "on my way to") the US
  • 日本に来る時、連絡をください - Please contact me before leaving for Japan
    • | A | (leaving Japan)
    • | B | (contact me)
  • 日本に来た時、連絡をください - Please contact me after arriving in Japan
    • | A | (leaving Japan)
    • | B | (contact me)
• te-form + いる if A is a "verbal idea" (action) describing an ongoing event within which B takes place
  • テレビを見ているとき、友達から電話がありました - While I was watching TV, I got a call from my friend
  • | A-----A | (watching TV)
  • | B | (a friend called)
  • If the verb does not describe an ongoing event but rather describes the "result of going", don't use ている:
    • 沖縄に行く時、飛行機に乗りました - I went by plane when I went to Okinawa

If the subject of A is different from that of B, the subject of A is marked by が

に can come after 時, to provide emphasis.

〜前に/Te-form + から

II-127

"A 前に, B" where A is in the present informal, expresses that B will occur or has occurred before A.

"A〜てから, B" expresses that B will occur or has occurred after A. Also expresses that B has been true since A occurred:

• 猫が死んでから、寂しいです。 - I have been lonely since my cat died.

〜間に

II-216

A 間に B - B takes place in the middle of A. A is usually a te-form + いる statement, and is always in the present tense, even when the situation described is in the past.

• 留守の間に友達がきました。

If B takes place over the entirety of the time A occurs, に is omitted.

Te-form + しまう

II-145

Two senses:

• To do something to completion:
  • 本を読んでしまいました。 - I read the book completely.
• A lack of premeditation or control over how things turned out, conveying a sense of regret
  • 電車の中にカバンを忘れしまいました。

Ba-form + 良かったです

II-148

"I wish I had done" or "I should have done" something.

Verb stem + ながら

II-148

Connect a verb stem + ながら + another verb in any form to indicate that they are performed at the same time. The primary activity comes second. Both actions must be performed by the same person.

〜はずです

II-172

When added to a sentence in the informal form:

• present tense, conveys that something should be the case (banks should be closed on holidays)
• past tense predicate, conveys that something might have been the case, but we don't know for sure
• past tense はずです, something should have been the case but turned out otherwise

Cannot be used for things that I was supposed to do out of my own duty.

Can be used with nouns and verbs

• い adjective - after the い
• な adjective - after the な
• noun - after noun + の

〜ないで

II-191

Conveys doing something without having to do something else:

• 昨日の夜は、寝ないで、勉強しました。 - last night, I studied without getting sleep

やすい/にくい

II-193

• やすい - When added as a suffix to a verb stem, indicates "easy to do":
  • 使いやすい - easy to use
  • 読みやすい - easy to read
• にくい - Indicates "hard to do"
  • 食べにくい - hard to eat

Conjugates like an い adjective. The subject can be a place where or a tool with which doing something is easy or hard. Usually used to express something is easy/hard in the psychological sense, not that there are too many/few of something.

〜まで

II-260

"A まで B" conveys "until A happens, B will be the case":

• 日本語が上手になるまで、（私は私の）国に帰りません。 - I will not return to my country until I am good at Japanese.

When the subject of A is different from that of B, the subject of A is marked by が

方（かた）

II-260

Adding 方 to a verb stem means "the way in which the action is performed":

• 泳ぎ方 - how to swim
• 考え方 - the way people think

Nouns are followed by の:

• 漢字を読む　→　漢字の読み方 - how to read kanji
• する verbs: 日本語を勉強する　→　日本語の勉強のしかた - how to study japanese
• Goal of movement に verbs: 空港への行き方 - how to get to the airport

〜方 is a noun and is followed by particles such as は and を

Explanations

〜んです (or 〜んだ)

I-270 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 35 - for explanation or clarification JP101 Level 3 Lesson 36 - for confirmation JP101 Level 3 Lesson 37 - が and けど JP101 Level 3 Lesson 38 - んですから potentially being rude

Goes after an informal predicate in any tense or polarity, used explain an implied or explicit situation. The です itself is never conjugated.

• As oppposed to a simple statement of fact, 〜んです creates an explanation, with a more apologetic tone:
  • バスが来ませんでした - The bus didn't come
  • バスが来なかったんです - The bus didn't come (which explains my current situation)
• Invites further explanation or clarification:
  • トイレに行きたいです - I want to go to the toilet
  • トイレに行きたいんです - I want to go to the toilet (so tell me where it is)
• Questions that use どうして often require んです at the end
• どうしたんです is best answered with a 〜んです sentence with the subject marked with が rather than は:
  • どうしたんです - What happened? (you look "shattered")
  • 猫が死んだんです - My cat died (which is why I look "shattered")
• Can be used to confirm or request confirmation of what was just said (like そうなんですね)
  • A: 毎日十二時間働いています
  • B: 忙しいんですね
• When asking for one's reason for doing something with から or one's objective with ために, it's common to answer with 〜んです
• Can be followed by が (more formal) or けど (more conversational) to indicate opening remarks before making a request, getting info, refusing something, inviting someone, etc
  • In some cases, the opening remarks explain the sitution:
    • 財布忘れちゃったんだけど、お金貸してくれる？ (request)
  • or, introduce the topic to the listener:
    • 旅行の話なんだけど、行けなくなったんだ (refusal)

If the predicate ends with a な adjective or noun, な goes between the adjective or noun and んです.

• 静かです -> 静かなんです - (because) it's quiet
• 学生です -> 学生なんです - (because) I'm a student

In written language, のです is used. In informal questions, んですか can be replaced with の. When spoken as a question, it's usually fishing for an answer.

• Using a rising intonation, it can sound like an accusation or a criticism
• When used to express a reason (A んですから B), it can come across as rude, as it may imply that the listener should have known what was expressed in A:
  • X: 忙しいんだから、行けません
  • O: 忙しいから、行けません

Inserting into embedded questions

JP101 Level 3 Lesson 6

• When inserting as an embedded question 〜んです changes to 〜の and:
  • is followed by か for who/what/when/where/why questions:
    • この電車はどこに行くんですか - Where is this train going?
    • この電車がどこに行くのか分かりません - I don't know where this train is going
  • is followed by かどうか for yes/no questions:
    • 明日、テストがあるんですか - Is there a test tomorrow?
    • 明日、テストがあるのかどうか教えてください - Please tell me whether or not there's a test tomorrow

ため

JP101 Level 3 Lesson 44

Used to indicate purpose. Also indicates a benefit when the noun that comes before ため is a person, group, company, etc.

• Verbs: informal non-past + ため
  • 勉強するため -> in order to study
• Nouns: noun + のため
  • 安全のため -> for safety's sake

Polite Expressions

〜をください

I-67

Used to ask for a concrete item.

〜をお願いします

I-67

Used to ask for concrete items more formally (such as in a restaurant), or asking for abstract objects or services.

〜をどうぞ

I-67

Used when an item being offered. May also be used when a person is waiting for you to come forth with an item (お名前をどうぞ when asking for your name).

Honorific Verbs

II-168

Used for speaking respectfully about someone else's actions.

• いらっしゃる, いらっしゃいます
  • いる
  • 行く
  • 来る
• ご覧になる
  • 見る
• おっしゃる, おっしゃいます
  • 言う
• なさる, なさいます
  • する
• 召し上がる
  • 食べろ
  • 飲む
• くださる, くださいます
  • くれる
• お休みになる
  • 寝る

All honorific verbs are u-verbs. They are never used to describe one's own actions.

For verbs without an honorific analogue:

• Replace te-form + います with te-form + いらっしゃいます:
  • 先生は電話で話していらっしゃいます
• お + verb stem + になる in most other cases:
  • 先生はもう御帰りになりました

Extra-Modest Verbs

II-188

Used for speaking modestly about one's own actions, or that of one's family or company. The intention is to show respect to the listener. Commonly used with わたくし

• おる, おります
  • いる
• 参る, 参ります
  • 行く
  • 来る
• 申す, 申します
  • 言う
• いたす, いたします
  • する
• いただく, いただきます
  • 食べる
  • 飲む
• ござる, ございます
  • ある
• でござる, でございます
  • です

Humble Expressions

II-189

Used for speaking humbly about one's own actions. The intention is to show respect for the person for whome the action was performed: お + verb stem + する

• 昨日先生にお会いしました。

する verbs are simply prepended with ご

伺う is used to portray yourself as humbly visiting or asking questions.

Giving Respectful Advice

II-170

お + verb stem + ください is a polite command to be performed for one's own good. For する verbs, use ご instead of お:

• 注意する → ご注意ください

To ask for something to be done on my behalf, use te-form + いただけませんか

Te-form + くれてありがとう

II-171

Expresses gratitude to someone for doing something for you. The extra formal version is: Te-form + くださってありがとうございました

Predictions and Invitations

Negative form + か

I-92

Used for extending an invitation. The affirmative 〜ますか form simply denotes a question.

Volitional form + か

I-135 (formal), I-154 (formal)

Suggests a plan of action, or offers assitance.

Te-form + いただけませんか/くれませんか/くれない

II-102

Used to request an action, in descending order of politeness:

　ちょっと手伝っていただけませか。 - most formal （ちょっと手伝ってくださいませんか。） （ちょっと手伝ってもらえませんか。） 　ちょっと手伝ってくれませんか。 - somewhat formal, similar to ください （ちょっと手伝ってもらえない？） 　ちょっと手伝ってくれない？ - informal

〜と思います

I-193

"I think that ...", with the quotation conjugated informally

〜と言っていました

I-193

"X said that ...", with the quotation conjugated informally

Informal volitional form + と思っています

II-79

Used to talk about decisions, determinations and intentions that have already been decided upon.

Using the non-volitional present tense indicates predictions.

Informal volitional form + と思います

II-79

Used to talk about decisions that have just been made on the spot.

Using the non-volitional present tense indicates predictions.

〜ことにする

II-259

Conveys decisions:

• 車を買うことにしました。 - we have decided to buy a car

When used with the volitional form instead of simply using the verb itself in the volitional form, it implies that the suggestion is being made after deliberation:

• 今年は東京に行くことにしよう。

When used with the te-form, it implies that something has been decided on to do as a regular practice:

• 毎日十一じに寝ることにしている。

つもり

I-234

Follows verbs in the present tense informal to describe what someone is planning to do in the future. A negative form describes what is not planned or intended to be done.

でしょう

I-274 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 6 - adding か to make questions softer

Expresses a guess or prediction. Follows verbs and い adjectives in the informal present and past tense, positive or negative. Can be used in casual conversation to check for agreement in understanding.

When following な adjectives and nouns, it goes directly after them (no な, の, or だ) in the affirmative, and goes after じゃない in the negative.

Informal form is だろう, which can be used with と思います to hazard a guess.

Can be turned into a question with か, which invites another person's opinion or guess, and makes questions softer or less direct.

かもしれません／かもしれない

II-55

Expresses a possibility, when you are not sure what is really the case but are willing to make a guess. Follows verbs and い adjectives in the informal present and past tense.

When following な adjectives and nouns, it goes directly after them (no な, の, or だ).

〜たら - Past tense informal + ら

II-123 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 26 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 28 - compared to と JP101 Level 3 Lesson 30 - compared to と and 〜ば

Conveys conditional dependence: "A〜たら, B" means that "when A is satisfied, B takes place". Nouns and な adjectives are followed by だったら. A can be inevitable ("when I get home tonight, ..."), it can be very unlikely ("If I win the lottery, ..."), or it can be impossible ("If I were a cat, ...").

• Compare with と and 〜ば - たら can be used more widely, as と cannot express the speaker's intention, permission, request, or order

Examples:

• 天気が良かったら、散歩に行きます。
• 仕事が終わったら、居酒屋に行きましょう。

たら is often followed by いい to convey "it would be good if you...", usually to give advice. When framed as a question, it indicates the speaker is asking for advice.

• 風邪をひいたんですけど、どうしたらいいですか。
• この問題がわからないんですけど、誰に聞いたらいいですか。

Te-form + も

II-257 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 32 - intro JP101 Level 3 Lesson 34 - compared to のに

"A ても B" conveys "B is true, even if A is true". If A is not true, B is true, but even if A is true, B is still true.

• The action in B is somewhat unexpected considering A

も is added to the te-form of verbs and い adjectives. でも comes after な adjectives and nouns. To form the negative, use the negative te-form, or じゃなくて for な adjectives and nouns.

• S1 ても S2 -> Even if S1, S2
  • 暑くても、冷房を付けないようにしています - even if it's hot, I don't turn the AC on
• S1 (wh- word) ても S2 -> No matter wh-... S1, S2
  • どんなに話しても無料です - no matter how long you talk, it's free

Requests, Admonishments, Advice

Te-form + ください

I-151

Making polite requests: 聞いてください。

Te-form + もいいです（か）

I-152 II-125 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 14 - よろしい

してもいいですか - asking for permission してもいいです - giving permission しなくてもいいです - stating you do not need to do something

In more formal situations, replace いい with よろしい

Te-form + 欲しい

II-217

私は + peson に te-form verb + 欲しい - I want [person] to do...

To negate, either negate the verb or 欲しい

Te-form + はいけません (or はいけない)

I-152

A strong statement of prohibition: "you must not do"

Verb stem + なさい

II-236

Used as a command, to talk down to somebody.

Informal negative verb + でください

I-194

To request that someone refrain from doing something: 写真を撮らないでください

Informal verb + 方がいいです

I-272

Sentence final expression for "it is better for you to do...". If the advice is affirmative, it follows the past tense informal. If the advice is negative, follows the present tense informal.

Verb stem + すぎる

I-272

Conjugates as a ru verb. Can follow verb stems or adjective stems (remove い or な). Implies that something is beyond normal or proper and that it is not welcome.

〜なければいけません (or 〜なければいけない)

I-273

Tells someone what they must do, or says what I, the speaker, must do.

Past tense informal + らどうですか/らどう/ら

II-58

A form of the above: conveys advice or recommendation, as "why don't you..." in a critical tone for not already having done the thing. Is not used to extend invitations.

Speculation

そうです

II-33, II-122

When placed after adjectives by dropping い or な, means what something appears to be like based on impressions. Can also be placed on ない.

When used after a sentence ending in the formal form, it indicates a hearsay report. The sentence can be in any tense and polarity, but そうです does not change tense (although the informal, そうだ, can be used). だ goes after nouns and な-adjectives.

To specify the source of the information, preface the sentence with 〜によると:

• 天気予報によると、台風が来るそうです。

って

II-123

Can be used to replace そうです to quote what has been heard in informal sentences. Can also be used to replace と in と言ってた.

〜みたいです

II-126

When following a noun, expresses that something or someone resembles a thing or person described by the noun:

• あの人はゴリラみたいです。

When following a verb in the informal form, expresses that something appears to be the case:

• 雨が降ったみたいです。

〜のような/〜のように

II-239

Noun A のような noun B - B is similar to A, or B is an example of A:

• 鎌倉のような町が好きです。 - I like towns like Kamakura

Noun A のような action/characteristic B - B is done in the same way/is comparable to A

• メアリーさんは魚のように上手に泳げます。 - Mary can swim like a fish.

Adjective + がる (descrinbe feelings of others)

JP101 Level 3 Lesson 4

Describes the feelings of others, to note that someone (a person or animal) shows signs of something

• i adjective: drop i, add がる
  • 欲しい -> 欲しがる - he wants
• na adjective: add がる to the dictionary form
  • 嫌 -> 嫌がる - he dislikes
• verb stem + たい: verb stem + たがる
  • 食べたい -> 食べたがる - he wants to eat

Examples:

• その犬は痛がっているんだよね - it looks like he's in pain (That dog is in pain, isn't it?)
• お化け屋敷に行った時、息子は怖がって、泣いてしまった - When we went to a haunted house, my son got scared and cried
• 彼は彼女が迷惑がっている - seems like he finds her annoying

が is replaced with を

• トムは車を欲しがっている

Clauses within Sentences

Modifying Clauses

II-80 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 1 - review JP101 Level 3 Lesson 40 - intro

• A clause that comes before a noun to provide more information.
• The subject of the verb in the clause is marked by が or の.
  • は is reserved for marking the topic of the complete sentence
  • の is used when the clause is short
    • O: 友達の作ったネックレス
    • X: 私の昨日会った人 (use が)
• The phrase must be in the informal form.

In the same way that adjectives can qualify nouns, informal sentences can also be used to qualify nouns:

• [私が買った] パン - The bread [that I bought]
• 猫は[[私が買った]パンを食べた]ネズミを捕まえた - The cat caught the mouse [that ate the bread [that I bought]]

Embedded Questions

II-192 JP101 Level 3 Lesson 2 - かどうか for yes/no questions JP101 Level 3 Lesson 3 - か for who/what/when/where/why questions

To convey "I don't know" when something happened, whether it happened, what happened, etc, questions in the informal form can be included in larger sentences in one of two forms:

• If it contains a question word such as だれ or なに, the included sentence (in informal form) ends with か:
  • 今何時ですか -> 今何時か分かりません - What time is it -> I don't know what time it is
  • どこに行くか分からない - I don't know where I'll go
  • 山下先生は昨日なにを食べたか覚えていません - Mr Yamashita doesn't remember what he ate yesterday
  • メアリーさんがどこに住んでいるか知っていますか - Do you know where Mary lives?
• Ends with かどうか　if it's a yes/no question:
  • 行く[かどうか]分からない - I don't know [whether] I'll go
  • 今週末、旅行に行く[かどうか]決めましょう - Let's decide [whether] to go on a trip this weekend

Notes:

• かどうか can be replaced with か in conversational sentences.
• In the case of a な adjective, だ is usually dropped.
• んです sentences can be quoted, but んだ is changed to の
• は in the embedded question statement is usually changed to が
• 〜んです changes to 〜のか or 〜のかどうか (see Explanations)

Conversational Speech

JP101 Level 3 Lesson 5

Contracted forms

• 〜ている -> 〜てる
  • 待っている -> 待ってる - I'm waiting
• 〜て行く -> 〜てく
  • これ、持っていく -> これ、持ってく - I'm taking this
• 〜ておく -> 〜とく
  • 買っておいた -> 買っといた - I bought it in advance
• 〜てはいけない -> ちゃいけない
  • 入ってはいけない -> 入っちゃいけない - You shouldn't enter
• 〜なくてはいけない -> 〜なくちゃいけない
  • 行かなくてはいけない -> 行かなくちゃいけない - I have to go
• 〜なければいけない -> 〜なきゃいけない
  • 行かなければいけない -> 行かなきゃいけない - I have to go
• 〜てしまう -> 〜ちゃう
  • ビールを飲み過ぎてしまいました -> ビールを飲み過ぎちゃった - I drank too much beer
• 〜です -> 〜っす
  • 百円です -> 百円っす - It's one hundred yen
• かどうか -> か
  • 行くかどうか分かりません -> 行くか分からない - I don't know if I'll go
• noun + ください -> noun + ちょうだい - please give me
  • Friendlier and informal when asking for something, i.e. when shopping
• でしょう -> だろう
• ところ -> とこ

Sound omission

• First sound omission:
  • いや -> や - no way
  • それで -> で - and
  • ところで -> で - by the way
• Final sound omission:
  • 本当: ほんとう -> ほんと - really/truly
  • 格好: かっこう -> かっこ - appearance

Particle omission

, , , へ and に (for destinations), and は (for topics) are often omitted in informal conversation.

Examples:

• 頭が痛い -> 頭痛い - My head hurts
• 病院に行ったら？ -> 病院行ったら？ - Why don't you go to the hospital?
• 薬局に行って薬をかってくる -> 薬局行って薬買ってる - I'll go buy some medicine from the pharmacy

Formal Speech

Honorific Language (尊敬語)

JP101 Level 3 Lesson 23

Used to describe the actions of someone else to show respect. Can't be used to describe the actions of ourselves or someone in our in-group.

Regular verbs -> お + masu stem + になる/になります:

• 待つ -> お待ちになる
• 入る -> お入りになる Irregular verbs:
• いる, 行く, 来る -> いらっしゃる・いらっしゃいます
• 言う -> おっしゃる・おっしゃいます
• する -> なさる・なさいます
• 食べる, 飲む -> めしあがる
• くれる -> くださる・くださいます
• 見る -> ごらんになる

Humble Language (謙譲語)

JP101 Level 3 Lesson 24

Used to show the speaker's respect for the person being spoken to, by lowering the status of the speaker. It is usually used to describe the speaker's own actions.

• Not used when the sentence doesn't involve or affect a person to whom the speaker should show respect

Regular verbs -> お + masu stem + する/します OR お + masu stem + いたす/いたします

• 待つ -> お待ちする・お待ちいたす
• 運ぶ -> お運びする・お運びいたす Irregular verbs:
• いる -> おる・おります
• 行く, 来る -> 参る・参ります
• 言う -> 申す・申します
• する -> いたす・いたします
• 食べる, 飲む -> いただく・いただきます Other:
• ある -> ござる・ございます
• です -> でござる・でございます

Softening a Question

JP101 Level 3 Lesson 24

Preceding か with でしょう (or だろう) softens a question by making it more indirect, especially in formal conversation:

• What is it?
  • Formal: なんですか。
  • Extra formal: なんでしょうか。 (lit: I wonder what it is?)
• Would dinner tonight at seven be acceptable?
  • Formal: 今日、夕食は七時でどうですか。
  • Extra formal: 本日、ご夕食は七時でいかがでしょうか。

Dos and Don'ts

JP101 Level 3 Lesson 25

1. Do not ask "do you want" (i.e. 「。。。ほしいですか」 or 「。。。たいですか」):
   • Do you want some water? -> 水、いかがですか。
   • Do you want to drink something? -> 何かお飲みになりませんか。
   • Do you want me to help you? -> 手伝いましょうか。
2. Do not ask "can you" (i.e. 「。。。できますか」)
   • Can you drive a car? -> 運転なさいますか。
   • Can you cook? -> 料理をなさいますか。
3. Do not use てあげます:
   • I will help you -> 手伝わせてください

JP101 Level 3 Lesson