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P -1000 Greek myths of Hephaestus and Pygmalion incorporated the idea of intelligent robots (such as Talos) and artificial beings (such as Galatea and Pandora).[1]
T -1000 Yan Shi presented King Mu of Zhou with mechanical men.[2]
T -1000 Sacred mechanical statues built in Egypt and Greece were believed to be capable of wisdom and emotion. Hermes Trismegistus would write "they have sensus and spiritus ... by discovering the true nature of the gods, man has been able to reproduce it." Mosaic law prohibits the use of automatons in religion.[3]
P -384 Aristotle described the syllogism, a method of formal, mechanical thought.
T 100 Heron of Alexandria created mechanical men and other automatons.[4]
P 260 Porphyry of Tyros wrote Isagogê which categorized knowledge and logic.[5]
P 800 Geber develops the Arabic alchemical theory of Takwin, the artificial creation of life in the laboratory, up to and including human life.[6]
T 1206 Al-Jazari created a programmable orchestra of mechanical human beings.[7]
P 1275 Ramon Llull, Spanish theologian invents the Ars Magna, a tool for combining concepts mechanically, based on an Arabic astrological tool, the Zairja. The method would be developed further by Gottfried Leibniz in the 17th century.[8]
P 1308 Catalan poet and theologian Ramon Llull publishes Ars generalis ultima (The Ultimate General Art), further perfecting his method of using paper-based mechanical means to create new knowledge from combinations of concepts.
T 1500 Paracelsus claimed to have created an artificial man out of magnetism, sperm and alchemy.[9]
T 1580 Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel of Prague is said to have invented the Golem, a clay man brought to life.[10]
P 1600 René Descartes proposed that bodies of animals are nothing more than complex machines (but that mental phenomena are of a different "substance").[11]
P 1623 Wilhelm Schickard drew a calculating clock on a letter to Kepler. This will be the first of five unsuccessful attempts at designing a direct entry calculating clock in the 17th century (including the designs of Tito Burattini, Samuel Morland and René Grillet)).[12]
C 1641 Thomas Hobbes published Leviathan and presented a mechanical, combinatorial theory of cognition. He wrote "...for reason is nothing but reckoning".[13][14]
P 1641 Thomas Hobbes published Leviathan and presented a mechanical, combinatorial theory of cognition. He wrote "...for reason is nothing but reckoning".[13][14]
T 1642 Blaise Pascal invented the mechanical calculator,[15] the first digital calculating machine[16]
P 1666 Mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Leibniz publishes Dissertatio de arte combinatoria (On the Combinatorial Art), following Ramon Llull in proposing an alphabet of human thought and arguing that all ideas are nothing but combinations of a relatively small number of simple concepts.
T 1672 Gottfried Leibniz improved the earlier machines, making the Stepped Reckoner to do multiplication and division. He also invented the binary numeral system and envisioned a universal calculus of reasoning (alphabet of human thought) by which arguments could be decided mechanically. Leibniz worked on assigning a specific number to each and every object in the world, as a prelude to an algebraic solution to all possible problems.[17]
C 1726 Jonathan Swift published Gulliver's Travels, which includes this description of the Engine, a machine on the island of Laputa: "a Project for improving speculative Knowledge by practical and mechanical Operations " by using this "Contrivance","the most ignorant Person at a reasonable Charge, and with a little bodily Labour, may write Books in Philosophy, Poetry, Politicks, Law, Mathematicks, and Theology, with the least Assistance from Genius or study."[18] The machine is a parody of Ars Magna, one of the inspirations of Gottfried Leibniz' mechanism.
P 1750 Julien Offray de La Mettrie published L'Homme Machine, which argued that human thought is strictly mechanical.[19]
F 1763 Thomas Bayes develops a framework for reasoning about the probability of events. Bayesian inference will become a leading approach in machine learning.
T 1769 Wolfgang von Kempelen built and toured with his chess-playing automaton, The Turk.[20] The Turk was later shown to be a hoax, involving a human chess player.
C 1818 Mary Shelley published the story of Frankenstein; or the Modern Prometheus, a fictional consideration of the ethics of creating sentient beings.[21]
T 1822 Charles Babbage & Ada Lovelace worked on programmable mechanical calculating machines.[22]
F 1837 The mathematician Bernard Bolzano made the first modern attempt to formalize semantics.
F 1854 George Boole set out to "investigate the fundamental laws of those operations of the mind by which reasoning is performed, to give expression to them in the symbolic language of a calculus", inventing Boolean algebra.[23]
P 1863 Samuel Butler suggested that Darwinian evolution also applies to machines, and speculates that they will one day become conscious and eventually supplant humanity.[24]
T 1898 At an electrical exhibition in the recently completed Madison Square Garden, Nikola Tesla makes a demonstration of the world’s first radio-controlled vessel. The boat was equipped with, as Tesla described, “a borrowed mind.”
F 1913 Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead published Principia Mathematica, which revolutionized formal logic.
T 1914 The Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo demonstrates the first chess-playing machine, capable of king and rook against king endgames without any human intervention.
R 1915 Leonardo Torres y Quevedo built a chess automaton, El Ajedrecista and published speculation about thinking and automata.[25]
F 1920  Alonzo Church develops Lambda Calculus to investigate computability using recursive functional notation.
P 1920 Ludwig Wittgenstein and Rudolf Carnap lead philosophy into logical analysis of knowledge.
F 1921 Czech writer Karel Čapek introduces the word "robot" in his play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots). The word "robot" comes from the word "robota" (work).
C 1923 Karel Čapek's play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots) opened in London. This is the first use of the word "robot" in English.[26]
T 1925 Houdina Radio Control releases a radio-controlled driverless car, travelling the streets of New York City.
C 1927 The science-fiction film Metropolis is released. It features a robot double of a peasant girl, Maria, which unleashes chaos in Berlin of 2026—it was the first robot depicted on film, inspiring the Art Deco look of C-3PO in Star Wars.
T 1929 Makoto Nishimura designs Gakutensoku, Japanese for "learning from the laws of nature," the first robot built in Japan. It could change its facial expression and move its head and hands via an air pressure mechanism.
F 1931 Kurt Gödel showed that sufficiently powerful formal systems, if consistent, permit the formulation of true theorems that are unprovable by any theorem-proving machine deriving all possible theorems from the axioms. To do this he had to build a universal, integer-based programming language, which is the reason why he is sometimes called the "father of theoretical computer science".
T 1941 Konrad Zuse built the first working program-controlled computers.[27]
F 1943 Warren Sturgis McCulloch and Walter Pitts publish "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" (1943), laying foundations for artificial neural networks.[28]
F 1943 Warren S. McCulloch and Walter Pitts publish “A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity” in the Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics. This influential paper, in which they discussed networks of idealized and simplified artificial “neurons” and how they might perform simple logical functions, will become the inspiration for computer-based “neural networks” (and later “deep learning”) and their popular description as “mimicking the brain.”
R 1943 Arturo Rosenblueth, Norbert Wiener and Julian Bigelow coin the term "cybernetics". Wiener's popular book by that name published in 1948.
F 1945 Game theory which would prove invaluable in the progress of AI was introduced with the 1944 paper, Theory of Games and Economic Behavior by mathematician John von Neumann and economist Oskar Morgenstern.
R 1945 Vannevar Bush published As We May Think (The Atlantic Monthly, July 1945) a prescient vision of the future in which computers assist humans in many activities.
R 1948 John von Neumann (quoted by E.T. Jaynes) in response to a comment at a lecture that it was impossible for a machine to think: "You insist that there is something a machine cannot do. If you will tell me precisely what it is that a machine cannot do, then I can always make a machine which will do just that!". Von Neumann was presumably alluding to the Church-Turing thesis which states that any effective procedure can be simulated by a (generalized) computer.
R 1949 Edmund Berkeley publishes Giant Brains: Or Machines That Think in which he writes: “Recently there have been a good deal of news about strange giant machines that can handle information with vast speed and skill….These machines are similar to what a brain would be if it were made of hardware and wire instead of flesh and nerves… A machine can handle information; it can calculate, conclude, and choose; it can perform reasonable operations with information. A machine, therefore, can think.”
R 1949 Donald Hebb publishes Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theoryin which he proposes a theory about learning based on conjectures regarding neural networks and the ability of synapses to strengthen or weaken over time.
F 1950 Alan Turing publishes “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” in which he proposes “the imitation game” which will later become known as the “Turing Test.”
R 1950 Claude Shannon published a detailed analysis of chess playing as search.
R 1950 Isaac Asimov published his Three Laws of Robotics.
R 1950 Claude Shannon’s “Programming a Computer for Playing Chess” is the first published article on developing a chess-playing computer program.
T 1951 The first working AI programs were written in 1951 to run on the Ferranti Mark 1machine of the University of Manchester: a checkers-playing program written by Christopher Strachey and a chess-playing program written by Dietrich Prinz.
T 1951 Marvin Minsky and Dean Edmunds build SNARC (Stochastic Neural Analog Reinforcement Calculator), the first artificial neural network, using 3000 vacuum tubes to simulate a network of 40 neurons.
T 1951 Arthur Samuel develops the first computer checkers-playing program and the first computer program to learn on its own.
R 1955 The term “artificial intelligence” is coined in a proposal for a “2 month, 10 man study of artificial intelligence” submitted by John McCarthy (Dartmouth College), Marvin Minsky (Harvard University), Nathaniel Rochester (IBM), and Claude Shannon (Bell Telephone Laboratories). The workshop, which took place a year later, in July and August 1956, is generally considered as the official birthdate of the new field.
T 1955 Arthur Samuel (IBM) wrote the first game-playing program,[30] for checkers (draughts), to achieve sufficient skill to challenge a respectable amateur. His first checkers-playing program was written in 1952, and in 1955 he created a version that learned to play.[31]
T 1955 Herbert Simon and Allen Newell develop the Logic Theorist, the first artificial intelligence program, which eventually would prove 38 of the first 52 theorems in Whitehead and Russell's Principia Mathematica.
R 1956 The Dartmouth College summer AI conference is organized by John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Nathan Rochester of IBM and Claude Shannon. McCarthy coins the term artificial intelligence for the conference.[32]
T 1956 The first demonstration of the Logic Theorist (LT) written by Allen Newell, J.C. Shawand Herbert A. Simon (Carnegie Institute of Technology, now Carnegie Mellon University or CMU). This is often called the first AI program, though Samuel's checkers program also has a strong claim.
T 1957 The General Problem Solver (GPS) demonstrated by Newell, Shaw and Simon while at CMU.
F 1958 Herbert Gelernter and Nathan Rochester (IBM) described a theorem prover in geometry that exploits a semantic model of the domain in the form of diagrams of "typical" cases.
R 1958 Teddington Conference on the Mechanization of Thought Processes was held in the UK and among the papers presented were John McCarthy's Programs with Common Sense, Oliver Selfridge's Pandemonium, and Marvin Minsky's Some Methods of Heuristic Programming and Artificial Intelligence.
TF 1958 John McCarthy develops programming language Lisp which becomes the most popular programming language used in artificial intelligence research.
F 1959 John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky founded the MIT AI Lab.
R 1959 Arthur Samuel coins the term “machine learning,” reporting on programming a computer “so that it will learn to play a better game of checkers than can be played by the person who wrote the program.”
R 1959 Oliver Selfridge publishes “Pandemonium: A paradigm for learning” in the Proceedings of the Symposium on Mechanization of Thought Processes, in which he describes a model for a process by which computers could recognize patterns that have not been specified in advance.
R 1959 John McCarthy publishes “Programs with Common Sense” in the Proceedings of the Symposium on Mechanization of Thought Processes, in which he describes the Advice Taker, a program for solving problems by manipulating sentences in formal languages with the ultimate objective of making programs “that learn from their experience as effectively as humans do.”
T 1959 Margaret Masterman and colleagues at University of Cambridge design semantic nets for machine translation.
F 1960 Ray Solomonoff lays the foundations of a mathematical theory of AI, introducing universal Bayesian methods for inductive inference and prediction.
R 1960 Man-Computer Symbiosis by J.C.R. Licklider.
R 1961 In Minds, Machines and Gödel, John Lucas[33] denied the possibility of machine intelligence on logical or philosophical grounds. He referred to Kurt Gödel's result of 1931: sufficiently powerful formal systems are either inconsistent or allow for formulating true theorems unprovable by any theorem-proving AI deriving all provable theorems from the axioms. Since humans are able to "see" the truth of such theorems, machines were deemed inferior.
T 1961 James Slagle (PhD dissertation, MIT) wrote (in Lisp) the first symbolic integrationprogram, SAINT, which solved calculus problems at the college freshman level.
T 1961 The first industrial robot, Unimate, starts working on an assembly line in a General Motors plant in New Jersey.
T 1961 James Slagle develops SAINT(Symbolic Automatic INTegrator), a heuristic program that solved symbolic integration problems in freshman calculus.
R 1963 Thomas Evans' program, ANALOGY, written as part of his PhD work at MIT, demonstrated that computers can solve the same analogy problems as are given on IQtests.
R 1963 Edward Feigenbaum and Julian Feldman published Computers and Thought, the first collection of articles about artificial intelligence.
R 1963 Leonard Uhr and Charles Vossler published "A Pattern Recognition Program That Generates, Evaluates, and Adjusts Its Own Operators", which described one of the first machine learning programs that could adaptively acquire and modify features and thereby overcome the limitations of simple perceptrons of Rosenblatt
R 1964 Danny Bobrow's dissertation at MIT (technical report #1 from MIT's AI group, Project MAC), shows that computers can understand natural language well enough to solve algebra word problems correctly.
R 1964 Bertram Raphael's MIT dissertation on the SIR program demonstrates the power of a logical representation of knowledge for question-answering systems.
R 1964 Daniel Bobrow completes his MIT PhD dissertation titled “Natural Language Input for a Computer Problem Solving System” and develops STUDENT, a natural language understanding computer program.
F 1965 J. Alan Robinson invented a mechanical proof procedure, the Resolution Method, which allowed programs to work efficiently with formal logic as a representation language.
P 1965 Herbert Simon predicts that "machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do."
P 1965 Hubert Dreyfus publishes "Alchemy and AI," arguing that the mind is not like a computer and that there were limits beyond which AI would not progress.
P 1965 I.J. Good writes in "Speculations Concerning the First Ultraintelligent Machine" that “the first ultraintelligent machine is the last invention that man need ever make, provided that the machine is docile enough to tell us how to keep it under control.”
R 1965 Edward Feigenbaum initiated Dendral, a ten-year effort to develop software to deduce the molecular structure of organic compounds using scientific instrument data. It was the first expert system.
T 1965 Joseph Weizenbaum (MIT) built ELIZA, an interactive program that carries on a dialogue in English language on any topic. It was a popular toy at AI centers on the ARPANET when a version that "simulated" the dialogue of a psychotherapist was programmed.
T 1965 Edward Feigenbaum, Bruce G. Buchanan, Joshua Lederberg, and Carl Djerassi start working on DENDRAL at Stanford University. The first expert system, it automated the decision-making process and problem-solving behavior of organic chemists, with the general aim of studying hypothesis formation and constructing models of empirical induction in science.
F 1966 Ross Quillian (PhD dissertation, Carnegie Inst. of Technology, now CMU) demonstrated semantic nets.
R 1966 Machine Intelligence[34] workshop at Edinburgh – the first of an influential annual series organized by Donald Michie and others.
R 1966 Negative report on machine translation kills much work in Natural language processing(NLP) for many years.
T 1966 Shakey the robot is the first general-purpose mobile robot to be able to reason about its own actions. In a Life magazine 1970 article about this “first electronic person,” Marvin Minsky is quoted saying with “certitude”: “In from three to eight years we will have a machine with the general intelligence of an average human being.”
R 1967 Dendral program (Edward Feigenbaum, Joshua Lederberg, Bruce Buchanan, Georgia Sutherland at Stanford University) demonstrated to interpret mass spectra on organic chemical compounds. First successful knowledge-based program for scientific reasoning.
C 1968 The film 2001: Space Odyssey is released, featuring Hal, a sentient computer.
F 1968 Wallace and Boulton's program, Snob (Comp.J. 11(2) 1968), for unsupervised classification (clustering) uses the Bayesian Minimum Message Length criterion, a mathematical realisation of Occam's razor.
R 1968 McCarthy publishes "Programs with common sense", called "the paper that started it all"
R 1968 Joel Moses (PhD work at MIT) demonstrated the power of symbolic reasoning for integration problems in the Macsyma program. First successful knowledge-based program in mathematics.
T 1968 Richard Greenblatt (programmer) at MIT built a knowledge-based chess-playing program, MacHack, that was good enough to achieve a class-C rating in tournament play.
T 1968 Terry Winograd develops SHRDLU, an early natural language understanding computer program.
F 1969 Roger Schank (Stanford) defined conceptual dependency model for natural language understanding. Later developed (in PhD dissertations at Yale University) for use in story understanding by Robert Wilensky and Wendy Lehnert, and for use in understanding memory by Janet Kolodner.
F 1969 Yorick Wilks (Stanford) developed the semantic coherence view of language called Preference Semantics, embodied in the first semantics-driven machine translation program, and the basis of many PhD dissertations since such as Bran Boguraev and David Carter at Cambridge.
R 1969 First International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) held at Stanford.
R 1969 McCarthy and Hayes started the discussion about the frame problem with their essay,"Some Philosophical Problems from the Standpoint of Artificial Intelligence".
R 1969 Arthur Bryson and Yu-Chi Ho describe backpropagation as a multi-stage dynamic system optimization method. A learning algorithm for multi-layer artificial neural networks, it has contributed significantly to the success of deep learning in the 2000s and 2010s, once computing power has sufficiently advanced to accommodate the training of large networks.
R 1969 Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert publish Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry, highlighting the limitations of simple neural networks.  In an expanded edition published in 1988, they responded to claims that their 1969 conclusions significantly reduced funding for neural network research: “Our version is that progress had already come to a virtual halt because of the lack of adequate basic theories… by the mid-1960s there had been a great many experiments with perceptrons, but no one had been able to explain why they were able to recognize certain kinds of patterns and not others.”
R 1970 In a Life magazine 1970 article about Shakey, the “first electronic person,” Marvin Minsky is quoted saying with “certitude”: “In from three to eight years we will have a machine with the general intelligence of an average human being.”
R 1970 Jane Robinson and Don Walker established an influential Natural Language Processing group at SRI.
R 1970 Bill Woods described Augmented Transition Networks (ATN's) as a representation for natural language understanding.
T 1970 Jaime Carbonell (Sr.) developed SCHOLAR, an interactive program for computer assisted instruction based on semantic nets as the representation of knowledge.
T 1970 Patrick Winston's PhD program, ARCH, at MIT learned concepts from examples in the world of children's blocks.
T 1970 The first anthropomorphic robot, the WABOT-1, is built at Waseda University in Japan. It consisted of a limb-control system, a vision system and a conversation system.
F 1971 Work on the Boyer-Moore theorem prover started in Edinburgh.[35]
R 1971 Terry Winograd's PhD thesis (MIT) demonstrated the ability of computers to understand English sentences in a restricted world of children's blocks, in a coupling of his language understanding program, SHRDLU, with a robot arm that carried out instructions typed in English.
F 1972 Prolog programming language developed by Alain Colmerauer.
T 1972 Earl Sacerdoti developed one of the first hierarchical planning programs, ABSTRIPS.
T 1972 MYCIN, an early expert system for identifying bacteria causing severe infections and recommending antibiotics, is developed at Stanford University.
R 1973 The Lighthill report gives a largely negative verdict on AI research in Great Britain and forms the basis for the decision by the British government to discontinue support for AI research in all but two universities.
R 1973 James Lighthill reports to the British Science Research Council on the state artificial intelligence research, concluding that "in no part of the field have discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised," leading to drastically reduced government support for AI research.
T 1973 The Assembly Robotics Group at University of Edinburgh builds Freddy Robot, capable of using visual perception to locate and assemble models. (See Edinburgh FreddyAssembly Robot: a versatile computer-controlled assembly system.)
R 1974 Ted Shortliffe's PhD dissertation on the MYCIN program (Stanford) demonstrated a very practical rule-based approach to medical diagnoses, even in the presence of uncertainty. While it borrowed from DENDRAL, its own contributions strongly influenced the future of expert system development, especially commercial systems.
F 1975 Earl Sacerdoti developed techniques of partial-order planning in his NOAH system, replacing the previous paradigm of search among state space descriptions. NOAH was applied at SRI International to interactively diagnose and repair electromechanical systems.
F 1975 Austin Tate developed the Nonlin hierarchical planning system able to search a space of partial plans characterised as alternative approaches to the underlying goal structure of the plan.
P 1975 Marvin Minsky published his widely read and influential article on Frames as a representation of knowledge, in which many ideas about schemas and semantic linksare brought together.
R 1975 The Meta-Dendral learning program produced new results in chemistry (some rules of mass spectrometry) the first scientific discoveries by a computer to be published in a refereed journal.
R 1975 Barbara Grosz (SRI) established limits to traditional AI approaches to discourse modeling. Subsequent work by Grosz, Bonnie Webber and Candace Sidner developed the notion of "centering", used in establishing focus of discourse and anaphoric references in Natural language processing.
R 1975 David Marr and MIT colleagues describe the "primal sketch" and its role in visual perception.
R 1976 Douglas Lenat's AM program (Stanford PhD dissertation) demonstrated the discovery model (loosely guided search for interesting conjectures).
R 1976 Randall Davis demonstrated the power of meta-level reasoning in his PhD dissertation at Stanford.
R 1976 Computer scientist Raj Reddypublishes “Speech Recognition by Machine: A Review” in the Proceedings of the IEEE, summarizing the early work on Natural Language Processing (NLP).
F 1978 Tom Mitchell, at Stanford, invented the concept of Version spaces for describing the search space of a concept formation program.
F 1978 Herbert A. Simon wins the Nobel Prize in Economics for his theory of bounded rationality, one of the cornerstones of AI known as "satisficing".
T 1978 The MOLGEN program, written at Stanford by Mark Stefik and Peter Friedland, demonstrated that an object-oriented programming representation of knowledge can be used to plan gene-cloning experiments.
T 1978 The XCON (eXpert CONfigurer) program, a rule-based expert system assisting in the ordering of DEC's VAX computers by automatically selecting the components based on the customer's requirements, is developed at Carnegie Mellon University.
F 1979 Drew McDermott and Jon Doyle at MIT, and John McCarthy at Stanford begin publishing work on non-monotonic logics and formal aspects of truth maintenance.
T 1979 Bill VanMelle's PhD dissertation at Stanford demonstrated the generality of MYCIN's representation of knowledge and style of reasoning in his EMYCIN program, the model for many commercial expert system "shells".
T 1979 Jack Myers and Harry Pople at University of Pittsburgh developed INTERNIST, a knowledge-based medical diagnosis program based on Dr. Myers' clinical knowledge.
T 1979 Cordell Green, David Barstow, Elaine Kant and others at Stanford demonstrated the CHI system for automatic programming.
T 1979 The Stanford Cart, built by Hans Moravec, becomes the first computer-controlled, autonomous vehicle when it successfully traverses a chair-filled room and circumnavigates the Stanford AI Lab.
T 1979 BKG, a backgammon program written by Hans Berliner at CMU, defeats the reigning world champion (in part via luck).
T 1979 Stanford's SUMEX-AIM resource, headed by Ed Feigenbaum and Joshua Lederberg, demonstrates the power of the ARPAnet for scientific collaboration.
T 1979 The Stanford Cart successfully crosses a chair-filled room without human intervention in about five hours, becoming one of the earliest examples of an autonomous vehicle.
R 1980 Terry Winograd publishes "What Does It Mean to Understand Language?" inroducing the Winograd Schema Challenge as an alternative to the Turing test for judging Artificial Intelilgences.
T 1980 Lisp machines developed and marketed. First expert system shells and commercial applications.
T 1980 First National Conference of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) held at Stanford.
T 1980 Wabot-2 is built at Waseda University in Japan, a musician humanoid robot able to communicate with a person, read a musical score and play tunes of average difficulty on an electronic organ.
F 1981 The Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry budgets $850 million for the Fifth Generation Computer project. The project aimed to develop computers that could carry on conversations, translate languages, interpret pictures, and reason like human beings.
T 1981 Danny Hillis designs the connection machine, which utilizes Parallel computing to bring new power to AI, and to computation in general. (Later founds Thinking Machines Corporation)
T 1982 The Fifth Generation Computer Systems project (FGCS), an initiative by Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry, begun in 1982, to create a "fifth generation computer" (see history of computing hardware) which was supposed to perform much calculation utilizing massive parallelism.
F 1983 James F. Allen invents the Interval Calculus, the first widely used formalization of temporal events.
R 1983 John Laird and Paul Rosenbloom, working with Allen Newell, complete CMU dissertations on Soar (program).
C 1984 Electric Dreams is released, a film about a love triangle between a man, a woman and a personal computer.
R 1984 At the annual meeting of AAAI, Roger Schank and Marvin Minsky warn of the coming “AI Winter,” predicting an immanent bursting of the AI bubble (which did happen three years later), similar to the reduction in AI investment and research funding in the mid-1970s.
F 1985 Neural Networks become widely used with the Backpropagation algorithm (first described by Paul Werbos in 1974).
T 1985 The autonomous drawing program, AARON, created by Harold Cohen, is demonstrated at the AAAI National Conference (based on more than a decade of work, and with subsequent work showing major developments).
F 1986 Barbara Grosz and Candace Sidner create the first computation model of discourse, establishing the field of research.[36]
R 1986 David Rumelhart, Geoffrey Hinton, and Ronald Williams publish ”Learning representations by back-propagating errors,” in which they describe “a new learning procedure, back-propagation, for networks of neurone-like units.”
T 1986 The team of Ernst Dickmanns at Bundeswehr University of Munich builds the first robot cars, driving up to 55 mph on empty streets.
T 1986 First driverless car, a Mercedes-Benz van equipped with cameras and sensors, built at Bundeswehr University in Munich under the direction of Ernst Dickmanns, drives up to 55 mph on empty streets.
P 1987 Marvin Minsky published The Society of Mind, a theoretical description of the mind as a collection of cooperating agents. He had been lecturing on the idea for years before the book came out (c.f. Doyle 1983).[37]
R 1987 Rodney Brooks introduced the subsumption architecture and behavior-based robotics as a more minimalist modular model of natural intelligence; Nouvelle AI.
R 1987 Rodney Brooks publishes "Intelligence without representation", outlining an approach to building artificially intellegent creatures
T 1987 Commercial launch of generation 2.0 of Alacrity by Alacritous Inc./Allstar Advice Inc. Toronto, the first commercial strategic and managerial advisory system. The system was based upon a forward-chaining, self-developed expert system with 3,000 rules about the evolution of markets and competitive strategies and co-authored by Alistair Davidson and Mary Chung, founders of the firm with the underlying engine developed by Paul Tarvydas. The Alacrity system also included a small financial expert system that interpreted financial statements and models.[38]
T 1987 The video Knowledge Navigator, accompanying Apple CEO John Sculley’s keynote speech at Educom, envisions a future in which “knowledge applications would be accessed by smart agents working over networks connected to massive amounts of digitized information.”
R 1988 Judea Pearl publishes Probabilistic Reasoning in Intelligent Systems. His 2011 Turing Award citation reads: “Judea Pearl created the representational and computational foundation for the processing of information under uncertainty. He is credited with the invention of Bayesian networks, a mathematical formalism for defining complex probability models, as well as the principal algorithms used for inference in these models. This work not only revolutionized the field of artificial intelligence but also became an important tool for many other branches of engineering and the natural sciences.”
R 1988 Members of the IBM T.J. Watson Research Center publish “A statistical approach to language translation,” heralding the shift from rule-based to probabilistic methods of machine translation, and reflecting a broader shift to “machine learning” based on statistical analysis of known examples, not comprehension and “understanding” of the task at hand (IBM’s project Candide, successfully translating between English and French, was based on 2.2 million pairs of sentences, mostly from the bilingual proceedings of the Canadian parliament).
R 1988 Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert publish an expanded edition of their 1969 book Perceptrons. In “Prologue: A View from 1988” they wrote: “One reason why progress has been so slow in this field is that researchers unfamiliar with its history have continued to make many of the same mistakes that others have made before them.”
T 1988 Rollo Carpenter develops the chat-bot Jabberwacky to "simulate natural human chat in an interesting, entertaining and humorous manner." It is an early attempt at creating artificial intelligence through human interaction.
T 1989 Dean Pomerleau at CMU creates ALVINN (An Autonomous Land Vehicle in a Neural Network).
T 1989 Yann LeCun and other researchers at AT&T Bell Labs successfully apply a backpropagation algorithm to a multi-layer neural network, recognizing handwritten ZIP codes. Given the hardware limitations at the time, it took about 3 days (still a significant improvement over earlier efforts) to train the network.
R 1990 Rodney Brooks publishes “Elephants Don’t Play Chess,” proposing a new approach to AI—building intelligent systems, specifically robots, from the ground up and on the basis of ongoing physical interaction with the environment: “The world is its own best model… The trick is to sense it appropriately and often enough.”
T 1991 TD-Gammon, a backgammon program written by Gerry Tesauro, demonstrates that reinforcement (learning) is powerful enough to create a championship-level game-playing program by competing favorably with world-class players.
T 1991 DART scheduling application deployed in the first Gulf War paid back DARPA'sinvestment of 30 years in AI research.[39]
R 1993 Rodney Brooks, Lynn Andrea Stein and Cynthia Breazeal started the widely publicized MIT Cog project with numerous collaborators, in an attempt to build a humanoid robotchild in just five years.
R 1993 ISX corporation wins "DARPA contractor of the year"[40] for the Dynamic Analysis and Replanning Tool (DART) which reportedly repaid the US government's entire investment in AI research since the 1950s.[41]
R 1993 Vernor Vinge publishes “The Coming Technological Singularity,” in which he predicts that “within thirty years, we will have the technological means to create superhuman intelligence. Shortly after, the human era will be ended.”
T 1993 Ian Horswill extended behavior-based robotics by creating Polly, the first robot to navigate using vision and operate at animal-like speeds (1 meter/second).
T 1994 With passengers on board, the twin robot cars VaMP and VITA-2 of Ernst Dickmannsand Daimler-Benz drive more than one thousand kilometers on a Paris three-lane highway in standard heavy traffic at speeds up to 130 km/h. They demonstrate autonomous driving in free lanes, convoy driving, and lane changes left and right with autonomous passing of other cars.
T 1994 English draughts (checkers) world champion Tinsley resigned a match against computer program Chinook. Chinook defeated 2nd highest rated player, Lafferty. Chinook won the USA National Tournament by the widest margin ever.
T 1995 "No Hands Across America": A semi-autonomous car drove coast-to-coast across the United States with computer-controlled steering for 2,797 miles (4,501 km) of the 2,849 miles (4,585 km). Throttle and brakes were controlled by a human driver.[42][43]
T 1995 One of Ernst Dickmanns' robot cars (with robot-controlled throttle and brakes) drove more than 1000 miles from Munich to Copenhagen and back, in traffic, at up to 120 mph, occasionally executing maneuvers to pass other cars (only in a few critical situations a safety driver took over). Active vision was used to deal with rapidly changing street scenes.
T 1995 Richard Wallace develops the chatbot A.L.I.C.E (Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity), inspired by Joseph Weizenbaum's ELIZA program, but with the addition of natural language sample data collection on an unprecedented scale, enabled by the advent of the Web.
R 1997 Sepp Hochreiter and Jürgen Schmidhuber propose Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), a type of a recurrent neural network used today in handwriting recognition and speech recognition.
T 1997 The Deep Blue chess machine (IBM) defeats the (then) world chess champion, Garry Kasparov.
T 1997 First official RoboCup football (soccer) match featuring table-top matches with 40 teams of interacting robots and over 5000 spectators.
T 1997 Computer Othello program Logistello defeated the world champion Takeshi Murakami with a score of 6–0.
T 1997 Deep Blue becomes the first computer chess-playing program to beat a reigning world chess champion.
F 1998 Leslie P. Kaelbling, Michael Littman, and Anthony Cassandra introduce the first method for solving POMDPs offline, jumpstarting widespread use in robotics and automated planning and scheduling[45]
F 1998 Yann LeCun, Yoshua Bengio and others publish papers on the application of neural networks to handwriting recognition and on optimizing backpropagation.
R 1998 Tim Berners-Lee published his Semantic Web Road map paper.[44]
T 1998 Tiger Electronics' Furby is released, and becomes the first successful attempt at producing a type of A.I to reach a domestic environment.
T 1998 Dave Hampton and Caleb Chung create Furby, the first domestic or pet robot.
F 1999 Initiation of work on the Oxygen architecture, which connects mobile and stationary computers in an adaptive network.
T 1999 Sony introduces an improved domestic robot similar to a Furby, the AIBO becomes one of the first artificially intelligent "pets" that is also autonomous.
T 1999 Web crawlers and other AI-based information extraction programs become essential in widespread use of the World Wide Web.
T 1999 Demonstration of an Intelligent room and Emotional Agents at MIT's AI Lab.
R 2000 Cynthia Breazeal at MIT publishes her dissertation on Sociable machines, describing Kismet (robot), with a face that expresses emotions.
T 2000 Interactive robopets ("smart toys") become commercially available, realizing the vision of the 18th century novelty toy makers.
T 2000 The Nomad robot explores remote regions of Antarctica looking for meteorite samples.
T 2000 MIT’s Cynthia Breazeal develops Kismet, a robot that could recognize and simulate emotions.
T 2000 Honda's ASIMO robot, an artificially intelligent humanoid robot, is able to walk as fast as a human, delivering trays to customers in a restaurant setting.
C 2001 A.I. Artificial Intelligence is released, a Steven Spielberg film about David, a childlike android uniquely programmed with the ability to love.
T 2002 iRobot's Roomba autonomously vacuums the floor while navigating and avoiding obstacles.
R 2004 OWL Web Ontology Language W3C Recommendation (10 February 2004).
R 2004 DARPA introduces the DARPA Grand Challenge requiring competitors to produce autonomous vehicles for prize money.
T 2004 NASA's robotic exploration rovers Spirit and Opportunity autonomously navigate the surface of Mars.
T 2004 The first DARPA Grand Challenge, a prize competition for autonomous vehicles, is held in the Mojave Desert. None of the autonomous vehicles finished the 150-mile route.
T 2005 Honda's ASIMO robot, an artificially intelligent humanoid robot, is able to walk as fast as a human, delivering trays to customers in restaurant settings.
T 2005 Recommendation technology based on tracking web activity or media usage brings AI to marketing. See TiVo Suggestions.
T 2005 Blue Brain is born, a project to simulate the brain at molecular detail.[46]
R 2006 The Dartmouth Artificial Intelligence Conference: The Next 50 Years (AI@50) AI@50(14–16 July 2006)
R 2006 Oren Etzioni, Michele Banko, and Michael Cafarella coin the term “machine reading,” defining it as an inherently unsupervised “autonomous understanding of text.”
R 2006 Geoffrey Hinton publishes “Learning Multiple Layers of Representation,” summarizing the ideas that have led to “multilayer neural networks that contain top-down connections and training them to generate sensory data rather than to classify it,” i.e., the new approaches to deep learning.
R 2007 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B – Biology, one of the world's oldest scientific journals, puts out a special issue on using AI to understand biological intelligence, titled Models of Natural Action Selection[47]
T 2007 Checkers is solved by a team of researchers at the University of Alberta.
T 2007 DARPA launches the Urban Challenge for autonomous cars to obey traffic rules and operate in an urban environment.
T 2007 Fei Fei Li and colleagues at Princeton University start to assemble ImageNet, a large database of annotated images designed to aid in visual object recognition software research.
R 2009 Rajat Raina, Anand Madhavan and Andrew Ng publish “Large-scale Deep Unsupervised Learning using Graphics Processors,” arguing that “modern graphics processors far surpass the computational capabilities of multicore CPUs, and have the potential to revolutionize the applicability of deep unsupervised learning methods.”
T 2009 Google starts developing, in secret, a driverless car. In 2014, it became the first to pass, in Nevada, a U.S. state self-driving test.
T 2009 Computer scientists at the Intelligent Information Laboratory at Northwestern University develop Stats Monkey, a program that writes sport news stories without human intervention.
T 2010 Microsoft launched Kinect for Xbox 360, the first gaming device to track human body movement, using just a 3D camera and infra-red detection, enabling users to play their Xbox 360 wirelessly. The award-winning machine learning for human motion capture technology for this device was developed by the Computer Vision group at Microsoft Research, Cambridge.[49][50]
T 2010 Launch of the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVCR), an annual AI object recognition competition.
R 2011 Researchers at the IDSIA in Switzerland report a 0.27% error rate in handwriting recognition using convolutional neural networks, a significant improvement over the 0.35%-0.40% error rate in previous years.
T 2011 IBM's Watson computer defeated television game show Jeopardy! champions Rutterand Jennings.
T 2011 Apple's Siri, a smartphone app that use natural language to answer questions, make recommendations and perform actions.
T 2011 A convolutional neural network wins the German Traffic Sign Recognition competitionwith 99.46% accuracy (vs. humans at 99.22%).
T 2011 Watson, a natural language question answering computer, competes on Jeopardy!and defeats two former champions.
R 2012 Jeff Dean and Andrew Ng reporton an experiment in which they showed a very large neural network 10 million unlabeled images randomly taken from YouTube videos, and “to our amusement, one of our artificial neurons learned to respond strongly to pictures of... cats.”
T 2012 Google's Google Now, a smartphone app that use natural language to answer questions, make recommendations and perform actions.
T 2012 A convolutional neural network designed by researchers at the University of Toronto achieve an error rate of only 16% in the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a significant improvement over the 25% error rate achieved by the best entry the year before.
R 2013 Robot HRP-2 built by SCHAFT Inc of Japan, a subsidiary of Google, defeats 15 teams to win DARPA’s Robotics Challenge Trials. HRP-2 scored 27 out of 32 points in 8 tasks needed in disaster response. Tasks are drive a vehicle, walk over debris, climb a ladder, remove debris, walk through doors, cut through a wall, close valves and connect a hose.[51]
R 2013 NEIL, the Never Ending Image Learner, is released at Carnegie Mellon University to constantly compare and analyze relationships between different images.[52]
R 2014 Microsoft's Cortana, a smartphone app that use natural language to answer questions, make recommendations and perform actions.
R 2014 Hector Levesque publishes "On our best behavior", which aregues that in the context of question-answering that what matters when it comes to the science of AI is not a good semblance of intelligent behaviour at all, but the behaviour itself, what it depends on, and how it can be achieved.
R 2015 An open letter to ban development and use of autonomous weapons signed by Hawking, Musk, Wozniak and 3,000 researchers in AI and robotics.[53]
T 2015 Google DeepMind's AlphaGo (version: Fan)[54] defeated 3 time European Go champion 2 dan professional Fan Hui by 5 games to 0.[55]
R 2017 Asilomar Conference on Beneficial AI was held, to discuss AI ethics and how to bring about beneficial AI while avoiding the existential risk from artificial general intelligence.
T 2017 Poker AI Libratus individually defeated each of its 4 human opponents—among the best players in the world—at an exceptionally high aggregated winrate, over a statistically significant sample.[58] In contrast to Chess and Go, Poker is an imperfect information game.[59]
T 2017 Google DeepMind's AlphaGo (version: Master)[54] won 60–0 rounds on two public Gowebsites including 3 wins against world Go champion Ke Jie.
T 2017 An OpenAI-machined learned bot played at The International 2017 Dota 2 tournament in August 2017. It won during a 1v1 demonstration game against professional Dota 2player Dendi.[60]
T 2017 Google DeepMind revealed that AlphaGo Zero—an improved version of AlphaGo—displayed significant performance gains while using far fewer tensor processing units(as compared to AlphaGo Lee; it used same amount of TPU's as AlphaGo Master).[54]Unlike previous versions, which learned the game by observing millions of human moves, AlphaGo Zero learned by playing only against itself. The system then defeated AlphaGo Lee 100 games to zero, and defeated AlphaGo Master 89 to 11.[54] Although unsupervised learning is a step forward, much has yet to be learned about general intelligence.[61] AlphaZero masters chess in 4 hours, defeating the best chess engine, StockFish 8. AlphaZero won 28 out of 100 games, and the remaining 72 games ended in a draw.
R 2018 The European Lab for Learning and Intelligent Systems (aka Ellis) proposed as a pan-European competitor to American AI efforts, with the aim of staving off a brain drain of talent, along the lines of CERN after World War II.[63]
T 2018 Alibaba language processing AI outscores top humans at a Stanford University reading and comprehension test, scoring 82.44 against 82.304 on a set of 100,000 questions.[62]
T 2018 Announcement of Google Duplex, a service to allow an AI assistant to book appointments over the phone. The LA Times judges the AI's voice to be a "nearly flawless" imitation of human-sounding speech.[64]
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