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Cyan in 20 minutes
package main
// import a Cyan package
import cyan.math
import cyan.reflect
// import a Java package
import java.lang
@doc{*
doc is an annotation for documentation. An
annotation starts with '@', as @doc, and is processed
at compile-time. You can do your own documentation
annotation taking text in any format you wish.
Unfortunately, there is no software that produces
HTML pages from documentation --- the Cyan design and
compiler is a one-person project. There is much to be done.
The declaration of a prototype follows. A prototype is
similar to a class in class-based languages as C++/Java/C#.
'extends' is used for inheritance, only single inheritance
is supported. 'implements' is used for implementation of
interfaces. 'SuperProgram' is declared as
package main
open
object SuperProgram
end
IProgram is declared as
       package main
interface IProgram
func theSuperOne: String s -> String
end
'open' is used before 'object' to mean it is not
a final class. The default is final, a prototype that
cannot be inherited.
*}
/*
The following annotation, '@init(name, max)', produces
func init: String name, Int max {
self.name = name;
self.max = max
}
*/
@init(name, max)
open
object Program extends SuperProgram
implements IProgram
// a field or instance variable. They are always
// private or protected, default private
var String name
// a read-only field is declared with 'let'
let Int max
// with an expression, ends with ';'
let Int min = 0;
// @property produces getDocStr and setDocStr:
@property var String docStr = "documentation";
// shared variables are shared among all
// objects of a prototype. They are the 'static' of C++/Java
shared Double sqrt10
// initShared initializes shared variables only
private func initShared {
sqrt10 = 3.16227766017
}
// A shared method. It can only access
// shared fields and the message receiver
// should be the prototype
shared
func getSqrt10 -> Double = sqrt10;
/* T his is a multi-line comment
*/
// method that returns a String
// by default, methods are public
func getName -> String = name;
// method with a parameter
func with: String text -> String {
/* $ is used for string interpolation.
*/
return "$name\r\n$docStr\r\nWith: $text\r\nMax = $max"
}
// override is used here because this method
// is declared in the implemented interface
// 'IProgram'
override
func theSuperOne: String s -> String {
var p = "";
// ++ is string concatenation
p = p ++ "super " ++ s;
// ++ works even if both are non-strings
assert 0 ++ 1 == "01";
// 'assert' is a macro. If its expression is false,
// it prints a message (at runtime).
return p;
}
// constructors are called 'init' or 'init:'
func init: String name, Int min, Int max {
self.name = name;
self.min = min;
self.max = max
}
// a parameterless constructor
func init {
self.name = "";
self.max = 10;
}
// message passing basics
func messagePassingTest {
// these are unary message sends
// this would be, in Java/C++/C# syntax, 0.println()
0 println;
"print this" println;
// cascading of unary message passings.
0 prototypeName println;
// create an Int array
var Array<Int> array = [ 0 ];
// message passing 'at: 0' with receiver 'array'
// it would be 'array.at(0)' in C++/Java/C#
var elem = array at: 0;
// message passing 'at: 0 put: 5' with receiver 'array'
// it would be 'array.at_put(0, 5)' in C++/Java/C#
array at: 0 put: 5;
}
// each of the following methods is used to explain
// a set of language features
func basicTypesTest {
// basic types as in Java
var Char ch = 'a';
var Boolean ok = false;
var Byte abyte = 10Byte;
abyte = 10B;
var Short ashort = 0Short;
ashort = 0S;
var Int anInt = 10;
anInt = 10Int;
anInt = 10I;
var Long along = 10Long;
along = 10L;
var Float afloat = 10.0Float;
afloat = 10.0F;
var Double adouble = 10.0Double;
adouble = 10.0D;
var String string = "string";
string = n"escape are not considered: \r \n";
// assert is a macro for testing an expression
assert n"\r\n" size == 4;
var Int otherInt = 0;
""" multiple line
Strings are
allowed """ println;
// '|' before " or """ orders the compiler
// to remove spaces before '|'
|"""
|spaces before \| are removed
|first char in the string
""" println;
// #cyan is a symbol, exactly the same as "cyan"
assert #cyan == "cyan";
// no automatic casts between basic types
// error if uncommented
// abyte = anInt
// abyte = 10; // 10 has type Int
// use methods for converting values
abyte = 10 asByte;
along = 10.0 asLong;
// r"a*Cb*" is an object of RegExpr
assert "aaCbbb" ~= r"a*Cb*";
}
// anonymous functions or just functions
func funcTest {
var Int n = 0;
// anonymous function without parameter
// or return value
var f = { n = 1 };
assert n == 0;
// execute the statements of 'f'
// 'f eval' is a 'message passing'.
// the message name is 'eval' and the receiver is 'f'.
// It would be 'f.eval()' in Java/C#/C++
f eval;
// f changed the value of a local variable
assert n == 1;
// anonymous function with an Int parameter
// and no return value --- use Nil for that
var Function<Int, Nil> fi = {
(: Int k :)
n = k
};
// a message passing. It would be 'fi.eval(5)' in Java/C#/C++
fi eval: 5;
assert n == 5;
// anonymous function with a parameter
// and a return value
var Function<Int, String> g = { (: Int k -> String :)
^ "k = " ++ k;
};
assert g eval: 5 == "k = 5";
// the return type is optional
var fis = { (: Int k :) ^"" ++ k };
assert fis eval: 5 == "5";
}
/* A method with multiple keywords. Each of
at:, with:, or do: is a method keyword or
just keyword. 'at:with:do:' is a method selector
*/
func at: Array<Int> array
with: String s
do: Function<Int, String, Nil> f
-> Int {
var sum = 0;
// for each elem of the array, call
// the function
array foreach: { (: Int n :)
sum = sum + n
};
f eval: sum, s;
return sum
}
// creation of objects in Cyan
func newTest {
// objects are created with 'new:' or
// 'new' (if no parameters)
var Person livia = Person new: "Livia", 12;
// objects can be created with this syntax too
var carolina = Person("Carolina", 9);
assert livia getName == "Livia";
assert carolina getAge == 9;
// prototypes are objects
Person setName: "Marcia";
assert Person getName == "Marcia";
// prototypes are objects. Int is 0
assert Int*Int + Int == 0;
}
// decision and repetition constructs
func ifForWhileRepeatTest {
// a literal array
var array = [ 0, 1, 2, 3 ];
var sum = 0;
// for statement. { and } are demanded
for elem in array {
sum = sum + elem
}
assert sum == 6;
sum = 0;
// sum all array elements
assert (array .+ "+") == 6;
// print all array elements
array apply: #print;
sum = 0;
// Sum<Int>(sum) is a context object.
// It is like a REUSABLE anonymous function
// that can access local variables like 'sum'
array foreach: Sum<Int>(sum);
assert sum == 6;
// 'if' statements always have '{' and '}'
if array size != 4 {
"Error! " println;
// ends the program
System exit: 1;
}
// 'if' as in Smalltalk, a message passing
(array size != 4) ifTrue: { System exit: 1 };
// an random number between 0 and 99
var age = Math nextInt: 100;
if age < 3 { "baby" println }
else if age >= 3 && age < 13 {
"child" println
}
else if age >= 13 && age < 19 {
// this is another form of printing to
// the standard output
Out println: "teenager"
}
else {
"adult" println
}
sum = 0;
// 0..< 11 is an interval from 0 to 10
for elem in 0..< 11 { sum = sum + elem }
assert sum == 55;
sum = 0;
// 0..10 is an interval from 0 to 10
for elem in 0..10 { sum = sum + elem }
assert sum == 55;
sum = 0;
0..10 foreach: { (: Int elem :) sum = sum + elem };
assert sum == 55;
// 'while' statements always have '{' and '}'
sum = 0;
var i = 0;
while i < 11 {
sum = sum + i;
++i
}
assert sum == 55;
i = 0;
sum = 0;
// 'while' as in Smalltalk, a message passing
{ ^ i <= 10 } whileTrue: {
sum = sum + i;
++i
};
assert sum == 55;
i = 0;
sum = 0;
// repeat-until statement
repeat
sum = sum + i;
++i;
until i > 10;
assert sum == 55;
}
/*
an abstract prototype Animal with an abstract method 'eat:' is
declared as
abstract Animal
abstract func eat: Food food
end
*/
// methods that do not return a value
// return Nil
func nilTypeUnionTest -> Nil {
// Any is the superprototype of everyone but Nil
var Any any = 0;
any = "ok";
any = Program;
// types are non-nullable
var String s = "";
// compile-time error if uncommented
// s = Nil;
var Nil|String p;
// ok
p = "abcd";
// compile-time error if uncommented
// there is no method 'size' in Nil|String
// (p size) println;
// statement 'cast' checks if the argument is
// not Nil, casting it to the other type.
// Then notNilp has type String
cast notNilp = p {
assert notNilp size == 4;
}
// ok, the type of p is Nil|String
p = Nil;
cast notNilp = p {
assert false;
}
else {
// notNilp is Nil, then this is executed
assert true;
}
p = "a string";
// 'type' can be used instead of 'cast'
type p
case String notNilp { assert true; }
case Nil nilp { assert false; }
var Int|String|Char isc = 0;
isc = 'a';
isc = "A";
// isc has the last value, "A"
type isc
case Int ii { assert false; }
case String ss { assert true; }
case Char cc { assert false; }
// tagged unions. An object must be created
var Union<lenMeter, Double, lenYard, Double> length =
Union<lenMeter, Double, lenYard, Double>();
// use a method whose name is a union tag
// to initialize the object
length lenMeter: 10.0;
// what is inside the union is discovered with 'type'
type length
// use tags as parameter names
case Double lenMeter {
"Len was given in meters: $lenMeter" println
}
case Double lenYard {
"Len was given in yards: $lenYard" println
}
// method 'asInt' of String returns Nil|Int
cast n = "100" asInt {
assert n == 100
}
// the return type is Nil and therefore
// no value needs to be returned. Or just use
// return Nil;
}
// use union types instead of method overloading
// Cyan supports overloading of methods but this
// features will probably be removed
func myprint: Int|String|Char|Double param {
}
// literal tuples, arrays, and maps
func tupleArrayMapTest {
// a literal array
var array = [ 0, 1, 2, 3 ];
assert array[0] == 0;
// use add: to add elements,
array add: 4;
assert array size == 5;
// arrays work like lists of other languages
// elements cannot be added using [ ]
// runtime error if uncommented
// array[5] = 5;
// a literal Tuple with tags f1 and f2
var Tuple<String, Int> livia = [. "Livia", 12 .];
assert livia f1 == "Livia";
assert livia f2 == 12;
// a named literal Tuple
var Tuple<name, String, age, Int> carolina =
[. name = "Carolina", age = 9 .];
assert carolina name == "Carolina";
assert carolina age == 9;
// maps. And a literal map with String keys and Int values
let IMap<String, Int> map = [ "I" -> 1, "V" -> 5,
"X" -> 10, "L" -> 50, "C" -> 100, "D" -> 500,
"M" -> 1000 ];
// scan the keys
for key in map keySet { "key = $key" println }
var String aKey;
// get: returns, in this case, an object of Nil|Int
cast lvalue = map get: "L" {
"L has the value $lvalue" println
}
// array of named literal tuples
var musicList = [ [. genre = "Samba", song = "Pelo Telefone" .],
[. genre = "MPB", song = "Aquarela" .]
];
assert musicList[0] song == "Pelo Telefone";
// is 5 in the array ?
assert 5 in: [ 1, 3, 5 ];
assert [ 1, 3, 5 ] last == 5;
}
// using Java inside Cyan
func javaTest {
// cast Java Integer to Cyan Int
var Int k = Integer(5);
var Integer ki = k; // and vice-versa
/* prototype Int of Cyan used as parameter
to generic classes Set and HashSet of Java
*/
var java.util.Set<Int> iset = java.util.HashSet<Int>();
// 0 is a Cyan Int object. iset refers to a Java class.
iset add: 0;
iset add: 1;
iset add: 2;
var Boolean b;
// casts Java 'boolean' to Cyan 'Boolean'
b = iset contains: 0;
assert b;
b = iset contains: 1;
// Java 'boolean' is not yet cast to Cyan 'Boolean' in
// a macro. Then, 'assert iset contains: 1;' is illegal
assert b;
// cast from java.lang.Boolean to cyan.lang.Boolean
b = iset contains: 2;
assert b;
b = iset contains: -1;
assert !b;
b = iset contains: 4;
assert ! b;
var java.lang.Boolean javaBooleanVar = true;
// casts Java 'Boolean' to Cyan 'Boolean'
if javaBooleanVar {
"This is printed" println;
}
var java.lang.Integer integer = Integer(5);
assert 5 == integer;
}
// type Dyn for gradual typing
func dynTest {
// Dyn is the dynamic type. It is virtual,
// there is no prototype for it. It is supertype
// of every other type
var Dyn dyn = 0;
// it can refer even to Java objects
dyn = Integer(0);
dyn = [ 0, 1, 2 ];
// message passing are checks at runtime only
assert dyn at: 0 == 0;
dyn = 0;
// runtime type error if uncommented
// Int does not have a method 'at: Int'
// assert dyn at: 0 == 0;
var IProgram p = Program;
// using '?fact:', the compiler does not check if
// the variable type has a method 'fact: Int'.
// Without '?', this would result in a compile-time
// error
assert p ?fact: 5 == 120;
var Any any = [ 0, 1, 2 ];
// without '?', there would be a compile-time error
any ?at: 0 ?put: 10;
assert any ?at: 0 == 10;
// reflection at runtime
var String s = "size";
// method 'size' is called at runtime
assert [ 0, 1 ] `s == 2;
var String s1 = "at";
var String s2 = "put";
var Array<Char> array = [ 'a', 'b', 'c' ];
// method 'at:' is called
assert array `s1: 0 == 'a';
// method 'at:put:' is called
array `s1: 1 `s2: 'B';
assert array `s1: 1 == 'B' && array[1] == 'B';
// prints 25, 15, 4, 100
for op in [ "+", "-", "/", "*" ] {
Out println: (20 `op: 5);
}
// fields can be dynamically added to DTuple objects
var Dyn t = DTuple();
t name: "Newton";
t age: 85;
assert t name == "Newton";
assert t age == 85;
}
// In the next method, the parameter types are
// not given. They are considered to be 'Dyn'.
// So, if you want to program as in a dynamically
// typed language, simply do not put types in
// parameters and use 'Dyn' to declare local
// variables and fields
func with: a, b action: c, d {
}
/* assume there is a generic prototype Box:
package main
@concept{*
T has [ func + T -> T ];
! T implements IProgram,
S symbol
// tests could be generated too
*}
object Box<T, S>
func init: T value {
self.value = value
}
func sum: T other -> T =
value + other;
// parameter used as method keyword
func S -> String = #S;
@property T value
end
*/
// generic prototypes
func genericTest {
// ok, Int has method + and it does
// not implement IProgram
// this is checked by metaobject 'concept' of Box --- see above
let Box<Int, asInt> bi = Box<Int, asInt>(0);
// ok, Double has method + and it does
// not implement IProgram
let Box<Double, asDouble> bd = Box<Double, asDouble>(0.0);
assert bd asDouble == "asDouble";
// error if uncommented: Program
// implements IProgram and it does not
// have a method "+ Program -> Program"
// let Box<Program, doesNotWork> bp;
// error if uncommented: the second parameter
// is not a symbol, it is a type
// let Box<Int, Char> boxic;
/*
the parameter of a generic prototype may
be an identifier, as the second parameter
to Box<Int, asInt>.
The parameter of a generic prototype may
be used as type, after # as in #T, as a
parameter to a metaobject annotation, and
as a method keyword
*/
}
// exceptions in Cyan are made using message passings
func exceptionTest {
var Int n = -1;
// try-catch is in fact a message send
{
if n < 0 {
// an exception is thrown by sending
// message 'throw:' to self
// Exceptions must inherit from cyan.lang.CyException
// ExceptionStr is in package cyan.lang
throw: ExceptionStr("n < 0");
}
if n == 0 {
// use the prototype as the
// exception object
throw: ExceptionExit;
}
}
catch: { (: ExceptionStr e :)
"Exception ExceptionStr was thrown" println
}
catch: { (: ExceptionExit e :)
"Exception ExceptionExit was thrown" println
}
; // end of the message send
// exceptions can be grouped into 'catch objects'
// thus reusing the exception treatment
// CatchStr and CatchAll are in cyan.lang, which is always
// inherited. CatchStr just prints the message.
// CatchAll does nothing.
{
if n < 0 {
throw: ExceptionStr("n < 0");
}
if n == 0 { throw: ExceptionExit; }
}
catch: CatchStr
catch: CatchAll;
// This example demonstrates the interactions
// between the exception handling system and
// generic prototypes.
// if an exception of ExceptionStr or ExceptionCast
// is thrown, exit the program
{
"no exception will be thrown" println
} catch: CatchExit<ExceptionStr, ExceptionCast>();
// after the exception is thrown, the 'retry:'
// function is called to correct the problem.
{
if n < 0 { throw: ExceptionStr("n < 0"); }
}
catch: CatchAll
retry: { n = 1 };
}
// There is a Cyan interpreter in cyan.reflect.CyanInterpreter
func interpreterTest {
// Cyan interpreter for statements
// self is given using 'self:'
assert CyanInterpreter
eval: "return self + 2*self"
self: 3
== 9;
var Dyn aa = 1;
var Dyn bb = 5;
// a list of variables is given using
// 'varList:'. The value type should be
// Dyn
assert CyanInterpreter
eval: "return self + aa + 2*bb"
self: 3
varList: [ [. "aa", aa .],
[. "bb", bb .] ]
== 14;
var Any|Nil anyNil;
anyNil = CyanInterpreter eval: """
var sum = 0;
for n in 1..10 {
sum = sum + n;
}
return sum
""";
type anyNil
case Int value {
assert value == 55;
"1 + 2 + ... 10 = $value" println
}
}
func fact: Int n -> Int {
if n <= 0 { return 1 }
else {
return n*(fact: n-1)
}
}
// execution will start here because
// method 'run' of 'Program' is the default
// starting method
@onOverride{*
/* this message is printed at compile-time
whenever 'run' is overrided in a
subprototype
*/
"Method run is being overridden" println
*}
func run {
"starting " println;
// This annotation will create unary messages
// for all unary methods ending with 'Test'
// with 'self' as receiver. Like 'self exceptionTest;'
@callTestMethods;
}
end
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