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# Linguistic anthropology - Wikipedia

**Linguistic anthropology** is the [interdisciplinary][1] study of how language influences social life. It is a branch of [anthropology][2] that originated from the endeavor to document [endangered languages][3], and has grown over the past century to encompass most aspects of [language structure][4] and use.[[1]][5]

Linguistic anthropology explores how language shapes communication, forms social identity and group membership, organizes large-scale cultural beliefs and ideologies, and develops a common cultural representation of natural and social worlds.[[2]][6]

## Historical development[[edit][7]]

As [Alessandro Duranti][8] has noted, three [paradigms][9] have emerged over the history of the subdiscipline: the first, now known as "[anthropological linguistics][10]," focuses on the documentation of languages; the second, known as "linguistic anthropology," engages in theoretical studies of language use; the third, developed over the past two or three decades, studies questions related to other subfields of anthropology with the tools of linguistic inquiry. Though they developed sequentially, all three paradigms are still practised today.[[3]][11]

### Anthropological linguistics[[edit][12]]

The first paradigm was originally called [linguistics][13], but as it and its surrounding fields of study matured, it came to be called anthropological linguistics. The field was devoted to themes unique to the subdiscipline: linguistic documentation of [languages][14] that were then seen as doomed to [extinction][15] (they were the languages of native North America on which the first members of the subdiscipline focused). The themes included:

* Grammatical description,
* Typological [classification][16] (see [typology][17]), and
* The unresolved issue of [linguistic relativity][18] (associated with [Edward Sapir][19] and [Benjamin Lee Whorf][20] but actually brought to American linguistics by [Franz Boas][21] working within a theoretical framework going back to European thinkers from [Vico][22] to [Herder][23] to [Humboldt][24]). The so-called Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis is perhaps a misnomer insofar as the approach to science taken by these two differs from the positivist, hypothesis-driven model of science. In any case, it was [Harry Hoijer][25] (Sapir's student) who coined the term.[[4]][26]

Humboldt's philosophy holds an important place in recent work produced in Germany, France, and elsewhere in Europe.[[5]][27][[6]][28]

### Linguistic anthropology[[edit][29]]

[Dell Hymes][30] was largely responsible for launching the second paradigm, which fixed the name _linguistic anthropology_ in the 1960s, though he also coined the term [_ethnography][31] of speaking_ (or _ethnography of [communication][32]_) to describe the agenda he envisioned for the field. It would involve taking advantage of new developments in technology, including new forms of mechanical recording.

A new [unit of analysis][33] was also introduced by Hymes. Whereas the first paradigm focused on ostensibly distinct "languages" ([scare quotes][34] indicate that contemporary linguistic anthropologists treat the concept of "a language" as an [ideal][35] construction that covers up complexities within and across so-called linguistic boundaries), the unit of analysis in the second paradigm was new, the "speech event." (The speech event is an event defined by the speech occurring in it, like a lecture, so a dinner is not a speech event, but a speech situation, a situation in which speech may or may not occur.) Much attention was devoted to speech events in which performers were held accountable for the form of their linguistic performance as such.[[7]][36][[8]][37]

Hymes also pioneered a linguistic anthropological approach to [ethnopoetics][38].

Hymes had hoped to link linguistic anthropology more closely with the mother discipline. The name certainly stresses that the primary identity is with anthropology, whereas "anthropological linguistics" conveys a sense that the primary identity of _its_ practitioners was with linguistics, which is a separate academic discipline on most university campuses today (not in the days of Boas and Sapir). However, Hymes' ambition in a sense backfired; the second paradigm in fact marked a further distancing of the subdiscipline from the rest of anthropology.

### Anthropological issues studied via linguistic methods and data[[edit][39]]

In the third paradigm, which has emerged since the late 1980s, instead of continuing to pursue agendas that come from a discipline alien to anthropology, linguistic anthropologists have systematically addressed themselves to problems posed by the larger discipline of anthropology but by using linguistic data and methods. Popular areas of study in this third paradigm include investigations of social identities, broadly shared ideologies, and the construction and uses of [narrative][40] in interaction among individuals and groups.[[3]][11]

## Areas of interest[[edit][41]]

Contemporary linguistic anthropology continues research in all three of the paradigms described above: social identities, broadly shared ideologies, and the construction and uses of narrative in interaction among individuals and groups. Several areas related to the third paradigm, the study of anthropological issues, are particularly rich areas of study for current linguistic anthropologists.

### Identity[[edit][42]]

A great deal of work in linguistic anthropology investigates questions of sociocultural [identity][43] linguistically. Linguistic anthropologist [Don Kulick][44] has done so in relation to identity, for example, in a series of settings, first in a village called Gapun in Papua New Guinea.[[9]][45] He explored how the use of two languages with and around children in Gapun village: the traditional language ([Taiap][46]), not spoken anywhere but in their own village and thus primordially "indexical" of Gapuner identity, and [Tok Pisin][47], the widely circulating official language of New Guinea. (Linguistic anthropologists use "indexical" to mean indicative, but some indexical signs create their indexical meanings on the spot.[[10]][48]) To speak the [Taiap language][46] is associated with one identity: not only local but "Backward" and also an identity based on the display of *hed* (personal autonomy). To speak Tok Pisin is to [index][49] a modern, Christian (Catholic) identity, based not on *hed* but on *save*, an identity linked with the will and the skill to cooperate. In later work, Kulick demonstrates that certain loud speech performances in Brazil called *um escândalo*, Brazilian _travesti_ (roughly, 'transvestite') sex workers shame clients. The travesti community, the argument goes, ends up at least making a powerful attempt to transcend the shame the larger Brazilian public might try to foist off on them, again by loud public discourse and other modes of [performance][50].[[11]][51]

### Socialization[[edit][52]]

In a series of studies, linguistic anthropologists [Elinor Ochs][53] and [Bambi Schieffelin][54] addressed the anthropological topic of [socialization][55] (the process by which infants, children, and foreigners become members of a community, learning to participate in its culture), using linguistic and other ethnographic methods.[[12]][56] They discovered that the processes of [enculturation][57] and socialization do not occur apart from the process of [language acquisition][58], but that children acquire language and culture together in what amounts to an integrated process. Ochs and Schieffelin demonstrated that [baby talk][59] is not [universal][60], that the direction of adaptation (whether the child is made to adapt to the ongoing situation of speech around it or vice versa) was a variable that correlated, for example, with the direction it was held vis-à-vis a caregiver's body. In many societies caregivers hold a child facing outward so as to orient it to a network of kin whom it must learn to recognize early in life.

Ochs and Schieffelin demonstrated that members of all societies socialize children both _to_ and _through_ the use of language. Ochs and Schieffelin uncovered how, through naturally occurring stories told during dinners in white [middle class][61] households in [Southern California][62], both mothers and fathers participated in replicating [male dominance][63] (the "father knows best" syndrome) by the distribution of participant roles such as protagonist (often a child but sometimes mother and almost never the father) and "problematizer" (often the father, who raised uncomfortable questions or challenged the competence of the protagonist). When mothers collaborated with children to get their stories told, they unwittingly set themselves up to be subject to this process.

Schieffelin's more recent research has uncovered the socializing role of [pastors][64] and other fairly new Bosavi converts in the [Southern Highlands, Papua New Guinea][65] community she studies.[[13]][66][[14]][67][[15]][68][[16]][69] Pastors have introduced new ways of conveying knowledge, new linguistic [epistemic][70] markers[[13]][66]—and new ways of speaking about time.[[15]][68] And they have struggled with and largely resisted those parts of the Bible that speak of being able to know the inner states of others (e.g. the [gospel of Mark][71], chapter 2, verses 6-8).[[16]][69]

### Ideologies[[edit][72]]

In a third example of the current (third) paradigm, since [Roman Jakobson][73]'s student [Michael Silverstein][74] opened the way, there has been an efflorescence of work done by linguistic anthropologists on the major anthropological theme of [ideologies][75],[[17]][76]—in this case "[language ideologies][77]", sometimes defined as "shared bodies of [commonsense][78] notions about the nature of language in the world."[[18]][79] Silverstein has demonstrated that these ideologies are not mere [false consciousness][80] but actually influence the evolution of linguistic structures, including the dropping of "[thee][81]" and "[thou][82]" from everyday [English][83] usage.[[19]][84] Woolard, in her overview of "[code switching][85]", or the systematic practice of alternating linguistic varieties within a conversation or even a single utterance, finds the underlying question anthropologists ask of the practice—Why do they do that?—reflects a dominant linguistic ideology. It is the ideology that people should "really" be monoglot and efficiently targeted toward referential clarity rather than diverting themselves with the messiness of multiple varieties in play at a single time.[[20]][86]

Much research on linguistic ideologies probes subtler influences on language, such as the pull exerted on Tewa, a Kiowa-Tanoan language spoken in certain New Mexican pueblos and on the Hopi Reservation in Arizona, by "kiva speech", discussed in the next section.[[21]][87]

Other linguists have carried out research in the areas of [language contact][88], [language endangerment][89], and '[English as a global language][90]'. For instance, Indian linguist [Braj Kachru][91] investigated local varieties of English in South Asia, the ways in which [English functions as a lingua franca][92] among multicultural groups in India.[[22]][93] British linguist David Crystal has contributed to investigations of [language death][94] attention to the effects of cultural assimilation resulting in the spread of one dominant language in situations of colonialism.[[23]][95]

### Social space[[edit][96]]

In a final example of this third paradigm, a group of linguistic anthropologists have done very creative work on the idea of social space. Duranti published a groundbreaking article on [Samoan][97] [greetings][98] and their use and transformation of social space.[[24]][99] Before that, Indonesianist Joseph Errington, making use of earlier work by Indonesianists not necessarily concerned with language issues per se, brought linguistic anthropological methods (and [semiotic][100] theory) to bear on the notion of the exemplary center, the center of political and ritual power from which emanated exemplary behavior.[[25]][101] Errington demonstrated how the [Javanese][102] [*priyayi][103]*, whose ancestors served at the Javanese royal courts, became emissaries, so to speak, long after those courts had ceased to exist, representing throughout Java the highest example of "refined speech." The work of Joel Kuipers develops this theme vis-a-vis the island of [Sumba][104], [Indonesia][105]. And, even though it pertains to [Tewa][106] Indians in [Arizona][107] rather than Indonesians, [Paul Kroskrity][108]'s argument that speech forms originating in the Tewa [kiva][109] (or underground ceremonial space) forms the dominant model for all Tewa speech can be seen as a direct parallel.

Silverstein tries to find the maximum theoretical significance and applicability in this idea of exemplary centers. He feels, in fact, that the exemplary center idea is one of linguistic anthropology's three most important findings. He generalizes the notion thus, arguing "there are wider-scale institutional 'orders of interactionality,' historically contingent yet structured. Within such large-scale, macrosocial orders, in-effect [ritual][110] centers of [semiosis][111] come to exert a structuring, [value][112]-conferring influence on any particular event of discursive [interaction][113] with respect to the meanings and significance of the verbal and other semiotic forms used in it."[[26]][114] Current approaches to such classic anthropological topics as ritual by linguistic anthropologists emphasize not static linguistic structures but the unfolding in realtime of a "'hypertrophic' set of parallel orders of [iconicity][115] and indexicality that seem to cause the ritual to create its own sacred space through what appears, often, to be the [magic][116] of textual and nontextual metricalizations, synchronized."[[26]][114][[27]][117]

## See also[[edit][118]]

## References[[edit][119]]

1. [**^][120]** Duranti, Alessandro (ed.), 2004: [_Companion to Linguistic Anthropology_][121], Malden, MA: Blackwell.
2. [**^][122]** Society for Linguistic Anthropology. n.d. [About the Society for Linguistic Anthropology][123] (accessed 7 July 2010).
3. ^ [_**a**_][124] [_**b**_][125] Duranti, Alessandro. 2003. Language as Culture in U.S. Anthropology: Three Paradigms. _Current Anthropology_ 44(3):323-348.
4. [**^][126]** Hoijer, Harry. 1954. "The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis," in Language in culture: Conference on the interrelations of language and other aspects of culture. Edited by H. Hoijer, pp. 92–105. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
    * Hill, Jane, and Bruce Mannheim. 1992. "Language and Worldview." Annual Reviews in Anthropology 21:381-406.
5. [**^][127]** Trabant, Jürgen (2012). _Weltansichten: Wilhelm von Humboldts Sprachprojekt_. Verlag C. H. Beck. 
6. [**^][128]** Underhill, James W. (2009). _Humboldt, Language and Worldview_. Edinburgh University Press. 
7. [**^][129]** Bauman, Richard. 1977. [Verbal Art as Performance.][130] _American Anthropologist_ 77:290-311.
8. [**^][131]** Hymes, Dell. 1981 [1975] Breakthrough into Performance. In _In Vain I Tried to Tell You: Essays in Native American Ethnopoetics_. D. Hymes, ed. Pp. 79-141. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
9. [**^][132]** Kulick, Don. 1992. _Language Shift and Cultural Reproduction: Socialization, Self and Syncretism in a Papua New Guinea Village_. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10. [**^][133]** Silverstein, Michael. 1976. Shifters, Linguistic Categories, and Cultural Description. In _Meaning in Anthropology_. K. Basso and H.A. Selby, eds. Pp. 11-56. Albuquerque: School of American Research, University of New Mexico Press.
11. [**^][134]** Kulick, Don, and Charles H. Klein. 2003. Scandalous Acts: The Politics of Shame among Brazilian Travesti Prostitutes. In _Recognition Struggles and Social Movements: Contested Identities, Agency and Power_. B. Hobson, ed. Pp. 215-238. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
12. [**^][135]** Ochs, Elinor. 1988. _Culture and language development: Language acquisition and language socialization in a Samoan village_. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
    * Ochs, Elinor, and Bambi Schieffelin. 1984. Language Acquisition and Socialization: Three Developmental Stories and Their Implications. In _Culture Theory: Essays on Mind, Self, and Emotion_. R. Shweder and R.A. LeVine, eds. Pp. 276-320. New York: Cambridge University.
    * Ochs, Elinor, and Carolyn Taylor. 2001. The "Father Knows Best" Dynamic in Dinnertime Narratives. In _Linguistic Anthropology: A Reader_. A. Duranti, ed. Pp. 431-449. Oxford. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
    * Schieffelin, Bambi B. 1990. _The Give and Take of Everyday Life: Language Socialization of Kaluli Children_. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
13. ^ _**[a**_][136] _**[b**_][137] Schieffelin, Bambi B. 1995. Creating evidence: Making sense of written words in Bosavi. _Pragmatics_ 5(2):225-244.
14. **[^][138]** Schieffelin, Bambi B. 2000. Introducing Kaluli Literacy: A Chronology of Influences. In _Regimes of Language_. P. Kroskrity, ed. Pp. 293-327. Santa Fe: School of American Research Press.
15. ^ _**[a**_][139] _**[b**_][140] Schieffelin, Bambi B. 2002. Marking time: The dichotomizing discourse of multiple temporalities. _Current Anthropology_ 43(Supplement):S5-17.
16. ^ _**[a**_][141] _**[b**_][142] Schieffelin, Bambi B. 2006. PLENARY ADDRESS: Found in translating: Reflexive language across time and texts in Bosavi, PNG. Twelve Annual Conference on Language, Interaction, and Culture, University of California, Los Angeles, 2006.
17. **[^][143]** Silverstein, Michael. 1979. Language Structure and Linguistic Ideology. In _The Elements: A Parasession on Linguistic Units and Levels_. R. Cline, W. Hanks, and C. Hofbauer, eds. Pp. 193-247. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society.
18. **[^][144]** Rumsey, Alan. 1990. [Word, meaning, and linguistic ideology.][145] _American Anthropologist_ 92(2):346-361.
19. **[^][146]** Silverstein, Michael. 1985. Language and the Culture of Gender: At the Intersection of Structure, Usage, and Ideology. In _Semiotic Mediation: Sociocultural and Psychological Perspectives_. E. Mertz and R. Parmentier, eds. Pp. 219-259. Orlando: Academic Press.
20. **[^][147]** Woolard, Kathryn A. 2004. Codeswitching. In _Companion to Linguistic Anthropology_. A. Duranti, ed. Pp. 73-94. Malden: Blackwell.
21. **[^][148]** Kroskrity, Paul V. 1998. Arizona Tewa Kiva Speech as a Manifestation of Linguistic Ideology. In _Language ideologies: Practice and theory_. B.B. Schieffelin, K.A. Woolard, and P. Kroskrity, eds. Pp. 103-122. New York: Oxford University Press.
22. **[^][149]** Braj B. Kachru (2005). _[Asian Englishes: Beyond the Canon_][150]. Hong Kong University Press. [ISBN][151] [978-962-209-665-3][152]. 
23. **[^][153]** David Crystal (2014). _[Language Death_][154]. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN][151] [978-1-107-43181-2][155]. 
24. **[^][156]** Duranti, Alessandro. 1992. [Language and Bodies in Social Space: Samoan Greetings.][157] _American Anthropologist_ 94:657-691.
25. **[^][158]** Errington, J. Joseph. 1988. _Structure and Style in Javanese: A Semiotic View of Linguistic Etiquette_. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
26. ^ _**[a**_][159] _**[b**_][160] Silverstein, Michael. 2004. "Cultural" Concepts and the Language-Culture Nexus. _Current Anthropology_ 45(5):621-652.
27. **[^][161]** Wilce, James M. 2006. Magical Laments and Anthropological Reflections: The Production and Circulation of Anthropological Text as Ritual Activity. _Current Anthropology_. 47(6):891-914.

## Further reading[[edit][162]]

* Ahearn, Laura M. 2011. _Living Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology_. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
* Blount, Ben G. ed. 1995. _Language, Culture, and Society: A Book of Readings_. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland.
* Bonvillain, Nancy. 1993. _Language, culture, and communication: The meaning of messages_. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
* Brenneis, Donald; and Ronald K. S. Macaulay. 1996. _The matrix of language: Contemporary linguistic anthropology_. Boulder: Westview.
* Duranti, Alessandro. 1997. _Linguistic Anthropology_. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Duranti, Alessandro. ed. 2001. _Linguistic Anthropology: A Reader_. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
* Giglioli, Pier Paolo. 1972. _Language and social context: Selected readings_. Middlesex: Penguin Books.
* Salzmann, Zdenek, James Stanlaw and Nobuko Adachi. 2012. _Language, culture, & society_. Westview Press.

## External links[[edit][163]]

Downloadable publications of authors cited in the article

The Jurgen Trabant Wilhelm von Humboldt Lectures (7hrs)

[1]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinarity "Interdisciplinarity"
[2]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology "Anthropology"
[3]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_language "Endangered language"
[4]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_structure "Language structure"
[5]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-Duranti2004-1
[6]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-SLA-2
[7]: /w/index.php?title=Linguistic_anthropology&action=edit§ion=1 "Edit section: Historical development"
[8]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Duranti "Alessandro Duranti"
[9]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigm "Paradigm"
[10]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics "Anthropological linguistics"
[11]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-Duranti2003-3
[12]: /w/index.php?title=Linguistic_anthropology&action=edit§ion=2 "Edit section: Anthropological linguistics"
[13]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics "Linguistics"
[14]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language "Language"
[15]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction "Extinction"
[16]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorization "Categorization"
[17]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_typology "Linguistic typology"
[18]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity "Linguistic relativity"
[19]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir "Edward Sapir"
[20]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf "Benjamin Lee Whorf"
[21]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Boas "Franz Boas"
[22]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giambattista_Vico "Giambattista Vico"
[23]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder "Johann Gottfried Herder"
[24]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt "Wilhelm von Humboldt"
[25]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Hoijer "Harry Hoijer"
[26]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-4
[27]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-5
[28]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-6
[29]: /w/index.php?title=Linguistic_anthropology&action=edit§ion=3 "Edit section: Linguistic anthropology"
[30]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Hymes "Dell Hymes"
[31]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnography "Ethnography"
[32]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication "Communication"
[33]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_of_analysis "Unit of analysis"
[34]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scare_quotes "Scare quotes"
[35]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism "Idealism"
[36]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-Bauman-7
[37]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-Hymes1981-8
[38]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnopoetics "Ethnopoetics"
[39]: /w/index.php?title=Linguistic_anthropology&action=edit§ion=4 "Edit section: Anthropological issues studied via linguistic methods and data"
[40]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative "Narrative"
[41]: /w/index.php?title=Linguistic_anthropology&action=edit§ion=5 "Edit section: Areas of interest"
[42]: /w/index.php?title=Linguistic_anthropology&action=edit§ion=6 "Edit section: Identity"
[43]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_identity "Cultural identity"
[44]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Kulick "Don Kulick"
[45]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-Kulick1992-9
[46]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiap_language "Taiap language"
[47]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tok_Pisin "Tok Pisin"
[48]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-Silverstein1976-10
[49]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indexicality "Indexicality"
[50]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance "Performance"
[51]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-Kulick%26amp%3BKlein-11
[52]: /w/index.php?title=Linguistic_anthropology&action=edit§ion=7 "Edit section: Socialization"
[53]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elinor_Ochs "Elinor Ochs"
[54]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bambi_Schieffelin "Bambi Schieffelin"
[55]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialization "Socialization"
[56]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-12
[57]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enculturation "Enculturation"
[58]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_acquisition "Language acquisition"
[59]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby_talk "Baby talk"
[60]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_proposition "Universal proposition"
[61]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_class "Middle class"
[62]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_California "Southern California"
[63]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarchy "Patriarchy"
[64]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastor "Pastor"
[65]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Highlands%2C_Papua_New_Guinea "Southern Highlands, Papua New Guinea"
[66]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-Schieffelin1995-13
[67]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-14
[68]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-Schieffelin2002-15
[69]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-Schieffelin2006-16
[70]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemic "Epistemic"
[71]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Mark "Gospel of Mark"
[72]: /w/index.php?title=Linguistic_anthropology&action=edit§ion=8 "Edit section: Ideologies"
[73]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Jakobson "Roman Jakobson"
[74]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Silverstein "Michael Silverstein"
[75]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideologies "Ideologies"
[76]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-Silverstein1979-17
[77]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_ideology "Language ideology"
[78]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonsense "Commonsense"
[79]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-Rumsey-18
[80]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_consciousness "False consciousness"
[81]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thee "Thee"
[82]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thou "Thou"
[83]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language "English language"
[84]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-19
[85]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-switching "Code-switching"
[86]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-20
[87]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-21
[88]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_contact "Language contact"
[89]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_endangerment "Language endangerment"
[90]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_as_a_global_language "English as a global language"
[91]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braj_Kachru "Braj Kachru"
[92]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_as_a_lingua_franca "English as a lingua franca"
[93]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-22
[94]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_death "Language death"
[95]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-23
[96]: /w/index.php?title=Linguistic_anthropology&action=edit§ion=9 "Edit section: Social space"
[97]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samoan_language "Samoan language"
[98]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greetings "Greetings"
[99]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-Duranti1992-24
[100]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotic "Semiotic"
[101]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-25
[102]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java "Java"
[103]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priyayi "Priyayi"
[104]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumba "Sumba"
[105]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia"
[106]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tewa_people "Tewa people"
[107]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona "Arizona"
[108]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Kroskrity "Paul Kroskrity"
[109]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiva "Kiva"
[110]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritual "Ritual"
[111]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiosis "Semiosis"
[112]: /wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural) "Value (personal and cultural)"
[113]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_interaction "Social interaction"
[114]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-Silverstein2004-26
[115]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconicity "Iconicity"
[116]: /wiki/Magic_(paranormal) "Magic (paranormal)"
[117]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_note-27
[118]: /w/index.php?title=Linguistic_anthropology&action=edit§ion=10 "Edit section: See also"
[119]: /w/index.php?title=Linguistic_anthropology&action=edit§ion=11 "Edit section: References"
[120]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Duranti2004_1-0
[121]: https://books.google.com/books?id=3jMmmQjssaEC
[122]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-SLA_2-0
[123]: http://www.linguisticanthropology.org/about/
[124]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Duranti2003_3-0
[125]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Duranti2003_3-1
[126]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-4
[127]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-5
[128]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-6
[129]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Bauman_7-0
[130]: https://dx.doi.org/10.1525/aa.1975.77.2.02a00030
[131]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Hymes1981_8-0
[132]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Kulick1992_9-0
[133]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Silverstein1976_10-0
[134]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Kulick%26amp%3BKlein_11-0
[135]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-12
[136]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Schieffelin1995_13-0
[137]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Schieffelin1995_13-1
[138]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-14
[139]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Schieffelin2002_15-0
[140]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Schieffelin2002_15-1
[141]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Schieffelin2006_16-0
[142]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Schieffelin2006_16-1
[143]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Silverstein1979_17-0
[144]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Rumsey_18-0
[145]: https://dx.doi.org/10.1525/aa.1990.92.2.02a00060
[146]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-19
[147]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-20
[148]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-21
[149]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-22
[150]: https://books.google.com/books?id=TTW-AQAAQBAJ&pg=PR7
[151]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number"
[152]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special%3ABookSources/978-962-209-665-3 "Special:BookSources/978-962-209-665-3"
[153]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-23
[154]: https://books.google.com/books?id=_8K0BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA50
[155]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special%3ABookSources/978-1-107-43181-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-107-43181-2"
[156]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Duranti1992_24-0
[157]: https://dx.doi.org/10.1525/aa.1992.94.3.02a00070
[158]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-25
[159]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Silverstein2004_26-0
[160]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-Silverstein2004_26-1
[161]: https://en.wikipedia.org#cite_ref-27
[162]: /w/index.php?title=Linguistic_anthropology&action=edit§ion=12 "Edit section: Further reading"
[163]: /w/index.php?title=Linguistic_anthropology&action=edit§ion=13 "Edit section: External links"