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Learning Go in RFC 7749 format
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Go Working Group R. Gieben | |
Internet-Draft August 25, 2018 | |
Intended status: Informational | |
Expires: February 26, 2019 | |
Learning Go | |
draft-learning-go-00 | |
Status of This Memo | |
This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the | |
provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79. | |
Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering | |
Task Force (IETF). Note that other groups may also distribute | |
working documents as Internet-Drafts. The list of current Internet- | |
Drafts is at https://datatracker.ietf.org/drafts/current/. | |
Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months | |
and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any | |
time. It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference | |
material or to cite them other than as "work in progress." | |
This Internet-Draft will expire on February 26, 2019. | |
Copyright Notice | |
Copyright (c) 2018 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the | |
document authors. All rights reserved. | |
This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal | |
Provisions Relating to IETF Documents | |
(https://trustee.ietf.org/license-info) in effect on the date of | |
publication of this document. Please review these documents | |
carefully, as they describe your rights and restrictions with respect | |
to this document. Code Components extracted from this document must | |
include Simplified BSD License text as described in Section 4.e of | |
the Trust Legal Provisions and are provided without warranty as | |
described in the Simplified BSD License. | |
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Table of Contents | |
1. Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 | |
2. Learning Go . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 | |
3. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 | |
3.1. How to Read this Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 | |
3.2. Official Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 | |
4. Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 | |
4.1. Hello World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 | |
4.2. Compiling and Running Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 | |
4.3. Variables, Types and Keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 | |
4.3.1. Boolean Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 | |
4.3.2. Numerical Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 | |
4.3.3. Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 | |
4.3.4. Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 | |
4.3.5. Runes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 | |
4.3.6. Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 | |
4.3.7. Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 | |
4.4. Operators and Built-in Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 | |
4.5. Go Keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 | |
4.6. Control Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 | |
4.6.1. If-Else . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 | |
4.6.2. Goto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 | |
4.6.3. For . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 | |
4.6.4. Break and Continue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 | |
4.6.5. Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 | |
4.6.6. Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 | |
4.7. Built-in Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 | |
4.8. Arrays, Slices, and Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 | |
4.8.1. Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 | |
4.8.2. Slices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 | |
4.8.3. Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 | |
4.9. Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 | |
4.9.1. For-loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 | |
4.9.2. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 | |
4.9.3. Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 | |
4.9.4. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 | |
4.9.5. FizzBuzz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 | |
4.9.6. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 | |
5. Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 | |
5.1. Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 | |
5.2. Functions as values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 | |
5.3. Callbacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 | |
5.4. Deferred Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 | |
5.5. Variadic Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 | |
5.6. Panic and recovering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 | |
5.7. Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 | |
5.7.1. Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 | |
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5.7.2. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 | |
5.7.3. Bubble sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 | |
5.7.4. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 | |
5.7.5. For-loop II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 | |
5.7.6. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 | |
5.7.7. Fibonacci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 | |
5.7.8. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 | |
5.7.9. Var args . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 | |
5.7.10. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 | |
5.7.11. Functions that return functions . . . . . . . . . . . 39 | |
5.7.12. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 | |
5.7.13. Maximum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 | |
5.7.14. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 | |
5.7.15. Map function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 | |
5.7.16. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 | |
5.7.17. Stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 | |
5.7.18. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 | |
6. Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 | |
6.1. Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 | |
6.2. Documenting packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 | |
6.3. Testing packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 | |
6.4. Useful packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 | |
6.5. Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 | |
6.5.1. Stack as package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 | |
6.5.2. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 | |
6.5.3. Calculator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 | |
6.5.4. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 | |
7. Beyond the basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 | |
7.1. Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 | |
7.1.1. Allocation with new . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 | |
7.1.2. Allocation with make . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 | |
7.1.3. Constructors and composite literals . . . . . . . . . 56 | |
7.2. Defining your own types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 | |
7.2.1. More on structure fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 | |
7.2.2. Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 | |
7.3. Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 | |
7.3.1. User defined types and conversions . . . . . . . . . 61 | |
7.4. Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 | |
7.4.1. Map function with interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 | |
7.4.2. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 | |
7.4.3. Pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 | |
7.4.4. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 | |
7.4.5. Linked List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 | |
7.4.6. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 | |
7.4.7. Cat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 | |
7.4.8. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 | |
7.4.9. Method calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 | |
7.4.10. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 | |
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8. Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 | |
8.1. Which is what? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 | |
8.2. Empty interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 | |
8.3. Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 | |
8.4. Methods on interface types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 | |
8.5. Interface names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 | |
8.6. A sorting example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 | |
8.7. Listing interfaces in interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 | |
8.8. Introspection and reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 | |
8.9. Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 | |
8.9.1. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 | |
8.9.2. Pointers and reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 | |
8.9.3. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 | |
9. Concurrency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 | |
9.1. Make it run in parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 | |
9.2. More on channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 | |
9.3. Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 | |
9.3.1. Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 | |
9.3.2. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 | |
9.3.3. Fibonacci II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 | |
9.3.4. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 | |
10. Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 | |
10.1. io.Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 | |
10.2. Some examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 | |
10.3. Command line arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 | |
10.4. Executing commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 | |
10.5. Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 | |
10.6. Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 | |
10.6.1. Finger daemon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 | |
10.6.2. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 | |
10.6.3. Echo server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 | |
10.6.4. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 | |
10.6.5. Word and Letter Count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 | |
10.6.6. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 | |
10.6.7. Uniq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 | |
10.6.8. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 | |
10.6.9. Quine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 | |
10.6.10. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 | |
10.6.11. Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 | |
10.6.12. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 | |
10.6.13. Number cruncher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 | |
10.6.14. Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 | |
11. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 | |
11.1. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 | |
11.2. URIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 | |
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 | |
Author's Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 | |
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1. Preface | |
The source of this book [1] is written in mmark [2] and is converted | |
from the original LaTeX source [3]. | |
_All example code used in this book is hereby licensed under the | |
Apache License version 2.0._ | |
This work is licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial- | |
ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this license, | |
visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ [4] or | |
send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, | |
San Francisco, California, 94105, USA. | |
The following people made large or small contributions to earlier | |
versions of this book: | |
Adam J. Gray, Alexander Katasonov, Alexey Chernenkov, Alex Sychev, | |
Andrea Spadaccini, Andrey Mirtchovski, Anthony Magro, Babu Sreekanth, | |
Ben Bullock, Bob Cunningham, Brian Fallik, Cecil New, Cobold, Damian | |
Gryski, Daniele Pala, Dan Kortschak, David Otton, Fabian Becker, | |
Filip Zaludek, Hadi Amiri, Haiping Fan, Iaroslav Tymchenko, Jaap | |
Akkerhuis, JC van Winkel, Jeroen Bulten, Jinpu Hu, John Shahid, | |
Jonathan Kans, Joshua Stein, Makoto Inoue, Marco Ynema, Mayuresh | |
Kathe, Mem, Michael Stapelberg, Nicolas Kaiser, Olexandr Shalakhin, | |
Paulo Pinto, Peter Kleiweg, Philipp Schmidt, Robert Johnson, Russel | |
Winder, Simoc, Sonia Keys, Stefan Schroeder, Thomas Kapplet, T.J. | |
Yang, Uriel"\dagger", Vrai Stacey, Xing Xing. | |
"Learning Go" has been translated into (note that this used the | |
original LaTeX source). | |
o Chinese, by Xing Xing, | |
这里是中文译本: | |
http://www.mikespook.com/learning-go/ [5] | |
I hope this book is useful. | |
Miek Gieben, London, 2015. | |
This book still sees development, small incremental improvements | |
trickle in from Github. | |
Miek Gieben, London, 2017. | |
Learning Go's source has been rewritten in mmark2 [6], but did not | |
see any other changes. | |
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Miek Gieben, London, 2018. | |
2. Learning Go | |
3. Introduction | |
Is Go an object-oriented language? Yes and no. | |
Frequently asked questions, Go Authors | |
The Go programming language is an open source project language to | |
make programmers more productive. | |
According to the website [go_web] "Go is expressive, concise, clean, | |
and efficient". And indeed it is. My initial interest was piqued | |
when I read early announcements about this new language that had | |
built-in concurreny and a C-like syntax (Erlang also has built-in | |
concurrency, but I could never get used to its syntax). Go is a | |
compiled statically typed language that feels like a dynamically | |
typed, interpreted language. My go to (scripting!) language Perl has | |
taken a back seat now that Go is around. | |
The unique Go language is defined by these principles: | |
Clean and Simple | |
Go strives to keep things small and beautiful. You should be able | |
to do a lot in only a few lines of code. | |
Concurrent | |
Go makes it easy to "fire off" functions to be run as _very_ | |
lightweight threads. These threads are called goroutines in Go. | |
Channels | |
Communication with these goroutines is done, either via shared | |
state or via channels [csp]. | |
Fast | |
Compilation is fast and execution is fast. The aim is to be as | |
fast as C. Compilation time is measured in seconds. | |
Safe | |
Explicit casting and strict rules when converting one type to | |
another. Go has garbage collection. No more "free()" in Go: the | |
language takes care of this. | |
Standard format | |
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A Go program can be formatted in (almost) any way the programmers | |
want, but an official format exists. The rule is very simple: The | |
output of the filter "gofmt" _is the officially endorsed format_. | |
Postfix types | |
Types are given _after_ the variable name, thus "var a int", | |
instead of "int a". | |
UTF-8 | |
UTF-8 is everywhere, in strings _and_ in the program code. | |
Finally you can use "\Phi = \Phi + 1" in your source code. | |
Open Source | |
The Go license is completely open source. | |
Fun | |
Programming with Go should be fun! | |
As I mentioned Erlang also shares some features of Go. A notable | |
difference between Erlang and Go is that Erlang borders on being a | |
functional language, while Go is imperative. And Erlang runs in a | |
virtual machine, while Go is compiled. | |
3.1. How to Read this Book | |
I've written this book for people who already know some programming | |
languages and how to program. In order to use this book, you (of | |
course) need Go installed on your system, but you can easily try | |
examples online in the Go playground. All exercises in this book | |
work with Go 1, the first stable release of Go -- if not, it's a bug. | |
The best way to learn Go is to create your own programs. Each | |
chapter therefore includes exercises (and answers to exercises) to | |
acquaint you with the language. Each exercise is either _easy_, | |
_intermediate_, or _difficult_. The answers are included after the | |
exercises on a new page. Some exercises don't have an answer; these | |
are marked with an asterisk. | |
Here's what you can expect from each chapter: | |
basics | |
We'll look at the basic types, variables, and control structures | |
available in the language. | |
functions | |
Here we look at functions, the basic building blocks of Go | |
programs. | |
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packages | |
We'll see that functions and data can be grouped together in | |
packages. We'll also see how to document and test our packages. | |
beyond-the-basics | |
We'll create our own types. We'll also look at memory allocations | |
in Go. | |
interfaces | |
We'll learn how to use interfaces. Interfaces are the central | |
concept in Go, as Go does not support object orientation in the | |
traditional sense. | |
concurrency | |
We'll learn the "go" keyword, which can be used to start function | |
in separate routines (called goroutines). Communication with | |
those goroutines is done via channels. | |
communication | |
Finally we'll see how to interface with the rest of the world from | |
within a Go program. We'll see how to create files and read and | |
write to and from them. We'll also briefly look into networking. | |
3.2. Official Documentation | |
There is a substantial amount of documentation written about Go. The | |
Go Tutorial [go_tutorial], the Go Tour (with lots of exercises) and | |
the Effective Go [effective_go] are helpful resources. The website | |
http://golang.org/doc/ [7] is a very good starting point for reading | |
up on Go. Reading these documents is certainly not required, but it | |
is recommended. | |
When searching on the internet use the term "golang" instead of | |
plain "go". | |
Go comes with its own documentation in the form of a program called | |
"godoc". If you are interested in the documentation for the built- | |
ins, simply do this: | |
% godoc builtin | |
To get the documentation of the "hash" package, just: | |
% godoc hash | |
To read the documentation of "fnv" contained in "hash", you'll need | |
to issue "godoc hash/fnv" as "fnv" is a subdirectory of "hash". | |
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PACKAGE DOCUMENTATION | |
package fnv | |
import "hash/fnv" | |
Package fnv implements FNV-1 and FNV-1a, non-cryptographic hash | |
... | |
4. Basics | |
I am interested in this and hope to do something. | |
On adding complex numbers to Go, Ken Thompson | |
In this chapter we will look at the basic building blocks of the Go | |
programming language. | |
4.1. Hello World | |
In the Go tutorial, you get started with Go in the typical manner: | |
printing "Hello World" (Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie started this | |
when they presented the C language in the 1970s). That's a great way | |
to start, so here it is, "Hello World" in Go. | |
package main <1> | |
import "fmt" <2> // Implements formatted I/O. | |
/* Print something */ <3> | |
func main() { <4> | |
fmt.Printf("Hello, world.") <5> | |
} | |
Lets look at the program line by line. This first line is just | |
required _1_. All Go files start with "package <something>", and | |
"package main" is required for a standalone executable. | |
"import "fmt"" says we need "fmt" in addition to "main" _2_. A | |
package other than "main" is commonly called a library, a familiar | |
concept in many programming languages (see Section 6). The line ends | |
with a comment that begins with "//". | |
Next we another comment, but this one is enclosed in "/*" "*/" _3_. | |
When your Go program is executed, the first function called will be | |
"main.main()", which mimics the behavior from C. Here we declare | |
that function _4_. | |
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Finally we call a function from the package "fmt" to print a string | |
to the screen. The string is enclosed with """ and may contain non- | |
ASCII characters _5_. | |
4.2. Compiling and Running Code | |
To build a Go program, use the "go" tool. To build "helloworld" we | |
just enter: | |
% go build helloworld.go | |
This results in an executable called "helloworld". | |
% ./helloworld | |
Hello, world. | |
You can combine the above and just call "go run helloworld.go". | |
4.3. Variables, Types and Keywords | |
In the next few sections we will look at the variables, basic types, | |
keywords, and control structures of our new language. | |
Go is different from (most) other languages in that the type of a | |
variable is specified _after_ the variable name. So not: "int a", | |
but "a int". When you declare a variable it is assigned the | |
"natural" null value for the type. This means that after "var a | |
int", "a" has a value of 0. With "var s string", "s" is assigned the | |
zero string, which is """". Declaring and assigning in Go is a two | |
step process, but they may be combined. Compare the following pieces | |
of code which have the same effect. | |
var a int a := 15 | |
var b bool b := false | |
a = 15 | |
b = false | |
On the left we use the "var" keyword to declare a variable and _then_ | |
assign a value to it. The code on the right uses ":=" to do this in | |
one step (this form may only be used _inside_ functions). In that | |
case the variable type is _deduced_ from the value. A value of 15 | |
indicates an "int". A value of "false" tells Go that the type should | |
be "bool". Multiple "var" declarations may also be grouped; "const" | |
(see Section 4.3.3) and "import" also allow this. Note the use of | |
parentheses instead of braces: | |
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var ( | |
x int | |
b bool | |
) | |
Multiple variables of the same type can also be declared on a single | |
line: "var x, y int" makes "x" and "y" both "int" variables. You can | |
also make use of _parallel assignment_ "a, b := 20, 16". This makes | |
"a" and "b" both integer variables and assigns 20 to "a" and 16 to | |
"b". | |
A special name for a variable is "_". Any value assigned to it is | |
discarded (it's similar to "/dev/null" on Unix). In this example we | |
only assign the integer value of 35 to "b" and discard the value 34: | |
"_, b := 34, 35". Declared but otherwise _unused_ variables are a | |
compiler error in Go. | |
4.3.1. Boolean Types | |
A boolean type represents the set of boolean truth values denoted by | |
the predeclared constants _true_ and _false_. The boolean type is | |
"bool". | |
4.3.2. Numerical Types | |
Go has most of the well-known types such as "int". The "int" type | |
has the appropriate length for your machine, meaning that on a 32-bit | |
machine it is 32 bits and on a 64-bit machine it is 64 bits. Note: | |
an "int" is either 32 or 64 bits, no other values are defined. Same | |
goes for "uint", the unsigned int. | |
If you want to be explicit about the length, you can have that too, | |
with "int32", or "uint32". The full list for (signed and unsigned) | |
integers is "int8", "int16", "int32", "int64" and "byte", "uint8", | |
"uint16", "uint32", "uint64", with "byte" being an alias for "uint8". | |
For floating point values there is "float32" and "float64" (there is | |
no "float" type). A 64 bit integer or floating point value is | |
_always_ 64 bit, also on 32 bit architectures. | |
Note that these types are all distinct and assigning variables which | |
mix these types is a compiler error, like in the following code: | |
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package main | |
func main() { | |
var a int | |
var b int32 | |
b = a + a | |
b = b + 5 | |
} | |
We declare two different integers, a and b where a is an "int" and b | |
is an "int32". We want to set b to the sum of a and a. This fails | |
and gives the error: "cannot use a + a (type int) as type int32 in | |
assignment". Adding the constant 5 to b _does_ succeed, because | |
constants are not typed. | |
4.3.3. Constants | |
Constants in Go are just that --- constant. They are created at | |
compile time, and can only be numbers, strings, or booleans; "const x | |
= 42" makes "x" a constant. You can use _iota_ to enumerate values. | |
const ( | |
a = iota | |
b | |
) | |
The first use of "iota" will yield 0, so "a" is equal to 0. Whenever | |
"iota" is used again on a new line its value is incremented with 1, | |
so "b" has a value of 1. Or, as shown here, you can even let Go | |
repeat the use of "iota". You may also explicitly type a constant: | |
"const b string = "0"". Now "b" is a "string" type constant. | |
4.3.4. Strings | |
Another important built-in type is "string". Assigning a string is | |
as simple as: | |
s := "Hello World!" | |
Strings in Go are a sequence of UTF-8 characters enclosed in double | |
quotes ("). If you use the single quote (') you mean one character | |
(encoded in UTF-8) --- which is _not_ a "string" in Go. | |
Once assigned to a variable, the string cannot be changed: strings in | |
Go are immutable. If you are coming from C, note that the following | |
is not legal in Go: | |
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var s string = "hello" | |
s[0] = 'c' | |
To do this in Go you will need the following: | |
s := "hello" | |
c := []rune(s) <1> | |
c[0] = 'c' <2> | |
s2 := string(c) <3> | |
fmt.Printf("%s\n", s2) <4> | |
Here we convert "s" to an array of runes _1_. We change the first | |
element of this array _2_. Then we create a _new_ string "s2" with | |
the alteration _3_. Finally, we print the string with "fmt.Printf" | |
_4_. | |
4.3.5. Runes | |
"Rune" is an alias for "int32". It is an UTF-8 encoded code point. | |
When is this type useful? One example is when you're iterating over | |
characters in a string. You could loop over each byte (which is only | |
equivalent to a character when strings are encoded in 8-bit ASCII, | |
which they are _not_ in Go!). But to get the actual characters you | |
should use the "rune" type. | |
4.3.6. Complex Numbers | |
Go has native support for complex numbers. To use them you need a | |
variable of type "complex128" (64 bit real and imaginary parts) or | |
"complex64" (32 bit real and imaginary parts). Complex numbers are | |
written as "re + im""i", where "re" is the real part, "im" is the | |
imaginary part and "i" is the literal '"i"' ("\sqrt{-1}"). | |
4.3.7. Errors | |
Any non-trivial program will have the need for error reporting sooner | |
or later. Because of this Go has a builtin type specially for | |
errors, called "error". "var e error" creates a variable "e" of type | |
"error" with the value "nil". This error type is an interface -- | |
we'll look more at interfaces in Section 8. For now you can just | |
assume that "error" is a type just like all other types. | |
4.4. Operators and Built-in Functions | |
Go supports the normal set of numerical operators. See Table 1 for | |
lists the current ones and their relative precedence. They all | |
associate from left to right. | |
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+------------+--------------------------+ | |
| Precedence | Operator(s) | | |
+------------+--------------------------+ | |
| Highest | "* / % << >> & &^" | | |
| | `+ - | | |
| | "== != < <= > >=" | | |
| | "<-" | | |
| | "&&" | | |
| Lowest | || | | |
+------------+--------------------------+ | |
Table 1: Operator precedence. | |
"+ - * /" and "%" all do what you would expect, "& | ^" and "&^" are | |
bit operators for bitwise _and_ bitwise _or_ bitwise _xor_ and bit | |
clear respectively. The "&&" and "||" operators are logical _and_ | |
and logical _or_ Not listed in the table is the logical not "!" | |
Although Go does not support operator overloading (or method | |
overloading for that matter), some of the built-in operators _are_ | |
overloaded. For instance, "+" can be used for integers, floats, | |
complex numbers and strings (adding strings is concatenating them). | |
4.5. Go Keywords | |
Let's start looking at keywords, Table 2 lists all the keywords in | |
Go. | |
+-------------+----------------+-----------+-------------+----------+ | |
| "break" | "default" | "func" | "interface" | "select" | | |
| "case" | "defer" | "go" | "map" | "struct" | | |
| "chan" | "else" | "goto" | "package" | "switch" | | |
| "const" | "fallthrough" | "if" | "range" | "type" | | |
| "continue" | "for" | "import" | "return" | "var" | | |
+-------------+----------------+-----------+-------------+----------+ | |
Table 2: Keywords in Go. | |
We've seen some of these already. We used "var" and "const" in the | |
Section 4.3 section, and we briefly looked at "package" and "import" | |
in our "Hello World" program at the start of the chapter. Others | |
need more attention and have their own chapter or section: | |
o "func" is used to declare functions and methods. | |
o "return" is used to return from functions. We'll look at both | |
"func" and "return" in detail in Section 5. | |
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o "go" is used for concurrency. We'll look at this in | |
Section 9.3.1. | |
o "select" used to choose from different types of communication, | |
We'll work with "select" in Section 9.3.1. | |
o "interface" is covered in Section 8. | |
o "struct" is used for abstract data types. We'll work with | |
"struct" in Section 7. | |
o "type" is also covered in Section 7. | |
4.6. Control Structures | |
There are only a few control structures in Go. To write loops we use | |
the "for" keyword, and there is a "switch" and of course an "if". | |
When working with channels "select" will be used (see Section 9.3.1). | |
Parentheses are are not required around the condition, and the body | |
must _always_ be brace-delimited. | |
4.6.1. If-Else | |
In Go an "if" looks like this: | |
if x > 0 { | |
return y | |
} else { | |
return x | |
} | |
Since "if" and "switch" accept an initialization statement, it's | |
common to see one used to set up a (local) variable. | |
if err := SomeFunction(); err == nil { | |
// do something | |
} else { | |
return err | |
} | |
It is idomatic in Go to omit the "else" when the "if" statement's | |
body has a "break", "continue", "return" or, "goto", so the above | |
code would be better written as: | |
if err := SomeFunction(); err != nil { | |
return err | |
} | |
// do something | |
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The opening brace on the first line must be positioned on the same | |
line as the "if" statement. There is no arguing about this, because | |
this is what "gofmt" outputs. | |
4.6.2. Goto | |
Go has a "goto" statement - use it wisely. With "goto" you jump to a | |
label which must be defined within the current function. For | |
instance, a loop in disguise: | |
func myfunc() { | |
i := 0 | |
Here: | |
fmt.Println(i) | |
i++ | |
goto Here | |
} | |
The string "Here:" indicates a label. A label does not need to start | |
with a capital letter and is case sensitive. | |
4.6.3. For | |
The Go "for" loop has three forms, only one of which has semicolons: | |
o "for init; condition; post { }" - a loop using the syntax borrowed | |
from C; | |
o "for condition { }" - a while loop, and; | |
o "for { }" - an endless loop. | |
Short declarations make it easy to declare the index variable right | |
in the loop. | |
sum := 0 | |
for i := 0; i < 10; i++ { | |
sum = sum + i | |
} | |
Note that the variable "i" ceases to exist after the loop. | |
4.6.4. Break and Continue | |
With "break" you can quit loops early. By itself, "break" breaks the | |
current loop. | |
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for i := 0; i < 10; i++ { | |
if i > 5 { | |
break <1> | |
} | |
fmt.Println(i) <2> | |
} | |
Here we "break" the current loop _1_, and don't continue with the | |
"fmt.Println(i)" statement _2_. So we only print 0 to 5. With loops | |
within loop you can specify a label after "break" to identify _which_ | |
loop to stop: | |
J: for j := 0; j < 5; j++ { <1> | |
for i := 0; i < 10; i++ { | |
if i > 5 { | |
break J <2> | |
} | |
fmt.Println(i) | |
} | |
} | |
Here we define a label "J" _1_, preceding the "for"-loop there. When | |
we use "break J" _2_, we don't break the inner loop but the "J" loop. | |
With "continue" you begin the next iteration of the loop, skipping | |
any remaining code. In the same way as "break", "continue" also | |
accepts a label. | |
4.6.5. Range | |
The keyword "range" can be used for loops. It can loop over slices, | |
arrays, strings, maps and channels (see Section 9.3.1). "range" is an | |
iterator that, when called, returns the next key-value pair from the | |
"thing" it loops over. Depending on what that is, "range" returns | |
different things. | |
When looping over a slice or array, "range" returns the index in the | |
slice as the key and value belonging to that index. Consider this | |
code: | |
list := []string{"a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f"} | |
for k, v := range list { | |
// do something with k and v | |
} | |
First we create a slice of strings. Then we use "range" to loop over | |
them. With each iteration, "range" will return the index as an "int" | |
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and the key as a "string". It will start with 0 and "a", so "k" will | |
be 0 through 5, and v will be "a" through "f". | |
You can also use "range" on strings directly. Then it will break out | |
the individual Unicode characters ^[In the UTF-8 world characters are | |
sometimes called _runes_ Mostly, when people talk about characters, | |
they mean 8 bit characters. As UTF-8 characters may be up to 32 bits | |
the word rune is used. In this case the type of "char" is "rune". | |
and their start position, by parsing the UTF-8. The loop: | |
for pos, char := range "Gő!" { | |
fmt.Printf("character '%c' starts at byte position %d\n", char, pos) | |
} | |
prints | |
character 'G' starts at byte position 0 | |
character 'ő' starts at byte position 1 | |
character '!' starts at byte position 3 | |
Note that "ő" took 2 bytes, so '!' starts at byte 3. | |
4.6.6. Switch | |
Go's "switch" is very flexible; you can match on much more than just | |
integers. The cases are evaluated top to bottom until a match is | |
found, and if the "switch" has no expression it switches on "true". | |
It's therefore possible -- and idiomatic -- to write an "if-else-if- | |
else" chain as a "switch". | |
// Convert hexadecimal character to an int value | |
switch { <1> | |
case '0' <= c && c <= '9': <2> | |
return c - '0' <3> | |
case 'a' <= c && c <= 'f': <4> | |
return c - 'a' + 10 | |
case 'A' <= c && c <= 'F': <5> | |
return c - 'A' + 10 | |
} | |
return 0 | |
A "switch" without a condition is the same as "switch true" _1_. We | |
list the different cases. Each "case" statement has a condition that | |
is either true of false. Here _2_ we check if "c" is a number. If | |
"c" is a number we return its value _3_. Check if "c" falls between | |
"a" and "f" _4_. For an "a" we return 10, for "b" we return 11, etc. | |
We also do the same _5_ thing for "A" to "F". | |
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There is no automatic fall through, you can use "fallthrough" for | |
that. | |
switch i { | |
case 0: fallthrough | |
case 1: <1> | |
f() | |
default: | |
g() <2> | |
"f()" can be called when "i == 0" _1_. With "default" you can specify | |
an action when none of the other cases match. Here "g()" is called | |
when "i" is not 0 or 1 _2_. We could rewrite the above example as: | |
switch i { | |
case 0, 1: <1> | |
f() | |
default: | |
g() | |
You can list cases on one line _1_, separated by commas. | |
4.7. Built-in Functions | |
A few functions are predefined, meaning you _don't_ have to include | |
any package to get access to them. Table 3 lists them all. | |
+----------+----------+-----------+-----------+ | |
| "close" | "new" | "panic" | "complex" | | |
| "delete" | "make" | "recover" | "real" | | |
| "len" | "append" | "print" | "imag" | | |
| "cap" | "copy" | "println" | | | |
+----------+----------+-----------+-----------+ | |
Table 3: Pre-defined functions in Go. | |
These built-in functions are documented in the "builtin" pseudo | |
package that is included in recent Go releases. Let's go over these | |
functions briefly. | |
close | |
is used in channel communication. It closes a channel. We'll | |
learn more about this in Section 9.3.1. | |
delete | |
is used for deleting entries in maps. | |
len and cap | |
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are used on a number of different types, "len" is used to return | |
the lengths of strings, slices, and arrays. In the next section | |
Section 4.8.1 we'll look at slices, arrays and the function "cap". | |
new | |
is used for allocating memory for user defined data types. See | |
Section 7.1.1. | |
make | |
is used for allocating memory for built-in types (maps, slices, | |
and channels). See Section 7.1.2. | |
copy, append | |
"copy" is for copying slices. And "append" is for concatenating | |
slices. See Section 4.8.2 in this chapter. | |
panic, recover | |
are used for an _exception_ mechanism. See Section 5.6 for more. | |
print, println | |
are low level printing functions that can be used without | |
reverting to the "fmt" package. These are mainly used for | |
debugging. built-in,println) | |
complex, real, imag | |
all deal with complex numbers. We will not use complex numbers in | |
this book. | |
4.8. Arrays, Slices, and Maps | |
To store multiple values in a list, you can use arrays, or their more | |
flexible cousin: slices. A dictionary or hash type is also | |
available. It is called a "map" in Go. | |
4.8.1. Arrays | |
An array is defined by: "[n]<type>", where "n" is the length of the | |
array and "<type>" is the stuff you want to store. To assign or | |
index an element in the array, you use square brackets: | |
var arr [10]int | |
arr[0] = 42 | |
arr[1] = 13 | |
fmt.Printf("The first element is %d\n", arr[0]) | |
Array types like "var arr [10]int" have a fixed size. The size is | |
_part_ of the type. They can't grow, because then they would have a | |
different type. Also arrays are values: Assigning one array to | |
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another _copies_ all the elements. In particular, if you pass an | |
array to a function it will receive a copy of the array, not a | |
pointer to it. | |
To declare an array you can use the following: "var a [3]int". To | |
initialize it to something other than zero, use a _composite literal_ | |
"a := [3]int{1, 2, 3}". This can be shortened to "a := [...]int{1, | |
2, 3}", where Go counts the elements automatically. | |
A composite literal allows you to assign a value directly to an | |
array, slice, or map. See Section 7.1.3 for more information. | |
When declaring arrays you _always_ have to type something in between | |
the square brackets, either a number or three dots ("..."), when | |
using a composite literal. When using multidimensional arrays, you | |
can use the following syntax: "a := [2][2]int{ {1,2}, {3,4} }". Now | |
that you know about arrays you will be delighted to learn that you | |
will almost never use them in Go, because there is something much | |
more flexible: slices. | |
4.8.2. Slices | |
A slice is similar to an array, but it can grow when new elements are | |
added. A slice always refers to an underlying array. What makes | |
slices different from arrays is that a slice is a pointer _to_ an | |
array; slices are reference types. | |
Reference types are created with "make". We detail this further in | |
Section 7. | |
That means that if you assign one slice to another, both refer to the | |
_same_ underlying array. For instance, if a function takes a slice | |
argument, changes it makes to the elements of the slice will be | |
visible to the caller, analogous to passing a pointer to the | |
underlying array. With: "slice := make([]int, 10)", you create a | |
slice which can hold ten elements. Note that the underlying array | |
isn't specified. A slice is always coupled to an array that has a | |
fixed size. For slices we define a capacity and a length | |
Section 4.8.2, Paragraph 6 shows the creation of an array, then the | |
creation of a slice. First we create an array of "m" elements of the | |
type "int": "var array[m]int" . | |
Next, we create a slice from this array: "slice := array[:n]" . And | |
now we have: | |
o "len(slice) == n" | |
o "cap(slice) == m" | |
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o "len(array) == cap(array) == m" | |
Given an array, or another slice, a new slice is created via | |
"a[n:m]". This creates a new slice which refers to the variable "a", | |
starts at index "n", and ends before index "m". It has length "n - | |
m". | |
a := [...]int{1, 2, 3, 4, 5} <1> | |
s1 := a[2:4] <2> | |
s2 := a[1:5] <3> | |
s3 := a[:] <4> | |
s4 := a[:4] <5> | |
s5 := s2[:] <6> | |
s6 := a[2:4:5] <7> | |
First we define _1_ an array with five elements, from index 0 to 4. | |
From this we create _2_ a slice with the elements from index 2 to 3, | |
this slices contains: "3, 4". Then we we create another slice _3_ | |
from "a": with the elements from index 1 to 4, this contains: "2, 3, | |
4, 5". With "a[:]" _4_ we create a slice with all the elements in | |
the array. This is a shorthand for: "a[0:len(a)]". And with "a[:4]" | |
_5_ we create a slice with the elements from index 0 to 3, this is | |
short for: "a[0:4]", and gives us a slices that contains: "1, 2, 3, | |
4". With "s2[:]" we create a slice from the slice "s2" _6_, note | |
that "s5" still refers to the array "a". Finally, we create a slice | |
with the elements from index 3 to 3 _and_ also set the cap to 4 _7_. | |
When working with slices you can overrun the bounds, consider this | |
code. | |
package main | |
func main() { | |
var array [100]int <1> | |
slice := array[0:99] <2> | |
slice[98] = 1 <3> | |
slice[99] = 2 <4> | |
} | |
At _1_ we create an array with a 100 elements, indexed from 0 to 99. | |
Then at _2_ we create a slice that has index 0 to 98. We assign 1 to | |
the 99th element _3_ of the slice. This works as expected. But at | |
_4_ we dare to do the impossible, and and try to allocate something | |
beyond the length of the slice and we are greeted with a _runtime_ | |
error: "Error: "throw: index out of range"." | |
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If you want to extend a slice, there are a couple of built-in | |
functions that make life easier: "append" and "copy". The append | |
function appends zero or more values to a slice and returns the | |
result: a slice with the same type as the original. If the original | |
slice isn't big enough to fit the added values, append will allocate | |
a new slice that is big enough. So the slice returned by append may | |
refer to a different underlying array than the original slice does. | |
Here's an example: | |
s0 := []int{0, 0} | |
s1 := append(s0, 2) <1> | |
s2 := append(s1, 3, 5, 7) <2> | |
s3 := append(s2, s0...) <3> | |
At _1_ we append a single element, making "s1" equal to "[]int{0, 0, | |
2}". At _2_ we append multiple elements, making "s2" equal to | |
"[]int{0, 0, 2, 3, 5, 7}". And at _3_ we append a slice, giving us | |
"s3" equal to "[]int{0, 0, 2, 3, 5, 7, 0, 0}". Note the three dots | |
used after "s0..."! This is needed make it clear explicit that | |
you're appending another slice, instead of a single value. | |
The copy function copies slice elements from a source to a | |
destination, and returns the number of elements it copied. This | |
number is the minimum of the length of the source and the length of | |
the destination. For example: | |
var a = [...]int{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} | |
var s = make([]int, 6) | |
n1 := copy(s, a[0:]) <1> | |
n2 := copy(s, s[2:]) <2> | |
After _1_, "n1" is 6, and "s" is "[]int{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}". And | |
after _2_, "n2" is 4, and "s" is "[]int{2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 5}". | |
4.8.3. Maps | |
Many other languages have a type similar to maps built-in. For | |
instance, Perl has hashes, Python has its dictionaries, and C++ also | |
has maps (as part of the libraries). In Go we have the "map" type. | |
A "map" can be thought of as an array indexed by strings (in its most | |
simple form). | |
monthdays := map[string]int{ | |
"Jan": 31, "Feb": 28, "Mar": 31, | |
"Apr": 30, "May": 31, "Jun": 30, | |
"Jul": 31, "Aug": 31, "Sep": 30, | |
"Oct": 31, "Nov": 30, "Dec": 31, <1> | |
} | |
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The general syntax for defining a map is "map[<from type>]<to type>". | |
Here, we define a map that converts from a "string" (month | |
abbreviation) to an "int" (number of days in that month). Note that | |
the trailing comma at _1_ is _required_. | |
Use "make" when only declaring a map: "monthdays := | |
make(map[string]int)". A map is a reference type. | |
For indexing ("searching") the map, we use square brackets. For | |
example, suppose we want to print the number of days in December: | |
"fmt.Printf("%d\n", monthdays["Dec"])" | |
If you are looping over an array, slice, string, or map a, "range" | |
clause will help you again, it returns the key and corresponding | |
value with each invocation. | |
year := 0 | |
for _, days := range monthdays <1> | |
year += days | |
} | |
fmt.Printf("Numbers of days in a year: %d\n", year) | |
At _1_ we use the underscore to ignore (assign to nothing) the key | |
returned by "range". We are only interested in the values from | |
"monthdays". | |
To add elements to the map, you would add new month with: | |
"monthdays["Undecim"] = 30". If you use a key that already exists, | |
the value will be silently overwritten: "monthdays["Feb"] = 29". To | |
test for existence you would use the following: "value, present := | |
monthdays["Jan"]". If the key "Jan" exists, "present" will be true. | |
It's more Go like to name "present" "ok", and use: "v, ok := | |
monthdays["Jan"]". In Go we call this the "comma ok" form. | |
You can remove elements from the "map": "delete(monthdays, "Mar")" . | |
In general the syntax "delete(m, x)" will delete the map entry | |
retrieved by the expression "m[x]". | |
4.9. Exercises | |
4.9.1. For-loop | |
1. Create a loop with the "for" construct. Make it loop 10 times | |
and print out the loop counter with the "fmt" package. | |
2. Rewrite the loop from 1 to use "goto". The keyword "for" may not | |
be used. | |
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3. Rewrite the loop again so that it fills an array and then prints | |
that array to the screen. | |
4.9.2. Answer | |
1. There are many possibilities. One solution could be: | |
package main | |
import "fmt" | |
func main() { | |
for i := 0; i < 10; i++ { | |
fmt.Println("%d", i) | |
} | |
} | |
Let's compile this and look at the output. | |
% go build for.go | |
% ./for | |
0 | |
1 | |
. | |
. | |
. | |
9 | |
1. Rewriting the loop results in code that should look something | |
like this (only showing the "main"-function): | |
func main() { | |
i := 0 <1> | |
Loop: <2> | |
if i < 10 { | |
fmt.Printf("%d\n", i) | |
i++ | |
goto Loop <3> | |
} | |
} | |
At _1_ we define our loop variable. And at _2_ we define a label | |
and at _3_ we jump to this label. | |
2. The following is one possible solution: | |
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package main | |
import "fmt" | |
func main() { | |
var arr [10]int <1> | |
for i := 0; i < 10; i++ { | |
arr[i] = i <2> | |
} | |
fmt.Printf("%v", arr) <3> | |
} | |
Here _1_ we create an array with 10 elements. Which we then fill | |
_2_ one by one. And finally we print it _3_ with "%v" which lets | |
Go to print the value for us. You could even do this in one fell | |
swoop by using a composite literal: | |
fmt.Printf("%v\n", [...]int{0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}) | |
4.9.3. Average | |
1. Write code to calculate the average of a "float64" slice. In a | |
later exercise you will make it into a function. | |
4.9.4. Answer | |
1. The following code calculates the average. | |
sum := 0.0 | |
switch len(xs) { | |
case 0: <1> | |
avg = 0 | |
default: <2> | |
for _, v := range xs { | |
sum += v | |
} | |
avg = sum / float64(len(xs)) <3> | |
} | |
Here at _1_ we check if the length is zero and if so, we return 0. | |
Otherwise we calculate the average at _2_. We have to convert the | |
value return from "len" to a "float64" to make the division work at | |
_3_. | |
4.9.5. FizzBuzz | |
1. Solve this problem, called the Fizz-Buzz [fizzbuzz] problem: | |
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Write a program that prints the numbers from 1 to 100. But for | |
multiples of three print, "Fizz" instead of the number, and for | |
multiples of five, print "Buzz". For numbers which are multiples of | |
both three and five, print "FizzBuzz". | |
4.9.6. Answer | |
1. A possible solution to this problem is the following program. | |
package main | |
import "fmt" | |
func main() { | |
const ( | |
FIZZ = 3 <1> | |
BUZZ = 5 | |
) | |
var p bool <2> | |
for i := 1; i < 100; i++ { <3> | |
p = false | |
if i%FIZZ == 0 { <4> | |
fmt.Printf("Fizz") | |
p = true | |
} | |
if i%BUZZ == 0 { <5> | |
fmt.Printf("Buzz") | |
p = true | |
} | |
if !p { <6> | |
fmt.Printf("%v", i) | |
} | |
fmt.Println() | |
} | |
} | |
Here _1_ we define two constants to make our code more readable, see | |
Section 4.3.3. At _2_ we define a boolean that keeps track if we | |
already printed something. At _3_ we start our for-loop, see | |
Section 4.6.3. If the value is divisible by FIZZ - that is, 3 - , we | |
print "Fizz" _4_. And at _5_ we check if the value is divisble by | |
BUZZ -- that is, 5 -- if so print "Buzz". Note that we have also | |
taken care of the FizzBuzz case. At _6_, if printed neither Fizz nor | |
Buzz printed, we print the value. | |
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5. Functions | |
I'm always delighted by the light touch and stillness of early | |
programming languages. Not much text; a lot gets done. Old | |
programs read like quiet conversations between a well-spoken | |
research worker and a well- studied mechanical colleague, not as a | |
debate with a compiler. Who'd have guessed sophistication bought | |
such noise? | |
Richard P. Gabriel | |
Functions are the basic building blocks of Go programs; all | |
interesting stuff happens in them. | |
Here is an example of how you can declare a function: | |
type mytype int | |
func (p mytype) funcname(q int) (r,s int) { return 0,0 } | |
<1> <2> <3> <4> <5> <6> | |
To declare a function, you use the "func" keyword _1_. You can | |
optionally bind _2_ to a specific type called receiver (a function | |
with a receiver is usually called a method). This will be explored | |
in Section 8. Next _3_ you write the name of your function. Here | |
_4_ we define that the variable "q" of type "int" is the input | |
parameter. Parameters are passed _pass-by-value_. The variables "r" | |
and "s" _5_ are the _named return parameters_ (((functions, named | |
return parameters))) for this function. Functions in Go can have | |
multiple return values. This is very useful to return a value _and_ | |
error. This removes the need for in-band error returns (such as -1 | |
for "EOF") and modifying an argument. If you want the return | |
parameters not to be named you only give the types: "(int, int)". If | |
you have only one value to return you may omit the parentheses. If | |
your function is a subroutine and does not have anything to return | |
you may omit this entirely. Finally, we have the body _6_ of the | |
function. Note that "return" is a statement so the braces around the | |
parameter(s) are optional. | |
As said the return or result parameters of a Go function can be given | |
names and used as regular variables, just like the incoming | |
parameters. When named, they are initialized to the zero values for | |
their types when the function begins. If the function executes a | |
"return" statement with no arguments, the current values of the | |
result parameters are returned. Using these features enables you | |
(again) to do more with less code. | |
The names are not mandatory but they can make code shorter and | |
clearer: _they are documentation_. However don't overuse this | |
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feature, especially in longer functions where it might not be | |
immediately apparent what is returned. | |
Functions can be declared in any order you wish. The compiler scans | |
the entire file before execution, so function prototyping is a thing | |
of the past in Go. Go does not allow nested functions, but you can | |
work around this with anonymous functions. See the | |
Section Section 5.2 in this chapter. Recursive functions work just | |
as in other languages: | |
func rec(i int) { | |
if i == 10 { <1> | |
return | |
} | |
rec(i+1) <2> | |
fmt.Printf("%d ", i) | |
} | |
Here _2_ we call the same function again, "rec" returns when "i" has | |
the value 10, this is checked on the second line _1_. This function | |
prints: "9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0", when called as "rec(0)". | |
5.1. Scope | |
Variables declared outside any functions are _global_ in Go, those | |
defined in functions are _local_ to those functions. If names | |
overlap - a local variable is declared with the same name as a global | |
one - the local variable hides the global one when the current | |
function is executed. | |
In the following example we call "g()" from "f()": | |
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package main | |
var a int <1> | |
func main() { | |
a = 5 | |
print(a) | |
f() | |
} | |
func f() { | |
a := 6 <2> | |
print(a) | |
g() | |
} | |
func g() { | |
print(a) | |
} | |
Here _1_, we declare "a" to be a global variable of type "int". Then | |
in the "main" function we give the _global_ "a" the value of 5, after | |
printing it we call the function "f". Then here _2_, "a := 6", we | |
create a _new, local_ variable also called "a". This new "a" gets | |
the value of 6, which we then print. Then we call "g", which uses | |
the _global_ "a" again and prints "a"'s value set in "main". Thus | |
the output will be: "565". A _local_ variable is _only_ valid when | |
we are executing the function in which it is defined. Note that the | |
":=" used in line 12 is sometimes hard to spot so it is generally | |
advised _not_ to use the same name for global and local variables. | |
5.2. Functions as values | |
As with almost everything in Go, functions are also _just_ values. | |
They can be assigned to variables as follows: | |
import "fmt" | |
func main() { | |
a := func() { <1> | |
fmt.Println("Hello") | |
} <2> | |
a() <3> | |
} | |
"a" is defined as an anonymous (nameless) function _1_. Note the | |
lack of parentheses "()" after "a". If there were, that would be to | |
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_call_ some function with the name "a" before we have defined what | |
"a" is. Once "a" is defined, then we can _call_ it, _3_. | |
Functions--as--values may be used in other places, for example maps. | |
Here we convert from integers to functions: | |
var xs = map[int]func() int{ | |
1: func() int { return 10 }, | |
2: func() int { return 20 }, | |
3: func() int { return 30 }, | |
} | |
Note that the final comma on second to last line is _mandatory_. | |
Or you can write a function that takes a function as its parameter, | |
for example a "Map" function that works on "int" slices. This is | |
left as an exercise for the reader; see the exercise Section 5.7.15. | |
5.3. Callbacks | |
Because functions are values they are easy to pass to functions, from | |
where they can be used as callbacks. First define a function that | |
does "something" with an integer value: | |
func printit(x int) { | |
fmt.Printf("%v\n", x) | |
} | |
This function does not return a value and just prints its argument. | |
The _signature_ of this function is: "func printit(int)", or without | |
the function name: "func(int)". To create a new function that uses | |
this one as a callback we need to use this signature: | |
func callback(y int, f func(int)) { | |
f(y) | |
} | |
Here we create a new function that takes two parameters: "y int", | |
i.e. just an "int" and "f func(int)", i.e. a function that takes an | |
int and returns nothing. The parameter "f" is the variable holding | |
that function. It can be used as any other function, and we execute | |
the function on line 2 with the parameter "y": "f(y)" | |
5.4. Deferred Code | |
Suppose you have a function in which you open a file and perform | |
various writes and reads on it. In such a function there are often | |
spots where you want to return early. If you do that, you will need | |
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to close the file descriptor you are working on. This often leads to | |
the following code: | |
func ReadWrite() bool { | |
file.Open("file") | |
// Do your thing | |
if failureX { | |
file.Close() <1> | |
return false | |
} | |
if failureY { | |
file.Close() <1> | |
return false | |
} | |
file.Close() <1> | |
return true <2> | |
} | |
Note that we repeat a lot of code here; you can see the that | |
"file.Close()" is called at _1_. To overcome this, Go has the "defer" | |
keyword. After "defer" you specify a function which is called just | |
_before_ _2_ the current function exits. | |
With "defer" we can rewrite the above code as follows. It makes the | |
function more readable and it puts the "Close" _right next_ to the | |
"Open". | |
func ReadWrite() bool { | |
file.Open("filename") | |
defer file.Close() <1> | |
// Do your thing | |
if failureX { | |
return false <2> | |
} | |
if failureY { | |
return false <2> | |
} | |
return true <2> | |
} | |
At _1_ "file.Close()" is added to the defer list. "Close" is now | |
done automatically at _2_. This makes the function shorter and more | |
readable. It puts the "Close" right next to the "Open". | |
You can put multiple functions on the "defer list", like this example | |
from | |
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for i := 0; i < 5; i++ { | |
defer fmt.Printf("%d ", i) | |
} | |
Deferred functions are executed in LIFO order, so the above code | |
prints: "4 3 2 1 0". | |
With "defer" you can even change return values, provided that you are | |
using named result parameters and a function literal , i.e: | |
defer func() {/* ... */}() | |
Here we use a function without a name and specify the body of the | |
function inline, basically we're creating a nameless function on the | |
spot. The final braces are needed because "defer" needs a function | |
call, not a function value. If our anonymous function would take an | |
parameter it would be easier to see why we need the braces: | |
defer func(x int) {/* ... */}(5) | |
In this (unnamed) function you can access any named return parameter: | |
func f() (ret int) | |
defer func() { <1> | |
ret++ | |
}() | |
return 0 | |
} | |
Here _1_ we specify our function, the named return value "ret" is | |
initialized with zero. The nameless function in the defer increments | |
the value of "ret" with 1. The "return 0" on line 5 _will not be the | |
returned value_, because of "defer". The function "f" will return 1! | |
5.5. Variadic Parameter | |
Functions that take a variable number of parameters are known as | |
variadic functions. To declare a function as variadic, do something | |
like this: | |
func myfunc(arg ...int) {} | |
The "arg ...int" instructs Go to see this as a function that takes a | |
variable number of arguments. Note that these arguments all have to | |
have the type "int". In the body of your function the variable "arg" | |
is a slice of ints: | |
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for _, n := range arg { | |
fmt.Printf("And the number is: %d\n", n) | |
} | |
We range over the arguments on the first line. We are not interested | |
in the index as returned by "range", hence the use of the underscore | |
there. In the body of the "range" we just print the parameters we | |
were given. | |
If you don't specify the type of the variadic argument it defaults to | |
the empty interface "interface{}" (see Chapter Section 8). | |
Suppose we have another variadic function called "myfunc2", the | |
following example shows how to pass variadic arguments to it: | |
func myfunc(arg ...int) { | |
myfunc2(arg...) | |
myfunc2(arg[:2]...) | |
} | |
With "myfunc2(arg...)" we pass all the parameters to "myfunc2", but | |
because the variadic parameters is just a slice, we can use some | |
slice tricks as well. | |
5.6. Panic and recovering | |
Go does not have an exception mechanism: you cannot throw exceptions. | |
Instead it uses a panic-and-recover mechanism. It is worth | |
remembering that you should use this as a last resort, your code will | |
not look, or be, better if it is littered with panics. It's a | |
powerful tool: use it wisely. So, how do you use it? In the words | |
of the Go Authors [go_blog_panic]: | |
Panic | |
is a built-in function that stops the ordinary flow of control and | |
begins panicking. When the function "F" calls "panic", execution | |
of "F" stops, any deferred functions in "F" are executed normally, | |
and then "F" returns to its caller. To the caller, "F" then | |
behaves like a call to "panic". The process continues up the | |
stack until all functions in the current goroutine have returned, | |
at which point the program crashes. Panics can be initiated by | |
invoking "panic" directly. They can also be caused by _runtime | |
errors_, such as out-of-bounds array accesses. | |
Recover | |
is a built-in function that regains control of a panicking | |
goroutine. Recover is _only_ useful inside _deferred_ functions. | |
During normal execution, a call to "recover" will return "nil" and | |
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have no other effect. If the current goroutine is panicking, a | |
call to "recover" will capture the value given to "panic" and | |
resume normal execution. | |
This function checks if the function it gets as argument will panic | |
when it is executed: | |
func Panic(f func()) (b bool) { <1> | |
defer func() { <2> | |
if x := recover(); x != nil { | |
b = true | |
} | |
}() | |
f() <3> | |
return <4> | |
} | |
We define a new function "Panic" _1_ that takes a function as an | |
argument (see Section 5.2). It returns true if "f" panics when run, | |
else false. We then _2_ define a "defer" function that utilizes | |
"recover". If the current goroutine panics, this defer function will | |
notice that. If "recover()" returns non-"nil" we set "b" to true. | |
At _3_ Execute the function we received as the argument. And finally | |
_4_ we return the value of "b". Because "b" is a named return | |
parameter. | |
The following code fragment, shows how we can use this function: | |
func panicy() { | |
var a []int | |
a[3] = 5 | |
} | |
func main() { | |
fmt.Println(Panic(panicy)) | |
} | |
On line 3 the "a[3] = 5" triggers a _runtime_ out of bounds error | |
which results in a panic. Thus this program will print "true". If | |
we change line 2: "var a []int" to "var a [4]int" the function | |
"panicy" does not panic anymore. Why? | |
5.7. Exercises | |
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5.7.1. Average | |
1. Write a function that calculates the average of a "float64" | |
slice. | |
5.7.2. Answer | |
1. The following function calculates the average: | |
package main | |
func average(xs []float64) (avg float64) { //<1> | |
sum := 0.0 | |
switch len(xs) { | |
case 0: //<2> | |
avg = 0 | |
default: //<3> | |
for _, v := range xs { | |
sum += v | |
} | |
avg = sum / float64(len(xs)) //<4> | |
} | |
return //<5> | |
} | |
At _1_ we use a named return parameter. If the length of "xs" is | |
zero _2_, we return 0. Otherwise _3_, we calculate the average. At | |
_4_ we convert the value to a "float64" to make the division work as | |
"len" returns an "int". Finally, at _5_ we reutrn our avarage. | |
5.7.3. Bubble sort | |
1. Write a function that performs a bubble sort on a slice of ints. | |
From [bubblesort]: | |
It works by repeatedly stepping through the list to be sorted, | |
comparing each pair of adjacent items and swapping them if they | |
are in the wrong order. The pass through the list is repeated | |
until no swaps are needed, which indicates that the list is | |
sorted. The algorithm gets its name from the way smaller elements | |
"bubble" to the top of the list. | |
It also gives an example in pseudo code: | |
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procedure bubbleSort( A : list of sortable items ) | |
do | |
swapped = false | |
for each i in 1 to length(A) - 1 inclusive do: | |
if A[i-1] > A[i] then | |
swap( A[i-1], A[i] ) | |
swapped = true | |
end if | |
end for | |
while swapped | |
end procedure | |
5.7.4. Answer | |
1. Bubble sort isn't terribly efficient. For "n" elements it scales | |
"O(n^2)". But bubble sort is easy to implement: | |
func main() { | |
n := []int{5, -1, 0, 12, 3, 5} | |
fmt.Printf("unsorted %v\n", n) | |
bubblesort(n) | |
fmt.Printf("sorted %v\n", n) | |
} | |
func bubblesort(n []int) { | |
for i := 0; i < len(n)-1; i++ { | |
for j := i + 1; j < len(n); j++ { | |
if n[j] < n[i] { | |
n[i], n[j] = n[j], n[i] | |
} | |
Because a slice is a reference type, the "bubblesort" function | |
works and does not need to return a sorted slice. | |
5.7.5. For-loop II | |
1. Take what you did in exercise to write the for loop and extend it | |
a bit. Put the body of the for loop - the "fmt.Printf" - in a | |
separate function. | |
5.7.6. Answer | |
1. <{{src/for-func.go}} | |
5.7.7. Fibonacci | |
1. The Fibonacci sequence starts as follows: "1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, | |
\ldots" Or in mathematical terms: "x_1 = 1; x_2 = 1; x_n = | |
x_{n-1} + x_{n-2}\quad\forall n > 2". | |
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Write a function that takes an "int" value and gives that many | |
terms of the Fibonacci sequence. | |
5.7.8. Answer | |
1. The following program calculates Fibonacci numbers: | |
package main | |
import "fmt" | |
func fibonacci(value int) []int { | |
x := make([]int, value) <1> | |
x[0], x[1] = 1, 1 <2> | |
for n := 2; n < value; n++ { | |
x[n] = x[n-1] + x[n-2] <3> | |
} | |
return x <4> | |
} | |
func main() { | |
for _, term := range fibonacci(10) { <5> | |
fmt.Printf("%v ", term) | |
} | |
} | |
At _1_ we create an array to hold the integers up to the value given | |
in the function call. At _2_ we start the Fibonacci calculation. | |
Then _3_: "x_n = x_{n-1} + x_{n-2}". At _4_ we return the _entire_ | |
array. And at _5_ we use the "range" keyword to "walk" the numbers | |
returned by the Fibonacci function. Here up to 10. Finally, we | |
print the numbers. | |
5.7.9. Var args | |
1. Write a function that takes a variable number of ints and print | |
each integer on a separate line. | |
5.7.10. Answer | |
1. For this we need the "{...}"-syntax to signal we define a | |
function that takes an arbitrary number of arguments. | |
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package main | |
import "fmt" | |
func main() { | |
printthem(1, 4, 5, 7, 4) | |
printthem(1, 2, 4) | |
} | |
func printthem(numbers ...int) { | |
for _, d := range numbers { | |
fmt.Printf("%d\n", d) | |
} | |
} | |
5.7.11. Functions that return functions | |
1. Write a function that returns a function that performs a "+2" on | |
integers. Name the function "plusTwo". You should then be able | |
do the following: | |
p := plusTwo() | |
fmt.Printf("%v\n", p(2)) | |
Which should print 4. See Section 5.3. | |
2. Generalize the function from above and create a "plusX(x)" which | |
returns functions that add "x" to an integer. | |
5.7.12. Answer | |
1. Define a new function that returns a function: "return func(x | |
int) int { return x + 2 }" Function literals at work, we define | |
the +2--function right there in the return statement. | |
func main() { | |
p2 := plusTwo() | |
fmt.Printf("%v\n",p2(2)) | |
} | |
func plusTwo() func(int) int { <1> | |
return func(x int) int { return x + 2 } <2> | |
} | |
2. Here we use a closure: | |
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func plusX(x int) func(int) int { <1> | |
return func(y int) int { return x + y } <2> | |
} | |
Here _1_, we again define a function that returns a function. We | |
use the _local_ variable "x" in the function literal at _2_. | |
5.7.13. Maximum | |
1. Write a function that finds the maximum value in an "int" slice | |
("[]int"). | |
5.7.14. Answer | |
1. This function returns the largest int in the slice \var{l}: | |
func max(l []int) (max int) { <1> | |
max = l[0] | |
for _, v := range l { <2> | |
if v > max { <3> | |
max = v | |
} | |
} | |
return <4> | |
} | |
At _1_ we use a named return parameter. At _2_ we loop over "l". | |
The index of the element is not important. At _3_, if we find a | |
new maximum, we remember it. And at _4_ we have a "lone" return; | |
the current value of "max" is now returned. | |
5.7.15. Map function | |
A "map()"-function is a function that takes a function and a list. | |
The function is applied to each member in the list and a new list | |
containing these calculated values is returned. Thus: | |
"\mathrm{map}(f(), (a_1,a_2,\ldots,a_{n-1},a_n)) = (f(a_1), | |
f(a_2),\ldots,f(a_{n-1}), f(a_n)) " | |
1. Write a simple "map()"-function in Go. It is sufficient for this | |
function only to work for ints. | |
5.7.16. Answer | |
1. A possible answer: | |
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func Map(f func(int) int, l []int) []int { | |
j := make([]int, len(l)) | |
for k, v := range l { | |
j[k] = f(v) | |
} | |
return j | |
} | |
func main() { | |
m := []int{1, 3, 4} | |
f := func(i int) int { | |
return i * i | |
} | |
fmt.Printf("%v", (Map(f, m))) | |
} | |
5.7.17. Stack | |
1. Create a simple stack which can hold a fixed number of ints. It | |
does not have to grow beyond this limit. Define "push" -- put | |
something on the stack -- and "pop" -- retrieve something from | |
the stack -- functions. The stack should be a LIFO (last in, | |
first out) stack. | |
1. Write a "String" method which converts the stack to a string | |
representation. The stack in the figure could be represented as: | |
"[0:m] [1:l] [2:k]" . | |
5.7.18. Answer | |
1. First we define a new type that represents a stack; we need an | |
array (to hold the keys) and an index, which points to the last | |
element. Our small stack can only hold 10 elements. | |
type stack struct { | |
i int | |
data [10]int | |
} | |
Next we need the "push" and "pop" functions to actually use the | |
thing. First we show the _wrong_ solution! | |
In Go, data passed to functions is _passed-by-value_ meaning a copy | |
is created and given to the function. The first stab for the | |
function "push" could be: | |
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func (s stack) push(k int) { | |
if s.i+1 > 9 { | |
return | |
} | |
s.data[s.i] = k | |
s.i++ | |
} | |
The function works on the "s" which is of the type "stack". To use | |
this we just call "s.push(50)", to push the integer 50 on the stack. | |
But the push function gets a copy of "s", so it is _not_ working on | |
the _real_ thing. Nothing gets pushed to our stack. For example the | |
following code: | |
var s stack | |
s.push(25) | |
fmt.Printf("stack %v\n", s); | |
s.push(14) | |
fmt.Printf("stack %v\n", s); | |
prints: | |
stack [0:0] | |
stack [0:0] | |
To solve this we need to give the function "push" a pointer to the | |
stack. This means we need to change "push" from | |
func (s stack) push(k int) | |
to | |
func (s *stack) push(k int). | |
We should now use "new()" (see Section 7.1.1). in Section 7 to | |
create a _pointer_ to a newly allocated "stack", so line 1 from the | |
example above needs to be "s := new(stack)" . | |
And our two functions become: | |
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func (s *stack) push(k int) { | |
s.data[s.i] = k | |
s.i++ | |
} | |
func (s *stack) pop() int { | |
s.i-- | |
ret := s.data[s.i] | |
s.data[s.i] = 0 | |
return ret | |
} | |
Which we then use as follows: | |
func main() { | |
var s stack | |
s.push(25) | |
s.push(14) | |
fmt.Printf("stack %v\n", s) | |
} | |
1. "fmt.Printf("%v")" can print any value ("%v") that satisfies the | |
"Stringer" interface (see Section 8). For this to work we only | |
need to define a "String()" function for our type: | |
func (s stack) String() string { | |
var str string | |
for i := 0; i <= s.i; i++ { | |
str = str + "[" + | |
strconv.Itoa(i) + ":" + strconv.Itoa(s.data[i]) + "]" | |
} | |
return str | |
} | |
6. Packages | |
"^(") | |
Answer to whether there is a bit wise negation operator -- Ken | |
Thompson | |
A package is a collection of functions and data. | |
You declare a package with the "package" keyword. The filename does | |
not have to match the package name. The convention for package names | |
is to use lowercase characters. Go packages may consist of multiple | |
files, but they share the "package <name>" line. Let's define a | |
package "even" in the file "even.go". | |
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package even <1> | |
func Even(i int) bool { <2> | |
return i%2 == 0 | |
} | |
func odd(i int) bool { <3> | |
return i%2 == 1 | |
} | |
Here _1_ we start a new namespace: "even". The function "Even" _2_ | |
starts with a capital letter. This means the function is _exported_, | |
and may be used outside our package (more on that later). The | |
function "odd" _3_ does not start with a capital letter, so it is a | |
_private_ function. | |
Now we just need to build the package. We create a directory under | |
"$GOPATH", and copy "even.go" there (see Section 4.2 in Section 4). | |
% mkdir $GOPATH/src/even | |
% cp even.go $GOPATH/src/even | |
% go build | |
% go install | |
Now we can use the package in our own program "myeven.go": | |
package main | |
import ( <1> | |
"even" <2> | |
"fmt" <3> | |
) | |
func main() { | |
i := 5 | |
fmt.Printf("Is %d even? %v\n", i, even.Even(i)) <4> | |
} | |
Import _1_ the following packages. The _local_ package "even" is | |
imported here _2_. This _3_ imports the official "fmt" package. And | |
now we use _4_ the function from the "even" package. The syntax for | |
accessing a function from a package is "<package>.FunctionName()". | |
And finally we can build our program. | |
% go build myeven.go | |
% ./myeven | |
Is 5 even? false | |
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If we change our "myeven.go" at _4_ to use the unexported function | |
"even.odd": "fmt.Printf("Is %d even? %v\n", i, even.odd(i))" We get | |
an error when compiling, because we are trying to use a _private_ | |
function: | |
myeven.go: cannot refer to unexported name even.odd | |
Note that the "starts with capital "\rightarrow" exported", "starts | |
with lower-case "\rightarrow" private" rule also extends to other | |
names (new types, global variables) defined in the package. Note | |
that the term "capital" is not limited to US-ASCII -- it extends to | |
all bicameral alphabets (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic, Armenian and | |
Coptic). | |
6.1. Identifiers | |
The Go standard library names some function with the old (Unix) names | |
while others are in CamelCase. The convention is to leave well-known | |
legacy not-quite-words alone rather than try to figure out where the | |
capital letters go: "Atoi", "Getwd", "Chmod". CamelCasing works best | |
when you have whole words to work with: "ReadFile", "NewWriter", | |
"MakeSlice". The convention in Go is to use CamelCase rather than | |
underscores to write multi-word names. | |
As we did above in our "myeven" program, accessing content from an | |
imported (with "import" ) package is done with using the package's | |
name and then a dot. After "import "bytes"" the importing program | |
can talk about "bytes.Buffer". A package name should be good, short, | |
concise and evocative. The convention in Go is that package names | |
are lowercase, single word names. | |
The package name used in the "import" statement is the default name | |
used. But if the need arises (two different packages with the same | |
name for instance), you can override this default: "import bar | |
"bytes"" The function "Buffer" is now accessed as "bar.Buffer". | |
Another convention is that the package name is the base name of its | |
source directory; the package in "src/compress/gzip" is imported as | |
"compress/gzip" but has name "gzip", not "compress/gzip". | |
It is important to avoid stuttering when naming things. For | |
instance, the buffered reader type in the "bufio" package is called | |
"Reader", not "BufReader", because users see it as "bufio.Reader", | |
which is a clear, concise name. | |
Similarly, the function to make new instances of "ring.Ring" (package | |
"container/ring"), would normally be called "NewRing", but since | |
"Ring" is the only type exported by the package, and since the | |
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package is called "ring", it's called just "New". Clients of the | |
package see that as "ring.New". Use the package structure to help | |
you choose good names. | |
Another short example is "once.Do" (see package "sync"); | |
"once.Do(setup)" reads well and would not be improved by writing | |
"once.DoOrWaitUntilDone(setup)". Long names don't automatically make | |
things more readable. | |
6.2. Documenting packages | |
When we created our "even" package, we skipped over an important | |
item: documentation. Each package should have a _package comment_, a | |
block comment preceding the "package" clause. In our case we should | |
extend the beginning of the package, with: | |
// The even package implements a fast function for detecting if an integer | |
// is even or not. | |
package even | |
When running "go doc" this will show up at the top of the page. When | |
a package consists of multiple files the package comment should only | |
appear in one file. A common convention (in really big packages) is | |
to have a separate "doc.go" that only holds the package comment. | |
Here is a snippet from the official "regexp" package: | |
/* | |
The regexp package implements a simple library for | |
regular expressions. | |
The syntax of the regular expressions accepted is: | |
regexp: | |
concatenation { '|' concatenation } | |
*/ | |
package regexp | |
Each defined (and exported) function should have a small line of text | |
documenting the behavior of the function. Again to extend our "even" | |
package: | |
// Even returns true of i is even. Otherwise false is returned. | |
func Even(i int) bool { | |
And even though "odd" is not exported, it's good form to document it | |
as well. | |
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// odd is the opposite of Even. | |
func odd(i int) bool { | |
6.3. Testing packages | |
In Go it is customary to write (unit) tests for your package. | |
Writing tests involves the "testing" package and the program "go | |
test". Both have excellent documentation. | |
The "go test" program runs all the test functions. Without any | |
defined tests for our "even" package, "go test" yields: | |
% go test | |
? even [no test files] | |
Let us fix this by defining a test in a test file. Test files reside | |
in the package directory and are named "*_test.go". Those test files | |
are just like other Go programs, but "go test" will only execute the | |
test functions. Each test function has the same signature and its | |
name should start with "Test": "func TestXxx(t *testing.T)" . | |
When writing test you will need to tell "go test" whether a test was | |
successful or not. A successful test function just returns. When | |
the test fails you can signal this with the following functions. | |
These are the most important ones (see "go doc testing" or "go help | |
testfunc" for more): | |
o "func (t *T) Fail()", "Fail" marks the test function as having | |
failed but continues execution. | |
o "func (t *T) FailNow()", "FailNow" marks the test function as | |
having failed and stops its execution. Any remaining tests in | |
this file are skipped, and execution continues with the next test. | |
o "func (t *T) Log(args ...interface{})", "Log" formats its | |
arguments using default formatting, analogous to "Print()", and | |
records the text in the error log. | |
o "func (t *T) Fatal(args ...interface{})", "Fatal" is equivalent to | |
"Log()" followed by "FailNow()". | |
Putting all this together we can write our test. First we pick a | |
name: "even_test.go". Then we add the following contents: | |
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package even <1> | |
import "testing" <2> | |
func TestEven(t *testing.T) { <3> | |
if !Even(2) { | |
t.Log("2 should be even!") | |
t.Fail() | |
} | |
} | |
A test file belongs to the current _1_ package. This is not only | |
convenient, but also allows tests of unexported functions and | |
structures. We then _2_ import the "testing" package. And finally | |
the test we want to execute. The code here _3_ should hold no | |
surprises: we check if the "Even" function works OK. And now, the | |
moment we have been waiting form executing the test. | |
% go test | |
ok even 0.001s | |
Our test ran and reported "ok". Success! If we redefine our test | |
function, we can see the result of a failed test: | |
// Entering the twilight zone | |
func TestEven(t *testing.T) { | |
if Even(2) { | |
t.Log("2 should be odd!") | |
t.Fail() | |
} | |
} | |
We now get: | |
FAIL even 0.004s | |
--- FAIL: TestEven (0.00 seconds) | |
2 should be odd! | |
FAIL | |
And you can act accordingly (by fixing the test for instance). | |
Writing new packages should go hand in hand with writing (some) | |
documentation and test functions. It will make your code better and | |
it shows that you really put in the effort. | |
The Go test suite also allows you to incorporate example functions | |
which serve as documentation _and_ as tests. These functions need to | |
start with "Example". | |
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func ExampleEven() { | |
if Even(2) { | |
fmt.Printf("Is even\n") | |
} | |
// Output: <1> | |
// Is even | |
} | |
Those last two comments lines _1_ are part of the example, "go test" | |
uses those to check the _generated_ output with the text in the | |
comments. If there is a mismatch the test fails. | |
6.4. Useful packages | |
The standard libary of Go includes a huge number of packages. It is | |
very enlightening to browse the "$GOROOT/src/pkg" directory and look | |
at the packages. We cannot comment on each package, but the | |
following are worth a mention: | |
fmt | |
Package "fmt" implements formatted I/O with functions analogous to | |
C's "printf" and "scanf". The format verbs are derived from C's | |
but are simpler. Some verbs (%-sequences) that can be used: | |
* _%v_, the value in a default format. when printing structs, the | |
plus flag (%+v) adds field names. | |
* _%#v_, a Go-syntax representation of the value. | |
* _%T_, a Go-syntax representation of the type of the value. | |
io | |
This package provides basic interfaces to I/O primitives. Its | |
primary job is to wrap existing implementations of such | |
primitives, such as those in package os, into shared public | |
interfaces that abstract the functionality, plus some other | |
related primitives. | |
bufio | |
This package implements buffered I/O. It wraps an "io.Reader" or | |
"io.Writer" object, creating another object (Reader or Writer) | |
that also implements the interface but provides buffering and some | |
help for textual I/O. | |
sort | |
The "sort" package provides primitives for sorting arrays and | |
user-defined collections. | |
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strconv | |
The "strconv" package implements conversions to and from string | |
representations of basic data types. | |
os | |
The "os" package provides a platform-independent interface to | |
operating system functionality. The design is Unix-like. | |
sync | |
The package "sync" provides basic synchronization primitives such | |
as mutual exclusion locks. | |
flag | |
The "flag" package implements command-line flag parsing. | |
encoding/json | |
The "encoding/json" package implements encoding and decoding of | |
JSON objects as defined in RFC 4627 [RFC4627]. | |
html/template | |
Data-driven templates for generating textual output such as HTML. | |
Templates are executed by applying them to a data structure. | |
Annotations in the template refer to elements of the data | |
structure (typically a field of a struct or a key in a map) to | |
control execution and derive values to be displayed. The template | |
walks the structure as it executes and the "cursor" @ represents | |
the value at the current location in the structure. | |
net/http | |
The "net/http" package implements parsing of HTTP requests, | |
replies, and URLs and provides an extensible HTTP server and a | |
basic HTTP client. | |
unsafe | |
The "unsafe" package contains operations that step around the type | |
safety of Go programs. Normally you don't need this package, but | |
it is worth mentioning that _unsafe_ Go programs are possible. | |
reflect | |
The "reflect" package implements run-time reflection, allowing a | |
program to manipulate objects with arbitrary types. The typical | |
use is to take a value with static type "interface{}" and extract | |
its dynamic type information by calling "TypeOf", which returns an | |
object with interface type "Type". See Section 8, | |
Section Section 8.8. | |
os/exec | |
The "os/exec" package runs external commands. | |
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6.5. Exercises | |
6.5.1. Stack as package | |
1. See the Stack exercise. In this exercise we want to create a | |
separate package for that code. Create a proper package for your | |
stack implementation, "Push", "Pop" and the "Stack" type need to | |
be exported. | |
2. Write a simple unit test for this package. You should at least | |
test that a "Pop" works after a "Push". | |
6.5.2. Answer | |
1. There are a few details that should be changed to make a proper | |
package for our stack. First, the exported functions should | |
begin with a capital letter and so should "Stack". The package | |
file is named "stack-as-package.go" and contains: | |
package stack | |
// Stack holds the items. | |
type Stack struct { | |
i int | |
data [10]int | |
} | |
// Push pushes an item on the stack. | |
func (s *Stack) Push(k int) { | |
s.data[s.i] = k | |
s.i++ | |
} | |
// Pop pops an item from the stack. | |
func (s *Stack) Pop() (ret int) { | |
s.i-- | |
ret = s.data[s.i] | |
return | |
} | |
2. To make the unit testing work properly you need to do some | |
preparations. We'll come to those in a minute. First the actual | |
unit test. Create a file with the name "pushpop_test.go", with | |
the following contents: | |
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package stack | |
import "testing" | |
func TestPushPop(t *testing.T) { | |
c := new(Stack) | |
c.Push(5) | |
if c.Pop() != 5 { | |
t.Log("Pop doesn't give 5") | |
t.Fail() | |
} | |
} | |
For "go test" to work we need to put our package files in a directory | |
under "$GOPATH/src": | |
% mkdir $GOPATH/src/stack | |
% cp pushpop_test.go $GOPATH/src/stack | |
% cp stack-as-package.go $GOPATH/src/stack | |
Yields: | |
% go test stack | |
ok stack 0.001s | |
6.5.3. Calculator | |
1. Create a reverse polish calculator. Use your stack package. | |
6.5.4. Answer | |
1. This is one answer: | |
package main | |
import ( | |
"bufio" | |
"fmt" | |
"os" | |
"strconv" | |
) | |
var reader *bufio.Reader = bufio.NewReader(os.Stdin) | |
var st = new(Stack) | |
type Stack struct { | |
i int | |
data [10]int | |
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} | |
func (s *Stack) push(k int) { | |
if s.i+1 > 9 { | |
return | |
} | |
s.data[s.i] = k | |
s.i++ | |
} | |
func (s *Stack) pop() (ret int) { | |
s.i-- | |
if s.i < 0 { | |
s.i = 0 | |
return | |
} | |
ret = s.data[s.i] | |
return | |
} | |
func main() { | |
for { | |
s, err := reader.ReadString('\n') | |
var token string | |
if err != nil { | |
return | |
} | |
for _, c := range s { | |
switch { | |
case c >= '0' && c <= '9': | |
token = token + string(c) | |
case c == ' ': | |
r, _ := strconv.Atoi(token) | |
st.push(r) | |
token = "" | |
case c == '+': | |
fmt.Printf("%d\n", st.pop()+st.pop()) | |
case c == '*': | |
fmt.Printf("%d\n", st.pop()*st.pop()) | |
case c == '-': | |
p := st.pop() | |
q := st.pop() | |
fmt.Printf("%d\n", q-p) | |
case c == 'q': | |
return | |
default: | |
//error | |
} | |
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} | |
} | |
} | |
7. Beyond the basics | |
Go has pointers but not pointer arithmetic. You cannot use a | |
pointer variable to walk through the bytes of a string. | |
Go For C++ Programmers -- Go Authors | |
In this chapter we delve deeper in to the language. | |
Go has pointers. There is however no pointer arithmetic, so they act | |
more like references than pointers that you may know from C. | |
Pointers are useful. Remember that when you call a function in Go, | |
the variables are _pass-by-value_. So, for efficiency and the | |
possibility to modify a passed value _in_ functions we have pointers. | |
You declare a pointer by prefixing the type with an '"*"': "var p | |
*int". Now "p" is a pointer to an integer value. All newly declared | |
variables are assigned their zero value and pointers are no | |
different. A newly declared pointer, or just a pointer that points | |
to nothing, has a nil-value . In other languages this is often called | |
a NULL pointer in Go it is just "nil". To make a pointer point to | |
something you can use the address-of operator ("&"), which we | |
demonstrate here: | |
var p *int | |
fmt.Printf("%v", p) <1> | |
var i int <2> | |
p = &i <3> | |
fmt.Printf("%v", p) <4> | |
This _1_ Prints "nil". Declare _2_ an integer variable "i". Make | |
"p" point _3_ to "i", i.e. take the address of "i". And this _4_ | |
will print something like "0x7ff96b81c000a". De-referencing a | |
pointer is done by prefixing the pointer variable with "*". | |
As said, there is no pointer arithmetic, so if you write: "*p++", it | |
is interpreted as "(*p)++": first reference and then increment the | |
value. | |
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7.1. Allocation | |
Go also has garbage collection, meaning that you don't have to worry | |
about memory deallocation. | |
To allocate memory Go has two primitives, "new" and "make". They do | |
different things and apply to different types, which can be | |
confusing, but the rules are simple. The following sections show how | |
to handle allocation in Go and hopefully clarifies the somewhat | |
artificial distinction between "new" and "make" . | |
7.1.1. Allocation with new | |
The built-in function "new" is essentially the same as its namesakes | |
in other languages: "new(T)" allocates zeroed storage for a new item | |
of type "T" and returns its address, a value of type "*T". Or in | |
other words, it returns a pointer to a newly allocated zero value of | |
type "T". This is important to remember. | |
The documentation for "bytes.Buffer" states that "the zero value for | |
Buffer is an empty buffer ready to use.". Similarly, "sync.Mutex" | |
does not have an explicit constructor or Init method. Instead, the | |
zero value for a "sync.Mutex" is defined to be an unlocked mutex. | |
7.1.2. Allocation with make | |
The built-in function "make(T, args)" serves a purpose different from | |
"new(T)". It creates slices, maps, and channels _only_, and it | |
returns an initialized (not zero!) value of type "T", and not a | |
pointer: "*T". The reason for the distinction is that these three | |
types are, under the covers, references to data structures that must | |
be initialized before use. A slice, for example, is a three-item | |
descriptor containing a pointer to the data (inside an array), the | |
length, and the capacity; until those items are initialized, the | |
slice is "nil". For slices, maps, and channels, "make" initializes | |
the internal data structure and prepares the value for use. | |
For instance, "make([]int, 10, 100)" allocates an array of 100 ints | |
and then creates a slice structure with length 10 and a capacity of | |
100 pointing at the first 10 elements of the array. In contrast, | |
"new([]int)" returns a pointer to a newly allocated, zeroed slice | |
structure, that is, a pointer to a "nil" slice value. These examples | |
illustrate the difference between "new" and "make". | |
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var p *[]int = new([]int) <1> | |
var v []int = make([]int, 100) <2> | |
var p *[]int = new([]int) <3> | |
*p = make([]int, 100, 100) | |
v := make([]int, 100) <4> | |
Allocates _1_ slice structure; rarely useful. "v" _2_ refers to a new | |
array of 100 ints. At _3_ we make it unnecessarily complex, _4_ is | |
more idiomatic. | |
Remember that "make" applies only to maps, slices and channels and | |
does not return a pointer. To obtain an explicit pointer allocate | |
with "new". | |
*new* allocates; *make* initializes. | |
The above two paragraphs can be summarized as: | |
o "new(T)" returns "*T" pointing to a zeroed "T" | |
o "make(T)" returns an initialized "T" | |
And of course "make" is only used for slices, maps and channels. | |
7.1.3. Constructors and composite literals | |
Sometimes the zero value isn't good enough and an initializing | |
constructor is necessary, as in this example taken from the package | |
"os". | |
func NewFile(fd int, name string) *File { | |
if fd < 0 { | |
return nil | |
} | |
f := new(File) | |
f.fd = fd | |
f.name = name | |
f.dirinfo = nil | |
f.nepipe = 0 | |
return f | |
} | |
There's a lot of boiler plate in there. We can simplify it using a | |
_composite literal_ , which is an expression that creates a new | |
instance each time it is evaluated. | |
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func NewFile(fd int, name string) *File { | |
if fd < 0 { | |
return nil | |
} | |
f := File{fd, name, nil, 0} | |
return &f <1> | |
} | |
It is OK to return the address of a local variable _1_ the storage | |
associated with the variable survives after the function returns. | |
In fact, taking the address of a composite literal allocates a fresh | |
instance each time it is evaluated, so we can combine these last two | |
lines. | |
return &File{fd, name, nil, 0} | |
The items (called fields) of a composite literal are laid out in | |
order and must all be present. However, by labeling the elements | |
explicitly as field:value pairs, the initializers can appear in any | |
order, with the missing ones left as their respective zero values. | |
Thus we could say | |
return &File{fd: fd, name: name} | |
As a limiting case, if a composite literal contains no fields at all, | |
it creates a zero value for the type. The expressions "new(File)" | |
and "&File{}" are equivalent. In fact the use of "new" is | |
discouraged. | |
Composite literals can also be created for arrays, slices, and maps, | |
with the field labels being indices or map keys as appropriate. In | |
these examples, the initializations work regardless of the values of | |
"Enone", and "Einval", as long as they are distinct: | |
ar := [...]string{Enone: "no error", Einval: "invalid argument"} | |
sl := []string{Enone: "no error", Einval: "invalid argument"} | |
ma := map[int]string {Enone: "no error", Einval: "invalid argument"} | |
7.2. Defining your own types | |
Of course Go allows you to define new types, it does this with the | |
"type" keyword: "type foo int" | |
This creates a new type "foo" which acts like an "int". Creating | |
more sophisticated types is done with the "struct" keyword. An | |
example would be when we want record somebody's name ("string") and | |
age ("int") in a single structure and make it a new type: | |
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package main | |
import "fmt" | |
type NameAge struct { | |
name string // Both non exported fields. | |
age int | |
} | |
func main() { | |
a := new(NameAge) | |
a.name = "Pete" | |
a.age = 42 | |
fmt.Printf("%v\n", a) | |
} | |
Apropos, the output of "fmt.Printf("%v\n", a)" is "&{Pete 42}" | |
That is nice! Go knows how to print your structure. If you only | |
want to print one, or a few, fields of the structure you'll need to | |
use ".<field name>". For example to only print the name: | |
fmt.Printf("%s", a.name) | |
7.2.1. More on structure fields | |
As said each item in a structure is called a field. A struct with no | |
fields: "struct {}". Or one with four fields: | |
struct { | |
x, y int | |
A *[]int | |
F func() | |
} | |
If you omit the name for a field, you create an anonymous field | |
(((field, anonymous))), for instance: | |
struct { | |
T1 // Field name is T1. | |
*T2 // Field name is T2. | |
P.T3 // Field name is T3. | |
x, y int // Field names are x and y. | |
} | |
Note that field names that start with a capital letter are exported, | |
i.e. can be set or read from other packages. Field names that start | |
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with a lowercase are private to the current package. The same goes | |
for functions defined in packages, see Section 6 for the details. | |
7.2.2. Methods | |
If you create functions that work on your newly defined type, you can | |
take two routes: | |
1. Create a function that takes the type as an argument. | |
func doSomething(n1 *NameAge, n2 int) { /* */ } | |
1. Create a function that works on the type (see _receiver_ in | |
Section 5): | |
func (n1 *NameAge) doSomething(n2 int) { /* */ } | |
This is a method call, which can be used as: | |
var n *NameAge | |
n.doSomething(2) | |
Whether to use a function or method is entirely up to the programmer, | |
but if you want to satisfy an interface (see the next chapter) you | |
must use methods. If no such requirement exists it is a matter of | |
taste whether to use functions or methods. | |
But keep the following in mind, this is quoted from [go_spec]: | |
If "x" is addressable and "&x"'s method set contains "m", "x.m()" | |
is shorthand for "(&x).m()". | |
In the above case this means that the following is _not_ an error: | |
var n NameAge // Not a pointer | |
n.doSomething(2) | |
Here Go will search the method list for "n" of type "NameAge", come | |
up empty and will then _also_ search the method list for the type | |
"*NameAge" and will translate this call to "(&n).doSomething(2)". | |
There is a subtle but major difference between the following type | |
declarations. Also see the Section "Type Declarations" [go_spec]. | |
Suppose we have: | |
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// A Mutex is a data type with two methods, Lock and Unlock. | |
type Mutex struct { /* Mutex fields */ } | |
func (m *Mutex) Lock() { /* Lock impl. */ } | |
func (m *Mutex) Unlock() { /* Unlock impl. */ } | |
We now create two types in two different manners: | |
o "type NewMutex Mutex". | |
o "type PrintableMutex struct{Mutex}". | |
"NewMutex" is equal to "Mutex", but it _does not_ have _any_ of the | |
methods of "Mutex". In other words its method set is empty. But | |
"PrintableMutex" _has_ _inherited_ the method set from "Mutex". The | |
Go term for this is _embedding_ . In the words of [go_spec]: | |
The method set of "*PrintableMutex" contains the methods "Lock" | |
and "Unlock" bound to its anonymous field "Mutex". | |
7.3. Conversions | |
Sometimes you want to convert a type to another type. This is | |
possible in Go, but there are some rules. For starters, converting | |
from one value to another is done by operators (that look like | |
functions: "byte()") and not all conversions are allowed. | |
+-------+---------+---------+---------+---------+--------+----------+ | |
| From | "b | "i | "r | "s | "f flo | "i int" | | |
| | []byte" | []int" | []rune" | string" | at32" | | | |
+-------+---------+---------+---------+---------+--------+----------+ | |
| *To* | | | | | | | | |
| "[]by | . | | | "[]byte | | | | |
| te" | | | | (s)" | | | | |
| "[]in | | . | | "[]int( | | | | |
| t" | | | | s)" | | | | |
| "[]ru | | | | "[]rune | | | | |
| ne" | | | | (s)" | | | | |
| "stri | "string | "string | "string | . | | | | |
| ng" | (b)" | (i)" | (r)" | | | | | |
| "floa | | | | | . | "float32 | | |
| t32" | | | | | | (i)" | | |
| "int" | | | | | "int(f | . | | |
| | | | | | )" | | | |
+-------+---------+---------+---------+---------+--------+----------+ | |
Table 4: Valid conversions, | |
o From a "string" to a slice of bytes or runes. | |
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mystring := "hello this is string" | |
byteslice := []byte(mystring) | |
Converts to a "byte" slice, each "byte" contains the integer value | |
of the corresponding byte in the string. Note that as strings in | |
Go are encoded in UTF-8 some characters in the string may end up | |
in 1, 2, 3 or 4 bytes. | |
runeslice := []rune(mystring) | |
Converts to an "rune" slice, each "rune" contains a Unicode code | |
point. Every character from the string corresponds to one rune. | |
o From a slice of bytes or runes to a "string". | |
b := []byte{'h','e','l','l','o'} // Composite literal. | |
s := string(b) | |
i := []rune{257,1024,65} | |
r := string(i) | |
For numeric values the following conversions are defined: | |
o Convert to an integer with a specific (bit) length: "uint8(int)" | |
o From floating point to an integer value: "int(float32)". This | |
discards the fraction part from the floating point value. | |
o And the other way around: "float32(int)". | |
7.3.1. User defined types and conversions | |
How can you convert between the types you have defined yourself? We | |
create two types here "Foo" and "Bar", where "Bar" is an alias for | |
"Foo": | |
type foo struct { int } // Anonymous struct field. | |
type bar foo // bar is an alias for foo. | |
Then we: | |
var b bar = bar{1} // Declare `b` to be a `bar`. | |
var f foo = b // Assign `b` to `f`. | |
Which fails on the last line with: "cannot use b (type bar) as type | |
foo in assignment" | |
This can be fixed with a conversion: "var f foo = foo(b)" | |
Note that converting structures that are not identical in their | |
fields is more difficult. Also note that converting "b" to a plain | |
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"int" also fails; an integer is not the same as a structure | |
containing an integer. | |
7.4. Exercises | |
7.4.1. Map function with interfaces | |
1. Use the answer from the earlier map exercise but now make it | |
generic using interfaces. Make it at least work for ints and | |
strings. | |
7.4.2. Answer | |
1. | |
package main | |
import "fmt" | |
// Define the empty interface as a type. | |
type e interface{} | |
func mult2(f e) e { | |
switch f.(type) { | |
case int: | |
return f.(int) * 2 | |
case string: | |
return f.(string) + f.(string) + f.(string) + f.(string) | |
} | |
return f | |
} | |
func Map(n []e, f func(e) e) []e { | |
m := make([]e, len(n)) | |
for k, v := range n { | |
m[k] = f(v) | |
} | |
return m | |
} | |
func main() { | |
m := []e{1, 2, 3, 4} | |
s := []e{"a", "b", "c", "d"} | |
mf := Map(m, mult2) | |
sf := Map(s, mult2) | |
fmt.Printf("%v\n", mf) | |
fmt.Printf("%v\n", sf) | |
} | |
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7.4.3. Pointers | |
1. Suppose we have defined the following structure: | |
type Person struct { | |
name string | |
age int | |
} | |
What is the difference between the following two lines? | |
var p1 Person | |
p2 := new(Person) | |
2. What is the difference between the following two allocations? | |
func Set(t *T) { | |
x = t | |
} | |
and | |
func Set(t T) { | |
x= &t | |
} | |
7.4.4. Answer | |
1. The expression, "var p1 Person" allocates a "Person"-_value_ to | |
"p1". The type of "p1" is "Person". The second line: "p2 := | |
new(Person)" allocates memory and assigns a _pointer_ to "p2". | |
The type of "p2" is "*Person". | |
2. In the first function, "x" points to the same thing that "t" | |
does, which is the same thing that the actual argument points to. | |
So in the second function, we have an "extra" variable containing | |
a copy of the interesting value. In the second function, "x" | |
points to a new (heap-allocated) variable "t" which contains a | |
copy of whatever the actual argument value is. | |
7.4.5. Linked List | |
1. Make use of the package "container/list" to create a (doubly) | |
linked list. Push the values 1, 2 and 4 to the list and then | |
print it. | |
2. Create your own linked list implementation. And perform the same | |
actions as above. | |
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7.4.6. Answer | |
1. The following is the implementation of a program using doubly | |
linked lists from "container/list". | |
package main | |
import ( | |
"container/list" | |
"fmt" | |
) | |
func main() { | |
l := list.New() | |
l.PushBack(1) | |
l.PushBack(2) | |
l.PushBack(4) | |
for e := l.Front(); e != nil; e = e.Next() { | |
fmt.Printf("%v\n", e.Value) | |
} | |
} | |
1. The following is a program implementing a simple doubly linked | |
list supporting "int" values. | |
package main | |
import ( | |
"errors" <1> | |
"fmt" | |
) | |
type Value int <2> | |
type Node struct { <3> | |
Value | |
prev, next *Node | |
} | |
type List struct { | |
head, tail *Node | |
} | |
func (l *List) Front() *Node { <4> | |
return l.head | |
} | |
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func (n *Node) Next() *Node { | |
return n.next | |
} | |
func (l *List) Push(v Value) *List { | |
n := &Node{Value: v} <5> | |
if l.head == nil { <6> | |
l.head = n | |
} else { | |
l.tail.next = n <7> | |
n.prev = l.tail <8> | |
} | |
l.tail = n <9> | |
return l | |
} | |
var errEmpty = errors.New("List is empty") | |
func (l *List) Pop() (v Value, err error) { | |
if l.tail == nil { <10> | |
err = errEmpty | |
} else { | |
v = l.tail.Value <11> | |
l.tail = l.tail.prev <12> | |
if l.tail == nil { | |
l.head = nil <13> | |
} | |
} | |
return v, err | |
} | |
func main() { | |
l := new(List) | |
l.Push(1) | |
l.Push(2) | |
l.Push(4) | |
for n := l.Front(); n != nil; n = n.Next() { | |
fmt.Printf("%v\n", n.Value) | |
} | |
fmt.Println() | |
for v, err := l.Pop(); err == nil; v, err = l.Pop() { | |
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fmt.Printf("%v\n", v) | |
} | |
} | |
Import <_1_> the packages we will need. At <_2_> we declare a type | |
for the value our list will contain, this is not strictly neccesary. | |
And at <_3_> we declare a type for the each node in our list. At | |
<_4_> we define the "Front" method for our list. When pushing, | |
create a new Node <_5_> with the provided value. If the list is | |
empty <_6_>, put the new node at the head. Otherwise <_7_> put it at | |
the tail and make sure <_8_> the new node points back to the | |
previously existing one. At <_9_> we re-adjust tail to the newly | |
inserted node. | |
In the Pop _10_ method, we return an error if the list is empty. If | |
it is not empty _11_ we save the last value. And then _12_ discard | |
the last node from the list. Finally at _13_ we make sure the list | |
is consistent if it becomes empty. | |
7.4.7. Cat | |
1. Write a program which mimics the Unix program "cat". | |
2. Make it support the "-n" flag, where each line is numbered. | |
3. The solution to the above question given in contains a bug. Can | |
you spot and fix it? | |
7.4.8. Answer | |
1. The following is implemention of "cat" which also supports a -n | |
flag to number each line. | |
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package main | |
import ( | |
"bufio" | |
"flag" | |
"fmt" | |
"io" <1> | |
"os" | |
) | |
var numberFlag = flag.Bool("n", false, "number each line") // <<2>> | |
func cat(r *bufio.Reader) { <3> | |
i := 1 | |
for { | |
buf, e := r.ReadBytes('\n') <4> | |
if e == io.EOF { <5> | |
break | |
} | |
if *numberFlag { <6> | |
fmt.Fprintf(os.Stdout, "%5d %s", i, buf) | |
i++ | |
} else { <7> | |
fmt.Fprintf(os.Stdout, "%s", buf) | |
} | |
} | |
return | |
} | |
func main() { | |
flag.Parse() | |
if flag.NArg() == 0 { | |
cat(bufio.NewReader(os.Stdin)) | |
} | |
for i := 0; i < flag.NArg(); i++ { | |
f, e := os.Open(flag.Arg(i)) | |
if e != nil { | |
fmt.Fprintf(os.Stderr, "%s: error reading from %s: %s\n", | |
os.Args[0], flag.Arg(i), e.Error()) | |
continue | |
} | |
cat(bufio.NewReader(f)) | |
} | |
} | |
At _1_ we include all the packages we need. Here _2_ we define a new | |
flag "n", which defaults to off. Note that we get the help (-h) for | |
free. Start the function _3_ that actually reads the file's contents | |
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and displays it; Read one line at the time at _4_. And stop _5_ if we | |
hit the end. If we should number each line, print the line number | |
and then the line itself _6_. Otherwise _7_ we could just print the | |
line. | |
1. The bug show itself when the last line of the input does not | |
contain a newline. Or worse, when the input contains one line | |
without a closing newline nothing is shown at all. A better | |
solution is the following program. | |
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package main | |
import ( | |
"bufio" | |
"flag" | |
"fmt" | |
"io" | |
"os" | |
) | |
var numberFlag = flag.Bool("n", false, "number each line") | |
func cat(r *bufio.Reader) { | |
i := 1 | |
for { | |
buf, e := r.ReadBytes('\n') | |
if e == io.EOF && string(buf) == "" { | |
break | |
} | |
if *numberFlag { | |
fmt.Fprintf(os.Stdout, "%5d %s", i, buf) | |
i++ | |
} else { | |
fmt.Fprintf(os.Stdout, "%s", buf) | |
} | |
} | |
return | |
} | |
func main() { | |
flag.Parse() | |
if flag.NArg() == 0 { | |
cat(bufio.NewReader(os.Stdin)) | |
} | |
for i := 0; i < flag.NArg(); i++ { | |
f, e := os.Open(flag.Arg(i)) | |
if e != nil { | |
fmt.Fprintf(os.Stderr, "%s: error reading from %s: %s\n", | |
os.Args[0], flag.Arg(i), e.Error()) | |
continue | |
} | |
cat(bufio.NewReader(f)) | |
} | |
} | |
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7.4.9. Method calls | |
1. Suppose we have the following program. Note the package | |
"container/vector" was once part of Go, but was removed when the | |
"append" built-in was introduced. However, for this question | |
this isn't important. The package implemented a stack-like | |
structure, with push and pop methods. | |
package main | |
import "container/vector" | |
func main() { | |
k1 := vector.IntVector{} | |
k2 := &vector.IntVector{} | |
k3 := new(vector.IntVector) | |
k1.Push(2) | |
k2.Push(3) | |
k3.Push(4) | |
} | |
What are the types of "k1", "k2" and "k3"? | |
2. Now, this program compiles and runs OK. All the "Push" | |
operations work even though the variables are of a different | |
type. The documentation for "Push" says: | |
2. | |
So the receiver has to be of type "*IntVector", why does the code | |
above (the Push statements) work correctly then? | |
7.4.10. Answer | |
1. The type of "k1" is "vector.IntVector". Why? We use a composite | |
literal (the "{}"), so we get a value of that type back. The | |
variable "k2" is of "*vector.IntVector", because we take the | |
address ("&") of the composite literal. And finally "k3" has | |
also the type "*vector.IntVector", because "new" returns a | |
pointer to the type. | |
2. The answer is given in [go_spec] in the section "Calls", where | |
among other things it says: | |
A method call "x.m()" is valid if the method set of (the type of) | |
"x" contains "m" and the argument list can be assigned to the | |
parameter list of "m". If "x" is addressable and "&x"'s method | |
set contains "m", "x.m()" is shorthand for "(&x).m()". | |
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In other words because "k1" is addressable and "*vector.IntVector" | |
_does_ have the "Push" method, the call "k1.Push(2)" is translated by | |
Go into "(&k1).Push(2)" which makes the type system happy again (and | |
you too -- now you know this). | |
8. Interfaces | |
I have this phobia about having my body penetrated surgically. | |
You know what I mean? | |
eXistenZ -- Ted Pikul | |
In Go, the word _interface_ is overloaded to mean several different | |
things. Every type has an interface, which is the _set of methods | |
defined_ for that type. This bit of code defines a struct type "S" | |
with one field, and defines two methods for "S". | |
type S struct { i int } | |
func (p *S) Get() int { return p.i } | |
func (p *S) Put(v int) { p.i = v } | |
Defining a struct and methods on it. | |
You can also define an interface type, which is simply a set of | |
methods. This defines an interface "I" with two methods: | |
type I interface { | |
Get() int | |
Put(int) | |
} | |
"S" is a valid _implementation_ for interface "I", because it defines | |
the two methods which "I" requires. Note that this is true even | |
though there is no explicit declaration that "S" implements "I". | |
A Go program can use this fact via yet another meaning of interface, | |
which is an interface value: | |
func f(p I) { <1> | |
fmt.Println(p.Get()) <2> | |
p.Put(1) <3> | |
} | |
At _1_ we declare a function that takes an interface type as the | |
argument. Because "p" implements "I", it _must_ have the "Get()" | |
method, which we call at _2_. And the same holds true for the "Put()" | |
method at _3_. Because "S" implements "I", we can call the function | |
"f" passing in a pointer to a value of type "S": "var s S; f(&s)" | |
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The reason we need to take the address of "s", rather than a value of | |
type "S", is because we defined the methods on "s" to operate on | |
pointers, see the definition in the code above. This is not a | |
requirement -- we could have defined the methods to take values -- | |
but then the "Put" method would not work as expected. | |
The fact that you do not need to declare whether or not a type | |
implements an interface means that Go implements a form of duck | |
typing [duck_typing]. This is not pure duck typing, because when | |
possible the Go compiler will statically check whether the type | |
implements the interface. However, Go does have a purely dynamic | |
aspect, in that you can convert from one interface type to another. | |
In the general case, that conversion is checked at run time. If the | |
conversion is invalid -- if the type of the value stored in the | |
existing interface value does not satisfy the interface to which it | |
is being converted -- the program will fail with a run time error. | |
Interfaces in Go are similar to ideas in several other programming | |
languages: pure abstract virtual base classes in C++, typeclasses in | |
Haskell or duck typing in Python. However there is no other language | |
which combines interface values, static type checking, dynamic run | |
time conversion, and no requirement for explicitly declaring that a | |
type satisfies an interface. The result in Go is powerful, flexible, | |
efficient, and easy to write. | |
8.1. Which is what? | |
Let's define another type "R" that also implements the interface "I": | |
type R struct { i int } | |
func (p *R) Get() int { return p.i } | |
func (p *R) Put(v int) { p.i = v } | |
The function "f" can now accept variables of type "R" and "S". | |
Suppose you need to know the actual type in the function "f". In Go | |
you can figure that out by using a type switch. | |
func f(p I) { | |
switch t := p.(type) { <1> | |
case *S: <2> | |
case *R: <2> | |
default: <3> | |
} | |
} | |
At _1_ we use the type switch, note that the ".(type)" syntax is | |
_only_ valid within a "switch" statement. We store the value in the | |
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variable "t". The subsequent cases _2_ each check for a different | |
_actual_ type. And we can even have a "default" _3_ clause. It is | |
worth pointing out that both "case R" and "case s" aren't possible, | |
because "p" needs to be a pointer in order to satisfy "i". | |
A type switch isn't the only way to discover the type at _run-time_. | |
if t, ok := something.(I); ok { <1> | |
// ... | |
} | |
You can also use a "comma, ok" form _1_ to see if an interface type | |
implements a specific interface. If "ok" is true, "t" will hold the | |
type of "something". When you are sure a variable implements an | |
interface you can use: "t := something.(I)" . | |
8.2. Empty interface | |
Since every type satisfies the empty interface: "interface{}" we can | |
create a generic function which has an empty interface as its | |
argument: | |
func g(something interface{}) int { | |
return something.(I).Get() | |
} | |
The "return something.(I).Get()" is the tricky bit in this function. | |
The value "something" has type "interface{}", meaning no guarantee of | |
any methods at all: it could contain any type. The ".(I)" is a type | |
assertion which converts "something" to an interface of type "I". If | |
we have that type we can invoke the "Get()" function. So if we | |
create a new variable of the type "*S", we can just call "g()", | |
because "*S" also implements the empty interface. | |
s = new(S) | |
fmt.Println(g(s)); | |
The call to "g" will work fine and will print 0. If we however | |
invoke "g()" with a value that does not implement "I" we have a | |
problem: | |
var i int | |
fmt.Println(g(i)) | |
This compiles, but when we run this we get slammed with: "panic: | |
interface conversion: int is not main.I: missing method Get". | |
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Which is completely true, the built-in type "int" does not have a | |
"Get()" method. | |
8.3. Methods | |
Methods are functions that have a receiver (see Section 5). You can | |
define methods on any type (except on non-local types, this includes | |
built-in types: the type "int" can not have methods). You can | |
however make a new integer type with its own methods. For example: | |
type Foo int | |
func (self Foo) Emit() { | |
fmt.Printf("%v", self) | |
} | |
type Emitter interface { | |
Emit() | |
} | |
Doing this on non-local (types defined in other packages) types | |
yields an error "cannot define new methods on non-local type int". | |
8.4. Methods on interface types | |
An interface defines a set of methods. A method contains the actual | |
code. In other words, an interface is the definition and the methods | |
are the implementation. So a receiver can not be an interface type, | |
doing so results in a "invalid receiver type ..." compiler error. | |
The authoritative word from the language spec [go_spec]: | |
The receiver type must be of the form "T" or "*T" where "T" is a | |
type name. "T" is called the receiver base type or just base | |
type. The base type must not be a pointer or interface type and | |
must be declared in the same package as the method. | |
Creating a pointer to an interface value is a useless action in Go. | |
It is in fact illegal to create a pointer to an interface value. The | |
release notes for an earlier Go release that made them illegal leave | |
no room for doubt: | |
The language change is that uses of pointers to interface values | |
no longer automatically de-reference the pointer. A pointer to an | |
interface value is more often a beginner's bug than correct code. | |
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8.5. Interface names | |
By convention, one-method interfaces are named by the method name | |
plus the _-er_ suffix: Read_er_, Writ_er_, Formatt_er_ etc. | |
There are a number of such names and it's productive to honor them | |
and the function names they capture. "Read", "Write", "Close", | |
"Flush", "String" and so on have canonical signatures and meanings. | |
To avoid confusion, don't give your method one of those names unless | |
it has the same signature and meaning. Conversely, if your type | |
implements a method with the same meaning as a method on a well-known | |
type, give it the same name and signature; call your string-converter | |
method "String" not "ToString". | |
8.6. A sorting example | |
Recall the Bubblesort exercise, where we sorted an array of integers: | |
func bubblesort(n []int) { | |
for i := 0; i < len(n)-1; i++ { | |
for j := i + 1; j < len(n); j++ { | |
if n[j] < n[i] { | |
n[i], n[j] = n[j], n[i] | |
} | |
} | |
} | |
} | |
A version that sorts strings is identical except for the signature of | |
the function: "func bubblesortString(n []string) { /* ... */ }" . | |
Using this approach would lead to two functions, one for each type. | |
By using interfaces we can make this more generic. Let's create a | |
new function that will sort both strings and integers, something | |
along the lines of this non-working example: | |
func sort(i []interface{}) { <1> | |
switch i.(type) { <2> | |
case string: <3> | |
// ... | |
case int: | |
// ... | |
} | |
return /* ... */ <4> | |
} | |
Our function will receive a slice of empty interfaces at _1_. We then | |
_2_ use a type switch to find out what the actual type of the input | |
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is. And then _3_ then sort accordingly. And, when done, return _4_ | |
the sorted slice. | |
But when we call this function with "sort([]int{1, 4, 5})", it fails | |
with: "cannot use i (type []int) as type []interface { } in function | |
argument" | |
This is because Go can not easily convert to a _slice_ of interfaces. | |
Just converting to an interface is easy, but to a slice is much more | |
costly. The full mailing list discussion on this subject can be | |
found at [go_nuts_interfaces]. To keep a long story short: Go does | |
not (implicitly) convert slices for you. | |
So what is the Go way of creating such a "generic" function? Instead | |
of doing the type inference ourselves with a type switch, we let Go | |
do it implicitly: The following steps are required: | |
o Define an interface type (called "Sorter" here) with a number of | |
methods needed for sorting. We will at least need a function to | |
get the length of the slice, a function to compare two values and | |
a swap function. | |
type Sorter interface { | |
Len() int // len() as a method. | |
Less(i, j int) bool // p[j] < p[i] as a method. | |
Swap(i, j int) // p[i], p[j] = p[j], p[i] as a method. | |
} | |
o Define new types for the slices we want to sort. Note that we | |
declare slice types: | |
type Xi []int | |
type Xs []string | |
o Implementation of the methods of the "Sorter" interface. For | |
integers: | |
func (p Xi) Len() int {return len(p)} | |
func (p Xi) Less(i int, j int) bool {return p[j] < p[i]} | |
func (p Xi) Swap(i int, j int) {p[i], p[j] = p[j], p[i]} | |
And for strings: | |
func (p Xs) Len() int {return len(p)} | |
func (p Xs) Less(i int, j int) bool {return p[j] < p[i]} | |
func (p Xs) Swap(i int, j int) {p[i], p[j] = p[j], p[i]} | |
o Write a _generic_ Sort function that works on the "Sorter" | |
interface. | |
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func Sort(x Sorter) { <1> | |
for i := 0; i < x.Len() - 1; i++ { <2> | |
for j := i + 1; j < x.Len(); j++ { | |
if x.Less(i, j) { | |
x.Swap(i, j) | |
} | |
} | |
} | |
} | |
At _1_ "x" is now of the "Sorter" type and using the defined | |
methods for this interface we implement Bubblesort at _2_. | |
Now we can use our _generic_ "Sort" function as follows: | |
ints := Xi{44, 67, 3, 17, 89, 10, 73, 9, 14, 8} | |
strings := Xs{"nut", "ape", "elephant", "zoo", "go"} | |
Sort(ints) | |
fmt.Printf("%v\n", ints) | |
Sort(strings) | |
fmt.Printf("%v\n", strings) | |
8.7. Listing interfaces in interfaces | |
Take a look at the following example of an interface definition, this | |
one is from the package "container/heap": | |
type Interface interface { | |
sort.Interface | |
Push(x interface{}) | |
Pop() interface{} | |
} | |
Here another interface is listed inside the definition of | |
"heap.Interface", this may look odd, but is perfectly valid, remember | |
that on the surface an interface is nothing more than a listing of | |
methods. "sort.Interface" is also such a listing, so it is perfectly | |
legal to include it in the interface. | |
8.8. Introspection and reflection | |
In the following example we want to look at the "tag" (here named | |
"namestr") defined in the type definition of "Person". To do this we | |
need the "reflect" package (there is no other way in Go). Keep in | |
mind that looking at a tag means going back to the _type_ definition. | |
So we use the "reflect" package to figure out the type of the | |
variable and _then_ access the tag. | |
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type Person struct { | |
name string "namestr" | |
age int | |
} | |
func ShowTag(i interface{}) { <1> | |
switch t := reflect.TypeOf(i); t.Kind() { | |
case reflect.Ptr: <2> | |
tag := t.Elem().Field(0).Tag | |
// <<3>> <<4>> <<5>> | |
Introspection using reflection. | |
We are calling "ShowTag" at _1_ with a "*Person", so at _2_ we're | |
expecting a "reflect.Ptr". We are dealing with a "Type" _3_ and | |
according to the documentation : | |
Elem returns a type's element type. It panics if the type's Kind | |
is not Array, Chan, Map, Ptr, or Slice. | |
So on "t" we use "Elem()" to get the value the pointer points to. We | |
have now dereferenced the pointer and are "inside" our structure. We | |
then _4_ use "Field(0)" to access the zeroth field. | |
The struct "StructField" has a "Tag" member which returns the tag- | |
name as a string. So on the "0^{th}" field we can unleash ".Tag" _5_ | |
to access this name: "Field(0).Tag". This gives us "namestr". | |
To make the difference between types and values more clear, take a | |
look at the following code: | |
func show(i interface{}) { | |
switch t := i.(type) { | |
case *Person: | |
t := reflect.TypeOf(i) <1> | |
v := reflect.ValueOf(i) <2> | |
tag := t.Elem().Field(0).Tag <3> | |
name := v.Elem().Field(0).String() <4> | |
} | |
} | |
Reflection and the type and value. | |
At _1_ we create "t" the type data of "i", and "v" gets the actual | |
values at _2_. Here at _3_ we want to get to the "tag". So we need | |
"Elem()" to redirect the pointer, access the first field and get the | |
tag. Note that we operate on "t" a "reflect.Type". Now _4_ we want | |
to get access to the _value_ of one of the members and we employ | |
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"Elem()" on "v" to do the redirection. we have "arrived" at the | |
structure. Then we go to the first field "Field(0)" and invoke the | |
"String()" method on it. | |
Setting a value works similarly as getting a value, but only works on | |
_exported_ members. Again some code: | |
type Person struct { | |
name string | |
age int | |
} | |
func Set(i interface{}) { | |
switch i.(type) { | |
case *Person: | |
r := reflect.ValueOf(i) | |
r.Elem(0).Field(0).SetString("Albert Einstein") | |
} | |
} | |
Reflect with | |
type Person struct { | |
Name string | |
age int | |
} | |
func Set(i interface{}) { | |
switch i.(type) { | |
case *Person: | |
r := reflect.ValueOf(i) | |
r.Elem().Field(0).SetString("Albert Einstein") | |
} | |
} | |
Reflect with | |
The first program compiles and runs, but when you run it, you are | |
greeted with a stack trace and a _run time_ error: "panic: | |
reflect.Value.SetString using value obtained using unexported field". | |
The second program works OK and sets the member "Name" to "Albert | |
Einstein". Of course this only works when you call "Set()" with a | |
pointer argument. | |
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8.9. Exercises | |
### Interfaces and max() | |
In the maximum exercise we created a max function that works on a | |
slice of integers. The question now is to create a program that | |
shows the maximum number and that works for both integers and floats. | |
Try to make your program as generic as possible, although that is | |
quite difficult in this case. | |
8.9.1. Answer | |
The following program calculates a maximum. It is as generic as you | |
can get with Go. | |
package main | |
import "fmt" | |
func Less(l, r interface{}) bool { <1> | |
switch l.(type) { | |
case int: | |
if _, ok := r.(int); ok { | |
return l.(int) < r.(int) <2> | |
} | |
case float32: | |
if _, ok := r.(float32); ok { | |
return l.(float32) < r.(float32) <3> | |
} | |
} | |
return false | |
} | |
func main() { | |
var a, b, c int = 5, 15, 0 | |
var x, y, z float32 = 5.4, 29.3, 0.0 | |
if c = a; Less(a, b) { <4> | |
c = b | |
} | |
if z = x; Less(x, y) { <4> | |
z = y | |
} | |
fmt.Println(c, z) | |
} | |
We could have chosen to make the return type of this _1_ function an | |
"interface{}", but that would mean that a caller would always have to | |
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do a type assertion to extract the actual type from the interface. | |
At _2_ we compare the parameters. All parameters are confirmed to be | |
integers, so this is legit. And at _3_ we do the some for floats. | |
At _4_ we get the maximum value for "a", "b" and "x" and "y". | |
8.9.2. Pointers and reflection | |
One of the last paragraphs in section Section 8.8 has the following | |
words: | |
The code on the right works OK and sets the member "Name" to | |
"Albert Einstein". Of course this only works when you call | |
"Set()" with a pointer argument. | |
Why is this the case? | |
8.9.3. Answer | |
When called with a non-pointer argument the variable is a copy (call- | |
by-value). So you are doing the reflection voodoo on a copy. And | |
thus you are _not_ changing the original value, but only this copy. | |
9. Concurrency | |
* Parallelism is about performance. | |
* Concurrency is about program design. | |
Google I/O 2010 -- Rob Pike | |
In this chapter we will show off Go's ability for concurrent | |
programming using channels and goroutines. Goroutines are the | |
central entity in Go's ability for concurrency. | |
But what _is_ a goroutine, from [effective_go]: | |
They're called goroutines because the existing terms -- threads, | |
coroutines, processes, and so on -- convey inaccurate | |
connotations. A goroutine has a simple model: _it is a function | |
executing in parallel with other goroutines in the same address | |
space_. It is lightweight, costing little more than the allocation | |
of stack space. And the stacks start small, so they are cheap, | |
and grow by allocating (and freeing) heap storage as required. | |
A goroutine is a normal function, except that you start it with the | |
keyword "go". | |
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ready("Tea", 2) // Normal function call. | |
go ready("Tea", 2) // ... as goroutine. | |
func ready(w string, sec int) { | |
time.Sleep(time.Duration(sec) * time.Second) | |
fmt.Println(w, "is ready!") | |
} | |
func main() { | |
go ready("Tea", 2) //<1> | |
go ready("Coffee", 1) //<1> | |
fmt.Println("I'm waiting") | |
time.Sleep(5 * time.Second) //<2> | |
Figure: Go routines in action. | |
The following idea for a program was taken from [go_course_day3]. We | |
run a function as two goroutines, the goroutines wait for an amount | |
of time and then print something to the screen. At _1_ we start the | |
goroutines. The "main" function waits long enough at _2_, so that | |
both goroutines will have printed their text. Right now we wait for | |
5 seconds, but in fact we have no idea how long we should wait until | |
all goroutines have exited. This outputs: | |
I'm waiting // Right away | |
Coffee is ready! // After 1 second | |
Tea is ready! // After 2 seconds | |
If we did not wait for the goroutines (i.e. remove the last line at | |
_2_) the program would be terminated immediately and any running | |
goroutines would _die with it_. | |
To fix this we need some kind of mechanism which allows us to | |
communicate with the goroutines. This mechanism is available to us | |
in the form of channels . A channel can be compared to a two-way pipe | |
in Unix shells: you can send to and receive values from it. Those | |
values can only be of a specific type: the type of the channel. If | |
we define a channel, we must also define the type of the values we | |
can send on the channel. Note that we must use "make" to create a | |
channel: | |
ci := make(chan int) | |
cs := make(chan string) | |
cf := make(chan interface{}) | |
Makes "ci" a channel on which we can send and receive integers, makes | |
"cs" a channel for strings and "cf" a channel for types that satisfy | |
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the empty interface. Sending on a channel and receiving from it, is | |
done with the same operator: "<-". | |
Depending on the operands it figures out what to do: | |
ci <- 1 // *Send* the integer 1 to the channel ci. | |
<-ci // *Receive* an integer from the channel ci. | |
i := <-ci // *Receive* from the channel ci and store it in i. | |
Let's put this to use. | |
var c chan int <1> | |
func ready(w string, sec int) { | |
time.Sleep(time.Duration(sec) * time.Second) | |
fmt.Println(w, "is ready!") | |
c <- 1 <2> | |
} | |
func main() { | |
c = make(chan int) <3> | |
go ready("Tea", 2) <4> | |
go ready("Coffee", 1) <4> | |
fmt.Println("I'm waiting, but not too long") | |
<-c <5> | |
<-c <5> | |
} | |
At _1_ we declare "c" to be a variable that is a channel of ints. | |
That is: this channel can move integers. Note that this variable is | |
global so that the goroutines have access to it. At _2_ in the | |
"ready" function we send the integer 1 on the channel. In our "main" | |
function we initialize "c" at _3_ and start our goroutines _4_. At | |
_5_ we Wait until we receive a value from the channel, the value we | |
receive is discarded. We have started two goroutines, so we expect | |
two values to receive. | |
There is still some remaining ugliness; we have to read twice from | |
the channel _5_). This is OK in this case, but what if we don't know | |
how many goroutines we started? This is where another Go built-in | |
comes in: "select" (((keywords, select))). With "select" you can | |
(among other things) listen for incoming data on a channel. | |
Using "select" in our program does not really make it shorter, | |
because we run too few go-routines. We remove last lines and replace | |
them with the following: | |
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L: for { | |
select { | |
case <-c: | |
i++ | |
if i > 1 { | |
break L | |
} | |
} | |
} | |
We will now wait as long as it takes. Only when we have received | |
more than one reply on the channel "c" will we exit the loop "L". | |
9.1. Make it run in parallel | |
While our goroutines were running concurrently, they were not running | |
in parallel. When you do not tell Go anything there can only be one | |
goroutine running at a time. With "runtime.GOMAXPROCS(n)" you can | |
set the number of goroutines that can run in parallel. From the | |
documentation: | |
GOMAXPROCS sets the maximum number of CPUs that can be executing | |
simultaneously and returns the previous setting. If n < 1, it | |
does not change the current setting. _This call will go away when | |
the scheduler improves._ | |
If you do not want to change any source code you can also set an | |
environment variable "GOMAXPROCS" to the desired value. | |
Note that the above discussion relates to older versions of Go. From | |
version 1.5 and above, "GOMAXPROCS" defaults to the number of CPU | |
cores[go_1_5_release_notes]. | |
9.2. More on channels | |
When you create a channel in Go with "ch := make(chan bool)", an | |
unbuffered channel for bools is created. What does this mean for | |
your program? For one, if you read ("value := <-ch") it will block | |
until there is data to receive. Secondly anything sending ("ch <- | |
true") will block until there is somebody to read it. Unbuffered | |
channels make a perfect tool for synchronizing multiple goroutines. | |
But Go allows you to specify the buffer size of a channel, which is | |
quite simply how many elements a channel can hold. "ch := make(chan | |
bool, 4)", creates a buffered channel of bools that can hold 4 | |
elements. The first 4 elements in this channel are written without | |
any blocking. When you write the 5^(th) | |
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In conclusion, the following is true in Go: | |
\textsf{ch := make(chan type, value)} | |
\left\{ | |
\begin{array}{ll} | |
value == 0 & \rightarrow \textsf{unbuffered} \\ | |
value > 0 & \rightarrow \textsf{buffer }{} value{} \textsf{ elements} | |
\end{array} | |
\right. | |
\textsf{ch := make(chan type, value)} | |
\left\{ | |
\begin{array}{ll} | |
value == 0 & \rightarrow \textsf{unbuffered} \\ | |
value > 0 & \rightarrow \textsf{buffer }{} value{} \textsf{ elements} | |
\end{array} | |
\right. | |
When a channel is closed the reading side needs to know this. The | |
following code will check if a channel is closed. | |
x, ok = <-ch | |
Where "ok" is set to "true" the channel is not closed _and_ we've | |
read something. Otherwise "ok" is set to "false". In that case the | |
channel was closed and the value received is a zero value of the | |
channel's type. | |
9.3. Exercises | |
9.3.1. Channels | |
1. Modify the program you created in exercise Section 4.9.1 to use | |
channels, in other words, the function called in the body should | |
now be a goroutine and communication should happen via channels. | |
You should not worry yourself on how the goroutine terminates. | |
2. There are a few annoying issues left if you resolve question 1 | |
above. One of the problems is that the goroutine isn't neatly | |
cleaned up when "main.main()" exits. And worse, due to a race | |
condition between the exit of "main.main()" and "main.shower()" | |
not all numbers are printed. It should print up until 9, but | |
sometimes it prints only to 8. Adding a second quit-channel you | |
can remedy both issues. Do this. | |
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9.3.2. Answer | |
1. A possible program is: | |
package main | |
import "fmt" | |
func main() { | |
ch := make(chan int) | |
go shower(ch) | |
for i := 0; i < 10; i++ { | |
ch <- i | |
} | |
} | |
func shower(c chan int) { | |
for { | |
j := <-c | |
fmt.Printf("%d\n", j) | |
} | |
} | |
We start in the usual way, then at line 6 we create a new channel of | |
ints. In the next line we fire off the function "shower" with the | |
"ch" variable as it argument, so that we may communicate with it. | |
Next we start our for-loop (lines 8-10) and in the loop we send (with | |
"<-") our number to the function (now a goroutine) "shower". | |
In the function "shower" we wait (as this blocks) until we receive a | |
number (line 15). Any received number is printed (line 16) and then | |
continue the endless loop started on line 14. | |
1. An answer is | |
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package main | |
import "fmt" | |
func main() { | |
ch := make(chan int) | |
quit := make(chan bool) | |
go shower(ch, quit) | |
for i := 0; i < 10; i++ { | |
ch <- i | |
} | |
quit <- false // or true, does not matter | |
} | |
func shower(c chan int, quit chan bool) { | |
for { | |
select { | |
case j := <-c: | |
fmt.Printf("%d\n", j) | |
case <-quit: | |
break | |
} | |
} | |
} | |
On line 20 we read from the quit channel and we discard the value we | |
read. We could have used "q := <-quit", but then we would have used | |
the variable only once --- which is illegal in Go. Another trick you | |
might have pulled out of your hat may be: "_ = <-quit". This is | |
valid in Go, but idomatic Go is the one given on line 20. | |
9.3.3. Fibonacci II | |
This is the same exercise as an earlier one Section 5.7.7 in | |
exercise. For completeness the complete question: | |
The Fibonacci sequence starts as follows: "1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, | |
\ldots" Or in mathematical terms: "x_1 = 1; x_2 = 1; x_n = x_{n-1} | |
+ > x_{n-2}\quad\forall n > 2". | |
Write a function that takes an "int" value and gives that many | |
terms of the Fibonacci sequence. | |
_But_ now the twist: You must use channels. | |
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9.3.4. Answer | |
The following program calculates the Fibonacci numbers using | |
channels. | |
package main | |
import "fmt" | |
func dup3(in <-chan int) (<-chan int, <-chan int, <-chan int) { | |
a, b, c := make(chan int, 2), make(chan int, 2), make(chan int, 2) | |
go func() { | |
for { | |
x := <-in | |
a <- x | |
b <- x | |
c <- x | |
} | |
}() | |
return a, b, c | |
} | |
func fib() <-chan int { | |
x := make(chan int, 2) | |
a, b, out := dup3(x) | |
go func() { | |
x <- 0 | |
x <- 1 | |
<-a | |
for { | |
x <- <-a+<-b | |
} | |
}() | |
return out | |
} | |
func main() { | |
x := fib() | |
for i := 0; i < 10; i++ { | |
fmt.Println(<-x) | |
} | |
} | |
// See sdh33b.blogspot.com/2009/12/fibonacci-in-go.html | |
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10. Communication | |
Good communication is as stimulating as black coffee, and just as | |
hard to sleep after. | |
-- Anne Morrow Lindbergh | |
In this chapter we are going to look at the building blocks in Go for | |
communicating with the outside world. We will look at files, | |
directories, networking and executing other programs. Central to | |
Go's I/O are the interfaces "io.Reader" and "io.Writer". The | |
"io.Reader" interface specifies one method "Read(p []byte) (n int, | |
err err)". | |
Reading from (and writing to) files is easy in Go. This program only | |
uses the "os" package to read data from the file "/etc/passwd". | |
package main | |
import ( | |
"log" | |
"os" | |
) | |
func main() { | |
buf := make([]byte, 1024) | |
f, e := os.Open("/etc/passwd") <1> | |
if e != nil { | |
log.Fatalf(e) | |
} | |
defer f.Close() <2> | |
for { | |
n, e := f.Read(buf) <3> | |
if e != nil { | |
log.Fatalf(e) <4> | |
} | |
if n == 0 { <5> | |
break | |
} | |
os.Stdout.Write(buf[:n]) <6> | |
} | |
} | |
We open the file at _1_ with "os.Open" that returns a "*os.File" | |
"*os.File" implements "io.Reader" and "io.Writer" interface. After | |
the "Open" we directly put the "f.Close()" which we defer until the | |
function return. At _3_ we call "Read" on "f" and read up to 1024 | |
bytes at the time. If anything fails we bail out at _4_. If the | |
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number of bytes read is 0 we've read the end of the file _5_. And at | |
_6_ we output the buffer to standard output. | |
If you want to use buffered I/O there is the "bufio" package: | |
package main | |
import ( | |
"bufio" | |
"log" | |
"os" | |
) | |
func main() { | |
buf := make([]byte, 1024) | |
f, e := os.Open("/etc/passwd") <1> | |
if e != nil { | |
log.Fatalf(e) | |
} | |
defer f.Close() | |
r := bufio.NewReader(f) <2> | |
w := bufio.NewWriter(os.Stdout) | |
defer w.Flush() <3> | |
for { | |
n, e := r.Read(buf) <4> | |
if e != nil { | |
log.Fatalf(e) | |
} | |
if n == 0 { | |
break | |
} | |
w.Write(buf[0:n]) <5> | |
} | |
} | |
Again, we open _1_ the file. Then at _2_ we Turn "f" into a buffered | |
"Reader". "NewReader" expects an "io.Reader", so you this will work. | |
Then at _4_ we read and at _5_ we write. We also call "Flush()" at | |
_3_ to flush all output. This entire program could be optimized | |
further by using "io.Copy". | |
10.1. io.Reader | |
As mentioned above the "io.Reader" is an important interface in the | |
language Go. A lot (if not all) functions that need to read from | |
something take an "io.Reader" as input. To fulfill the interface a | |
type needs to implement that one method. The writing side | |
"io.Writer", has the "Write" method. | |
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If you think of a new type in your program or package and you make it | |
fulfill the "io.Reader" or "io.Writer" interface, _the whole standard | |
Go library can be used_ on that type! | |
10.2. Some examples | |
The previous program reads a file in its entirety, but a more common | |
scenario is that you want to read a file on a line-by-line basis. | |
The following snippet shows a way to do just that (we're discarding | |
the error returned from "os.Open" here to keep the examples smaller | |
-- don't ever do this in real life code). | |
f, _ := os.Open("/etc/passwd"); defer f.Close() | |
r := bufio.NewReader(f) <1> | |
s, ok := r.ReadString('\n') <2> | |
At _1_ make "f" a "bufio" to have access to the "ReadString" method. | |
Then at _2_ we read a line from the input, "s" now holds a string | |
which we can manipulate with, for instance, the "strings" package. | |
A more robust method (but slightly more complicated) is "ReadLine", | |
see the documentation of the "bufio" package. | |
A common scenario in shell scripting is that you want to check if a | |
directory exists and if not, create one. | |
if [ ! -e name ]; then if f, e := os.Stat("name"); e != nil { | |
mkdir name os.Mkdir("name", 0755) | |
else } else { | |
# error // error | |
fi } | |
The similarity between these two examples (and with other scripting | |
languages) have prompted comments that Go has a "script"-like feel to | |
it, i.e. programming in Go can be compared to programming in an | |
interpreted language (Python, Ruby, Perl or PHP). | |
10.3. Command line arguments | |
Arguments from the command line are available inside your program via | |
the string slice "os.Args", provided you have imported the package | |
"os". The "flag" package has a more sophisticated interface, and | |
also provides a way to parse flags. Take this example from a DNS | |
query tool: | |
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dnssec := flag.Bool("dnssec", false, "Request DNSSEC records") <1> | |
port := flag.String("port", "53", "Set the query port") <2> | |
flag.Usage = func() { <3> | |
fmt.Fprintf(os.Stderr, "Usage: %s [OPTIONS] [name ...]\n", os.Args[0]) | |
flag.PrintDefaults() <4> | |
} | |
flag.Parse() <4> | |
At _1_ we define a "bool" flag "-dnssec". Note that this function | |
returns a _pointer_ to the value, the "dnssec" is now a pointer to a | |
"bool". At _2_ we define an "strings" flag. Then at _3_ we | |
_redefine_ the "Usage" variable of the flag package so we can add | |
some extra text. The "PrintDefaults" at _4_ will output the default | |
help for the flags that are defined. Note even without redefining a | |
"flag.Usage" the flag "-h" is supported and will just output the help | |
text for each of the flags. Finally at _4_ we call "Parse" that | |
parses the command line and fills the variables. | |
After the flags have been parsed you can used them: "if *dnssec { ... | |
}" | |
10.4. Executing commands | |
The "os/exec" package has functions to run external commands, and is | |
the premier way to execute commands from within a Go program. It | |
works by defining a "*exec.Cmd" structure for which it defines a | |
number of methods. Let's execute "ls -l": | |
import "os/exec" | |
cmd := exec.Command("/bin/ls", "-l") | |
err := cmd.Run() | |
The above example just runs "ls -l" without doing anything with the | |
returned data, capturing the standard output from a command is done | |
as follows: | |
cmd := exec.Command("/bin/ls", "-l") | |
buf, err := cmd.Output() | |
And "buf" is byte slice, that you can further use in your program. | |
10.5. Networking | |
All network related types and functions can be found in the package | |
"net". One of the most important functions in there is "Dial". When | |
you "Dial" into a remote system the function returns a "Conn" | |
interface type, which can be used to send and receive information. | |
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The function "Dial" neatly abstracts away the network family and | |
transport. So IPv4 or IPv6, TCP or UDP can all share a common | |
interface. | |
Dialing a remote system (port 80) over TCP, then UDP and lastly TCP | |
over IPv6 looks like this: | |
conn, e := Dial("tcp", "192.0.32.10:80") | |
conn, e := Dial("udp", "192.0.32.10:80") | |
conn, e := Dial("tcp", "[2620:0:2d0:200::10]:80") | |
If there were no errors (returned in "e"), you can use "conn" to read | |
and write. And "conn" implements the "io.Reader" and "io.Writer" | |
interface. | |
But these are the low level nooks and crannies, you will almost | |
always use higher level packages, such as the "http" package. For | |
instance a simple Get for http: | |
package main | |
import ( | |
"fmt" | |
"http" | |
"io/ioutil" | |
) | |
func main() { | |
r, err := http.Get("http://www.google.com/robots.txt") | |
if err != nil { | |
fmt.Printf("%s\n", err.String()) | |
return | |
} | |
b, err := ioutil.ReadAll(r.Body) | |
r.Body.Close() | |
if err == nil { | |
fmt.Printf("%s", string(b)) | |
} | |
} | |
10.6. Exercises | |
10.6.1. Finger daemon | |
Write a finger daemon that works with the finger(1) command. | |
From the Debian [8] package description: | |
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Fingerd is a simple daemon based on RFC 1196 [RFC1196] that | |
provides an interface to the "finger" program at most network | |
sites. The program is supposed to return a friendly, human- | |
oriented status report on either the system at the moment or a | |
particular person in depth. | |
Stick to the basics and only support a username argument. If the | |
user has a ".plan" file show the contents of that file. So your | |
program needs to be able to figure out: | |
o Does the user exist? | |
o If the user exists, show the contents of the ".plan" file. | |
10.6.2. Answer | |
This solution is from Fabian Becker. | |
package main | |
import ( | |
"bufio" | |
"errors" | |
"flag" | |
"io/ioutil" | |
"net" | |
"os/user" | |
) | |
func main() { | |
flag.Parse() | |
ln, err := net.Listen("tcp", ":79") | |
if err != nil { | |
panic(err) | |
} | |
for { | |
conn, err := ln.Accept() | |
if err != nil { | |
continue | |
} | |
go handleConnection(conn) | |
} | |
} | |
func handleConnection(conn net.Conn) { | |
defer conn.Close() | |
reader := bufio.NewReader(conn) | |
usr, _, _ := reader.ReadLine() | |
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if info, err := getUserInfo(string(usr)); err != nil { | |
conn.Write([]byte(err.Error())) | |
} else { | |
conn.Write(info) | |
} | |
} | |
func getUserInfo(usr string) ([]byte, error) { | |
u, e := user.Lookup(usr) | |
if e != nil { | |
return nil, e | |
} | |
data, err := ioutil.ReadFile(u.HomeDir + ".plan") | |
if err != nil { | |
return data, errors.New("User doesn't have a .plan file!\n") | |
} | |
return data, nil | |
} | |
10.6.3. Echo server | |
Write a simple echo server. Make it listen to TCP port number 8053 | |
on localhost. It should be able to read a line (up to the newline), | |
echo back that line and then close the connection. | |
Make the server concurrent so that every request is taken care of in | |
a separate goroutine. | |
10.6.4. Answer | |
A simple echo server might be: | |
Gieben Expires February 26, 2019 [Page 95] | |
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package main | |
import ( | |
"bufio" | |
"fmt" | |
"net" | |
) | |
func main() { | |
l, err := net.Listen("tcp", "127.0.0.1:8053") | |
if err != nil { | |
fmt.Printf("Failure to listen: %s\n", err.Error()) | |
} | |
for { | |
if c, err := l.Accept(); err == nil { | |
Echo(c) | |
} | |
} | |
} | |
func Echo(c net.Conn) { | |
defer c.Close() | |
line, err := bufio.NewReader(c).ReadString('\n') | |
if err != nil { | |
fmt.Printf("Failure to read: %s\n", err.Error()) | |
return | |
} | |
_, err = c.Write([]byte(line)) | |
if err != nil { | |
fmt.Printf("Failure to write: %s\n", err.Error()) | |
return | |
} | |
} | |
When started you should see the following: | |
% nc 127.0.0.1 8053 | |
Go is *awesome* | |
Go is *awesome* | |
To make the connection handling concurrent we _only need to change | |
one line_ in our echo server, the line: | |
if c, err := l.Accept(); err == nil { Echo(c) } | |
becomes: | |
if c, err := l.Accept(); err == nil { go Echo(c) } | |
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10.6.5. Word and Letter Count | |
Write a small program that reads text from standard input and | |
performs the following actions: | |
o Count the number of characters (including spaces). | |
o Count the number of words. | |
o Count the numbers of lines | |
In other words implement wc(1) (check you local manual page), however | |
you only have to read from standard input. | |
10.6.6. Answer | |
The following program is an implementation of wc(1). | |
package main | |
import ( | |
"bufio" | |
"fmt" | |
"os" | |
"strings" | |
) | |
func main() { | |
var chars, words, lines int | |
r := bufio.NewReader(os.Stdin) <1> | |
for { | |
switch s, ok := r.ReadString('\n'); true { <2> | |
case ok != nil: <3> | |
fmt.Printf("%d %d %d\n", chars, words, lines) | |
return | |
default: <4> | |
chars += len(s) | |
words += len(strings.Fields(s)) | |
lines++ | |
} | |
} | |
} | |
At _1_ we create a new reader that reads from standard input, we then | |
read from the input at _2_. And at _3_ we check the value of "ok" and | |
if we received an error, we assume it was because of a EOF, So we | |
print the current values;. Otherwise _4_ we count the charaters, | |
words and increment the number lines. | |
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10.6.7. Uniq | |
Write a Go program that mimics the function of the Unix "uniq" | |
command. This program should work as follows, given a list with the | |
following items: | |
'a' 'b' 'a' 'a' 'a' 'c' 'd' 'e' 'f' 'g' | |
it should print only those items which don't have the same successor: | |
'a' 'b' 'a' 'c' 'd' 'e' 'f' 'g' | |
The next listing is a Perl implementation of the algorithm. | |
#!/usr/bin/perl | |
my @a = qw/a b a a a c d e f g/; | |
print my $first = shift @a; | |
foreach (@a) { | |
if ($first ne $_) { print; $first = $_; } | |
} | |
10.6.8. Answer | |
The following is a "uniq" implementation in Go. | |
package main | |
import "fmt" | |
func main() { | |
list := []string{"a", "b", "a", "a", "c", "d", "e", "f"} | |
first := list[0] | |
fmt.Printf("%s ", first) | |
for _, v := range list[1:] { | |
if first != v { | |
fmt.Printf("%s ", v) | |
first = v | |
} | |
} | |
} | |
10.6.9. Quine | |
A _Quine_ is a program that prints itself. Write a Quine in Go. | |
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10.6.10. Answer | |
This solution is from Russ Cox. It was posted to the Go Nuts mailing | |
list. | |
/* Go quine */ | |
package main | |
import "fmt" | |
func main() { | |
fmt.Printf("%s%c%s%c\n", q, 0x60, q, 0x60) | |
} | |
var q = `/* Go quine */ | |
package main | |
import "fmt" | |
func main() { | |
fmt.Printf("%s%c%s%c\n", q, 0x60, q, 0x60) | |
} | |
var q = ` | |
10.6.11. Processes | |
Write a program that takes a list of all running processes and prints | |
how many child processes each parent has spawned. The output should | |
look like: | |
Pid 0 has 2 children: [1 2] | |
Pid 490 has 2 children: [1199 26524] | |
Pid 1824 has 1 child: [7293] | |
o For acquiring the process list, you'll need to capture the output | |
of "ps -e -opid,ppid,comm". This output looks like: | |
PID PPID COMMAND | |
9024 9023 zsh | |
19560 9024 ps | |
o If a parent has one child you must print "child", if there is more | |
than one print "children". | |
o The process list must be numerically sorted, so you start with pid | |
0 and work your way up. | |
Here is a Perl version to help you on your way (or to create complete | |
and utter confusion). | |
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#!/usr/bin/perl -l | |
my (%child, $pid, $parent); | |
my @ps=`ps -e -opid,ppid,comm`; # capture the output from `ps` | |
foreach (@ps[1..$#ps]) { # discard the header line | |
($pid, $parent, undef) = split; # split the line, discard 'comm' | |
push @{$child{$parent}}, $pid; # save the child PIDs on a list | |
} | |
# Walk through the sorted PPIDs | |
foreach (sort { $a <=> $b } keys %child) { | |
print "Pid ", $_, " has ", @{$child{$_}}+0, " child", | |
@{$child{$_}} == 1 ? ": " : "ren: ", "[@{$child{$_}}]"; | |
} | |
10.6.12. Answer | |
There is lots of stuff to do here. We can divide our program up in | |
the following sections: | |
o Starting \verb|ps| and capturing the output. | |
o Parsing the output and saving the child PIDs for each PPID. | |
o Sorting the PPID list. | |
o Printing the sorted list to the screen. | |
In the solution presented below, we've used a "map[int][]int", i.e. a | |
map indexed with integers, pointing to a slice of ints -- which holds | |
the PIDs. The builtin "append" is used to grow the integer slice. | |
A possible program is: | |
Gieben Expires February 26, 2019 [Page 100] | |
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package main | |
import ( | |
"fmt" | |
"os/exec" | |
"sort" | |
"strconv" | |
"strings" | |
) | |
func main() { | |
ps := exec.Command("ps", "-e", "-opid,ppid,comm") | |
output, _ := ps.Output() | |
child := make(map[int][]int) | |
for i, s := range strings.Split(string(output), "\n") { | |
if i == 0 { // kill first line | |
continue | |
} | |
if len(s) == 0 { // kill last line | |
continue | |
} | |
f := strings.Fields(s) | |
fpp, _ := strconv.Atoi(f[1]) // parent's pid | |
fp, _ := strconv.Atoi(f[0]) // child's pid | |
child[fpp] = append(child[fpp], fp) | |
} | |
schild := make([]int, len(child)) | |
i := 0 | |
for k, _ := range child { | |
schild[i] = k | |
i++ | |
} | |
sort.Ints(schild) | |
for _, ppid := range schild { | |
fmt.Printf("Pid %d has %d child", ppid, len(child[ppid])) | |
if len(child[ppid]) == 1 { | |
fmt.Printf(": %v\n", child[ppid]) | |
continue | |
} | |
fmt.Printf("ren: %v\n", child[ppid]) | |
} | |
} | |
10.6.13. Number cruncher | |
o Pick six (6) random numbers from this list: "1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, | |
8, 9, 10, 25, 50, 75, 100" Numbers may be picked multiple times. | |
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o Pick one (1) random number ("i") in the range: "1 \ldots 1000". | |
o Tell how, by combining the first 6 numbers (or a subset thereof) | |
with the operators "+,-,*" and "/", you can make "i". | |
An example. We have picked the numbers: 1, 6, 7, 8, 8 and 75. And | |
"i" is 977. This can be done in many different ways, one way is: | |
"((((1 * 6) * 8) + 75) * 8) - 7 = 977" or "(8*(75+(8*6)))-(7/1) = | |
977" | |
Implement a number cruncher that works like that. Make it print the | |
solution in a similar format (i.e. output should be infix with | |
parenthesis) as used above. | |
Calculate _all_ possible solutions and show them (or only show how | |
many there are). In the example above there are 544 ways to do it. | |
10.6.14. Answer | |
The following is one possibility. It uses recursion and backtracking | |
to get an answer. When starting "permrec" we give 977 as the first | |
argument: | |
% ./permrec 977 | |
1+(((6+7)*75)+(8/8)) = 977 #1 | |
... ... | |
((75+(8*6))*8)-7 = 977 #542 | |
(((75+(8*6))*8)-7)*1 = 977 #543 | |
(((75+(8*6))*8)-7)/1 = 977 #544 | |
package main | |
import ( | |
"flag" | |
"fmt" | |
"strconv" | |
) | |
const ( | |
_ = 1000 * iota | |
ADD | |
SUB | |
MUL | |
DIV | |
MAXPOS = 11 | |
) | |
var mop = map[int]string{ADD: "+", SUB: "-", MUL: "*", DIV: "/"} | |
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var ( | |
ok bool | |
value int | |
) | |
type Stack struct { | |
i int | |
data [MAXPOS]int | |
} | |
func (s *Stack) Reset() { s.i = 0 } | |
func (s *Stack) Len() int { return s.i } | |
func (s *Stack) Push(k int) { s.data[s.i] = k; s.i++ } | |
func (s *Stack) Pop() int { s.i--; return s.data[s.i] } | |
var found int | |
var stack = new(Stack) | |
func main() { | |
flag.Parse() | |
list := []int{1, 6, 7, 8, 8, 75, ADD, SUB, MUL, DIV} | |
magic, ok := strconv.Atoi(flag.Arg(0)) // Arg0 is i | |
if ok != nil { | |
return | |
} | |
f := make([]int, MAXPOS) | |
solve(f, list, 0, magic) | |
} | |
func solve(form, numberop []int, index, magic int) { | |
var tmp int | |
for i, v := range numberop { | |
if v == 0 { | |
goto NEXT | |
} | |
if v < ADD { // it's a number, save it | |
tmp = numberop[i] | |
numberop[i] = 0 | |
} | |
form[index] = v | |
value, ok = rpncalc(form[0 : index+1]) | |
if ok && value == magic { | |
if v < ADD { | |
numberop[i] = tmp // reset and go on | |
} | |
found++ | |
fmt.Printf("%s = %d #%d\n", rpnstr(form[0:index+1]), value, found) | |
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} | |
if index == MAXPOS-1 { | |
if v < ADD { | |
numberop[i] = tmp // reset and go on | |
} | |
goto NEXT | |
} | |
solve(form, numberop, index+1, magic) | |
if v < ADD { | |
numberop[i] = tmp // reset and go on | |
} | |
NEXT: | |
} | |
} | |
func rpnstr(r []int) (ret string) { // Convert rpn to infix notation | |
s := make([]string, 0) // Still memory intensive | |
for k, t := range r { | |
switch t { | |
case ADD, SUB, MUL, DIV: | |
var a, b string | |
a, s = s[len(s)-1], s[:len(s)-1] | |
b, s = s[len(s)-1], s[:len(s)-1] | |
if k == len(r)-1 { | |
s = append(s, b+mop[t]+a) | |
} else { | |
s = append(s, "("+b+mop[t]+a+")") | |
} | |
default: | |
s = append(s, strconv.Itoa(t)) | |
} | |
} | |
for _, v := range s { | |
ret += v | |
} | |
return | |
} | |
func rpncalc(r []int) (int, bool) { | |
stack.Reset() | |
for _, t := range r { | |
switch t { | |
case ADD, SUB, MUL, DIV: | |
if stack.Len() < 2 { | |
return 0, false | |
} | |
a := stack.Pop() | |
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b := stack.Pop() | |
if t == ADD { | |
stack.Push(b + a) | |
} | |
if t == SUB { | |
// disallow negative subresults | |
if b-a < 0 { | |
return 0, false | |
} | |
stack.Push(b - a) | |
} | |
if t == MUL { | |
stack.Push(b * a) | |
} | |
if t == DIV { | |
if a == 0 { | |
return 0, false | |
} | |
// disallow fractions | |
if b%a != 0 { | |
return 0, false | |
} | |
stack.Push(b / a) | |
} | |
default: | |
stack.Push(t) | |
} | |
} | |
if stack.Len() == 1 { // there is only one! | |
return stack.Pop(), true | |
} | |
return 0, false | |
} | |
11. References | |
11.1. Informative References | |
[bubblesort] | |
Wikipedia, "Bubble sort", 2010. | |
[csp] Hoare, C., "Communicating sequential processes (csp)", | |
1985. | |
[duck_typing] | |
Wikipedia, "Duck typing", 2010. | |
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[effective_go] | |
Authors, G., "Effective Go", 2010. | |
[fizzbuzz] | |
Tech, I., "Using fizzbuzz to find developers...", 2010. | |
[go_1_5_release_notes] | |
Authors, G., "Go 1.5 Release Notes", 2010. | |
[go_blog_panic] | |
Authors, G., "Defer, panic, and recover", 2010. | |
[go_course_day3] | |
Pike, R., "The Go programming language, day 3", 2010. | |
[go_nuts_interfaces] | |
Community, G., "Function accepting a slice of interface | |
types", 2010. | |
[go_spec] Authors, G., "Go language specification", 2010. | |
[go_tutorial] | |
Authors, G., "Go tutorial", 2010. | |
[go_web] Authors, G., "Go website", 2010. | |
[RFC1196] Zimmerman, D., "Finger User Information Protocol", | |
RFC 1196, DOI 10.17487/RFC1196, December 1990, | |
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc1196>. | |
[RFC4627] Crockford, D., "The application/json Media Type for | |
JavaScript Object Notation (JSON)", RFC 4627, | |
DOI 10.17487/RFC4627, July 2006, | |
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4627>. | |
11.2. URIs | |
[1] https://github.com/miekg/learninggo | |
[2] https://github.com/mmarkdown/mmark | |
[3] https://github.com/miekg/gobook | |
[4] http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ | |
[5] http://www.mikespook.com/learning-go/ | |
[6] https://github.com/mmarkdown/mmark | |
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[7] http://golang.org/doc/ | |
[8] https://www.debian.org | |
Index | |
A | |
array | |
multidimensional 21 | |
B | |
built-in | |
append 20, 23 | |
cap 20 | |
close 19 | |
complex 20 | |
copy 20, 23 | |
delete 19 | |
imag 20 | |
len 20 | |
make 20, 55 | |
new 20, 55 | |
panic 20 | |
print 20 | |
real 20 | |
recover 20 | |
C | |
channel | |
blocking read 84 | |
blocking write 84 | |
unbuffered 84 | |
channels 6, 82 | |
complex numbers 20 | |
D | |
duck | |
typing 72 | |
F | |
field 58 | |
functions | |
as values 30 | |
exported 44 | |
literal 33 | |
literals 30 | |
method 28 | |
pass-by-value 28 | |
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private 44 | |
public 44 | |
receiver 28 | |
signature 31 | |
variadic 33 | |
G | |
generic 75 | |
goroutine 6, 81 | |
I | |
interface 71 | |
set of methods 71 | |
type 71 | |
value 71 | |
io | |
buffered 90 | |
io.Reader 90 | |
K | |
keywords | |
break 16 | |
continue 17 | |
default 19 | |
defer 32 | |
defer list 32 | |
else 15 | |
fallthrough 19 | |
for 16 | |
go 81 | |
goto 16 | |
if 15 | |
import 45 | |
iota 12 | |
map 23 | |
map adding elements 24 | |
map existence 24 | |
map remove elements 24 | |
package 43 | |
range 17-18, 24 | |
return 15 | |
struct 57 | |
switch 18 | |
type 57 | |
L | |
label 16 | |
literal | |
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composite 21, 56 | |
M | |
methods | |
inherited 60 | |
N | |
networking | |
Dial 92 | |
nil 54 | |
O | |
operators | |
address-of 54 | |
and 14 | |
bit wise xor 14 | |
bitwise and 14 | |
bitwise clear 14 | |
bitwise or 14 | |
channel 82 | |
increment 54 | |
not 14 | |
or 14 | |
P | |
package | |
bufio 45, 49, 90 | |
builtin 19 | |
bytes 45 | |
encoding/json 50 | |
flag 50, 91 | |
fmt 20, 49 | |
html/template 50 | |
io 49, 90 | |
net/http 50 | |
os 50 | |
os/exec 50, 92 | |
reflect 50, 77 | |
ring 45 | |
sort 49 | |
strconv 50 | |
sync 50 | |
unsafe 50 | |
R | |
reference types 21 | |
runes 13, 18 | |
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S | |
scope | |
local 29 | |
slice | |
capacity 21 | |
length 21 | |
structures | |
embed 60 | |
T | |
tooling | |
go 10 | |
go build 10 | |
go run 10 | |
go test 47 | |
type assertion 73 | |
type switch 72 | |
V | |
variables | |
assigning 10 | |
declaring 10 | |
parallel assignment 11 | |
underscore 11 | |
Author's Address | |
R. (Miek) Gieben | |
Email: miek@miek.nl | |
Gieben Expires February 26, 2019 [Page 110] |
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