CREATE BOOTABLE TAILS USB-STICK https://tails.boum.org/ (OSX) Tails is a live operating system, that you can start on almost any computer from a DVD, USB stick, or SD card. It aims at preserving your privacy and anonymity, and helps you to: use the Internet anonymously and circumvent censorship; Alle Internet-Verbindungen werden zwingend durch d…

create-bootable-tails-usb-stick

#!/usr/bin/env bash

###########################################################
# create bootable tails usb-stick https://tails.boum.org/ #
# !!! Read the comments !!! CHANGE <diskN> placeholder    #
###########################################################

# get iso
wget http://dl.amnesia.boum.org/tails/stable/tails-i386-0.21/tails-i386-0.21.iso

# determine usb stick disk - <diskN> ex. disk3
# replace the following <diskN> with the corresponding disk, ie. disk3
diskutil list

# Unmount of all volumes on <diskN> was successful
# replace the following <diskN> with the corresponding disk, ie. disk3
# diskutil unmountDisk /dev/disk3
diskutil unmountDisk /dev/<diskN>

# make iso bootable, original file unchanged
cp tails-i386-0.21.iso tails-i386-0.21.bootable.iso
perl isohybrid.pl tails-i386-0.21.bootable.iso

# write bootable iso to usb stick
# replace the following <diskN> with the corresponding disk, ie. disk3
# ie. sudo dd if=tails-i386-0.21.bootable.iso  of=/dev/disk3 bs=16m
sudo dd if=tails-i386-0.21.bootable.iso  of=/dev/<diskN> bs=16m

isohybrid.pl

#!/usr/bin/env perl
## -----------------------------------------------------------------------
##
##   Copyright 2002-2008 H. Peter Anvin - All Rights Reserved
##   Copyright 2009 Intel Corporation; author: H. Peter Anvin
##
##   This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
##   it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
##   the Free Software Foundation, Inc., 53 Temple Place Ste 330,
##   Boston MA 02111-1307, USA; either version 2 of the License, or
##   (at your option) any later version; incorporated herein by reference.
##
## -----------------------------------------------------------------------

#
# Post-process an ISO 9660 image generated with mkisofs/genisoimage
# to allow "hybrid booting" as a CD-ROM or as a hard disk.
#

use bytes;
use Fcntl;

# User-specifyable options
%opt = (
    # Fake geometry (zipdrive-style...)
    'h'      => 64,
    's'      => 32,
    # Partition number
    'entry'  => 1,
    # Partition offset
    'offset' => 0,
    # Partition type
    'type'   => 0x17,		# "Windows hidden IFS"
    # MBR ID
    'id'     => undef,
);

%valid_range = (
    'h'      => [1, 256],
    's'      => [1, 63],
    'entry'  => [1, 4],
    'offset' => [0, 64],
    'type'   => [0, 255],
    'id'     => [0, 0xffffffff],
    'hd0'    => [0, 2],
    'partok' => [0, 1],
);

# Boolean options just set other options
%bool_opt = (
    'nohd0'    => ['hd0', 0],
    'forcehd0' => ['hd0', 1],
    'ctrlhd0'  => ['hd0', 2],
    'nopartok' => ['partok', 0],
    'partok'   => ['partok', 1],
);

sub usage() {
    print STDERR "Usage: $0 [options] filename.iso\n",
    "Options:\n",
    "  -h          Number of default geometry heads\n",
    "  -s          Number of default geometry sectors\n",
    "  -entry      Specify partition entry number (1-4)\n",
    "  -offset     Specify partition offset (default 0)\n",
    "  -type       Specify partition type (default 0x17)\n",
    "  -id         Specify MBR ID (default random)\n",
    "  -forcehd0   Always assume we are loaded as disk ID 0\n",
    "  -ctrlhd0    Assume disk ID 0 if the Ctrl key is pressed\n",
    "  -partok     Allow booting from within a partition\n";
    exit 1;
}

# Parse a C-style integer (decimal/octal/hex)
sub doh($) {
    my($n) = @_;
    return ($n =~ /^0/) ? oct $n : $n+0;
}

sub get_random() {
    # Get a 32-bit random number
    my $rfd, $rnd;
    my $rid;

    if (open($rfd, "< /dev/urandom\0") && read($rfd, $rnd, 4) == 4) {
	$rid = unpack("V", $rnd);
    }

    close($rfd) if (defined($rfd));
    return $rid if (defined($rid));

    # This sucks but is better than nothing...
    return ($$+time()) & 0xffffffff;
}

sub get_hex_data() {
    my $mbr = '';
    my $line, $byte;
    while ( $line = <DATA> ) {
	chomp $line;
	last if ($line eq '*');
	foreach $byte ( split(/\s+/, $line) ) {
	    $mbr .= chr(hex($byte));
	}
    }
    return $mbr;
}

while ($ARGV[0] =~ /^\-(.*)$/) {
    $o = $1;
    shift @ARGV;
    if (defined($bool_opt{$o})) {
	($o, $v) = @{$bool_opt{$o}};
	$opt{$o} = $v;
    } elsif (exists($opt{$o})) {
	$opt{$o} = doh(shift @ARGV);
	if (defined($valid_range{$o})) {
	    ($l, $h) = @{$valid_range{$o}};
	    if ($opt{$o} < $l || $opt{$o} > $h) {
		die "$0: valid values for the -$o parameter are $l to $h\n";
	    }
	}
    } else {
	usage();
    }
}

($file) = @ARGV;

if (!defined($file)) {
    usage();
}

open(FILE, "+< $file\0") or die "$0: cannot open $file: $!\n";
binmode FILE;

#
# First, actually figure out where mkisofs hid isolinux.bin
#
seek(FILE, 17*2048, SEEK_SET) or die "$0: $file: $!\n";
read(FILE, $boot_record, 2048) == 2048 or die "$0: $file: read error\n";
($br_sign, $br_cat_offset) = unpack("a71V", $boot_record);
if ($br_sign ne ("\0CD001\1EL TORITO SPECIFICATION" . ("\0" x 41))) {
    die "$0: $file: no boot record found\n";
}
seek(FILE, $br_cat_offset*2048, SEEK_SET) or die "$0: $file: $!\n";
read(FILE, $boot_cat, 2048) == 2048 or die "$0: $file: read error\n";

# We must have a Validation Entry followed by a Default Entry...
# no fanciness allowed for the Hybrid mode [XXX: might relax this later]
@ve = unpack("v16", $boot_cat);
$cs = 0;
for ($i = 0; $i < 16; $i++) {
    $cs += $ve[$i];
}
if ($ve[0] != 0x0001 || $ve[15] != 0xaa55 || $cs & 0xffff) {
    die "$0: $file: invalid boot catalog\n";
}
($de_boot, $de_media, $de_seg, $de_sys, $de_mbz1, $de_count, 
 $de_lba, $de_mbz2) = unpack("CCvCCvVv", substr($boot_cat, 32, 32));
if ($de_boot != 0x88 || $de_media != 0 ||
    ($de_segment != 0 && $de_segment != 0x7c0) || $de_count != 4) {
    die "$0: $file: unexpected boot catalog parameters\n";
}

# Now $de_lba should contain the CD sector number for isolinux.bin
seek(FILE, $de_lba*2048+0x40, SEEK_SET) or die "$0: $file: $!\n";
read(FILE, $ibsig, 4);
if ($ibsig ne "\xfb\xc0\x78\x70") {
    die "$0: $file: bootloader does not have a isolinux.bin hybrid signature.".
        "Note that isolinux-debug.bin does not support hybrid booting.\n";
}

# Get the total size of the image
(@imgstat = stat(FILE)) or die "$0: $file: $!\n";
$imgsize = $imgstat[7];
if (!$imgsize) {
    die "$0: $file: cannot determine length of file\n";
}
# Target image size: round up to a multiple of $h*$s*512
$h = $opt{'h'};
$s = $opt{'s'};
$cylsize = $h*$s*512;
$frac = $imgsize % $cylsize;
$padding = ($frac > 0) ? $cylsize - $frac : 0;
$imgsize += $padding;
$c = int($imgsize/$cylsize);
if ($c > 1024) {
    print STDERR "Warning: more than 1024 cylinders ($c).\n";
    print STDERR "Not all BIOSes will be able to boot this device.\n";
    $cc = 1024;
} else {
    $cc = $c;
}

# Preserve id when run again
if (defined($opt{'id'})) {
    $id = pack("V", doh($opt{'id'}));
} else {
    seek(FILE, 440, SEEK_SET) or die "$0: $file: $!\n";
    read(FILE, $id, 4);
    if ($id eq "\x00\x00\x00\x00") {
	$id = pack("V", get_random());
    }
}

# Print the MBR and partition table
seek(FILE, 0, SEEK_SET) or die "$0: $file: $!\n";

for ($i = 0; $i <= $opt{'hd0'}+3*$opt{'partok'}; $i++) {
    $mbr = get_hex_data();
}
if ( length($mbr) > 432 ) {
    die "$0: Bad MBR code\n";
}

$mbr .= "\0" x (432 - length($mbr));

$mbr .= pack("VV", $de_lba*4, 0); 	# Offset 432: LBA of isolinux.bin
$mbr .= $id;				# Offset 440: MBR ID
$mbr .= "\0\0";				# Offset 446: actual partition table

# Print partition table
$offset  = $opt{'offset'};
$psize   = $c*$h*$s - $offset;
$bhead   = int($offset/$s) % $h;
$bsect   = ($offset % $s) + 1;
$bcyl    = int($offset/($h*$s));
$bsect  += ($bcyl & 0x300) >> 2;
$bcyl   &= 0xff;
$ehead   = $h-1;
$esect   = $s + ((($cc-1) & 0x300) >> 2);
$ecyl    = ($cc-1) & 0xff;
$fstype  = $opt{'type'};	# Partition type
$pentry  = $opt{'entry'};	# Partition slot

for ( $i = 1 ; $i <= 4 ; $i++ ) {
    if ( $i == $pentry ) {
	$mbr .= pack("CCCCCCCCVV", 0x80, $bhead, $bsect, $bcyl, $fstype,
		     $ehead, $esect, $ecyl, $offset, $psize);
    } else {
	$mbr .= "\0" x 16;
    }
}
$mbr .= "\x55\xaa";

print FILE $mbr;

# Pad the image to a fake cylinder boundary
seek(FILE, $imgstat[7], SEEK_SET) or die "$0: $file: $!\n";
if ($padding) {
    print FILE "\0" x $padding;
}

# Done...
close(FILE);

exit 0;
__END__
fa 31 ed 8e d5 bc 0 7c fb fc 66 31 db 66 31 c9 66 53 66 51 6 57 8e dd 8e c5
52 be 0 7c bf 0 6 b9 0 1 f3 a5 ea 2b 6 0 0 52 b4 41 bb aa 55 31 c9 30 f6 f9
cd 13 72 16 81 fb 55 aa 75 10 83 e1 1 74 b 66 c7 6 d1 6 b4 42 eb 15 eb 0 5a
51 b4 8 cd 13 83 e1 3f 5b 51 f b6 c6 40 50 f7 e1 53 52 50 bb 0 7c b9 4 0 66
a1 b0 7 e8 44 0 f 82 80 0 66 40 80 c7 2 e2 f2 66 81 3e 40 7c fb c0 78 70 75
9 fa bc ec 7b ea 44 7c 0 0 e8 83 0 69 73 6f 6c 69 6e 75 78 2e 62 69 6e 20
6d 69 73 73 69 6e 67 20 6f 72 20 63 6f 72 72 75 70 74 2e d a 66 60 66 31 d2
66 3 6 f8 7b 66 13 16 fc 7b 66 52 66 50 6 53 6a 1 6a 10 89 e6 66 f7 36 e8
7b c0 e4 6 88 e1 88 c5 92 f6 36 ee 7b 88 c6 8 e1 41 b8 1 2 8a 16 f2 7b cd
13 8d 64 10 66 61 c3 e8 1e 0 4f 70 65 72 61 74 69 6e 67 20 73 79 73 74 65
6d 20 6c 6f 61 64 20 65 72 72 6f 72 2e d a 5e ac b4 e 8a 3e 62 4 b3 7 cd 10
3c a 75 f1 cd 18 f4 eb fd 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
*
fa 31 ed 8e d5 bc 0 7c fb fc 66 31 db 66 31 c9 66 53 66 51 6 57 8e dd 8e c5
b2 80 52 be 0 7c bf 0 6 b9 0 1 f3 a5 ea 2d 6 0 0 52 b4 41 bb aa 55 31 c9 30
f6 f9 cd 13 72 16 81 fb 55 aa 75 10 83 e1 1 74 b 66 c7 6 d3 6 b4 42 eb 15
eb 0 5a 51 b4 8 cd 13 83 e1 3f 5b 51 f b6 c6 40 50 f7 e1 53 52 50 bb 0 7c
b9 4 0 66 a1 b0 7 e8 44 0 f 82 80 0 66 40 80 c7 2 e2 f2 66 81 3e 40 7c fb
c0 78 70 75 9 fa bc ec 7b ea 44 7c 0 0 e8 83 0 69 73 6f 6c 69 6e 75 78 2e
62 69 6e 20 6d 69 73 73 69 6e 67 20 6f 72 20 63 6f 72 72 75 70 74 2e d a 66
60 66 31 d2 66 3 6 f8 7b 66 13 16 fc 7b 66 52 66 50 6 53 6a 1 6a 10 89 e6
66 f7 36 e8 7b c0 e4 6 88 e1 88 c5 92 f6 36 ee 7b 88 c6 8 e1 41 b8 1 2 8a
16 f2 7b cd 13 8d 64 10 66 61 c3 e8 1e 0 4f 70 65 72 61 74 69 6e 67 20 73
79 73 74 65 6d 20 6c 6f 61 64 20 65 72 72 6f 72 2e d a 5e ac b4 e 8a 3e 62
4 b3 7 cd 10 3c a 75 f1 cd 18 f4 eb fd 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 
*
fa 31 ed 8e d5 bc 0 7c fb fc 66 31 db 66 31 c9 66 53 66 51 6 57 8e dd 8e c5
f6 6 17 4 4 74 2 b2 80 52 be 0 7c bf 0 6 b9 0 1 f3 a5 ea 34 6 0 0 52 b4 41
bb aa 55 31 c9 30 f6 f9 cd 13 72 16 81 fb 55 aa 75 10 83 e1 1 74 b 66 c7 6
da 6 b4 42 eb 15 eb 0 5a 51 b4 8 cd 13 83 e1 3f 5b 51 f b6 c6 40 50 f7 e1
53 52 50 bb 0 7c b9 4 0 66 a1 b0 7 e8 44 0 f 82 80 0 66 40 80 c7 2 e2 f2 66
81 3e 40 7c fb c0 78 70 75 9 fa bc ec 7b ea 44 7c 0 0 e8 83 0 69 73 6f 6c
69 6e 75 78 2e 62 69 6e 20 6d 69 73 73 69 6e 67 20 6f 72 20 63 6f 72 72 75
70 74 2e d a 66 60 66 31 d2 66 3 6 f8 7b 66 13 16 fc 7b 66 52 66 50 6 53 6a
1 6a 10 89 e6 66 f7 36 e8 7b c0 e4 6 88 e1 88 c5 92 f6 36 ee 7b 88 c6 8 e1
41 b8 1 2 8a 16 f2 7b cd 13 8d 64 10 66 61 c3 e8 1e 0 4f 70 65 72 61 74 69
6e 67 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 20 6c 6f 61 64 20 65 72 72 6f 72 2e d a 5e ac b4
e 8a 3e 62 4 b3 7 cd 10 3c a 75 f1 cd 18 f4 eb fd 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
*
fa 31 ed 8e d5 bc 0 7c fb fc 66 31 db 66 31 c9 21 f6 74 26 f6 4 7f 75 21 38
4c 4 74 1c 66 3d 21 47 50 58 75 10 80 7c 4 ed 75 a 66 8b 4c 34 66 8b 5c 38
eb 4 66 8b 4c 8 66 53 66 51 6 57 8e dd 8e c5 52 be 0 7c bf 0 6 b9 0 1 f3 a5
ea 55 6 0 0 52 b4 41 bb aa 55 31 c9 30 f6 f9 cd 13 72 16 81 fb 55 aa 75 10
83 e1 1 74 b 66 c7 6 fb 6 b4 42 eb 15 eb 0 5a 51 b4 8 cd 13 83 e1 3f 5b 51
f b6 c6 40 50 f7 e1 53 52 50 bb 0 7c b9 4 0 66 a1 b0 7 e8 44 0 f 82 80 0 66
40 80 c7 2 e2 f2 66 81 3e 40 7c fb c0 78 70 75 9 fa bc ec 7b ea 44 7c 0 0
e8 83 0 69 73 6f 6c 69 6e 75 78 2e 62 69 6e 20 6d 69 73 73 69 6e 67 20 6f
72 20 63 6f 72 72 75 70 74 2e d a 66 60 66 31 d2 66 3 6 f8 7b 66 13 16 fc
7b 66 52 66 50 6 53 6a 1 6a 10 89 e6 66 f7 36 e8 7b c0 e4 6 88 e1 88 c5 92
f6 36 ee 7b 88 c6 8 e1 41 b8 1 2 8a 16 f2 7b cd 13 8d 64 10 66 61 c3 e8 1e
0 4f 70 65 72 61 74 69 6e 67 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 20 6c 6f 61 64 20 65 72
72 6f 72 2e d a 5e ac b4 e 8a 3e 62 4 b3 7 cd 10 3c a 75 f1 cd 18 f4 eb fd
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
*
fa 31 ed 8e d5 bc 0 7c fb fc 66 31 db 66 31 c9 21 f6 74 26 f6 4 7f 75 21 38
4c 4 74 1c 66 3d 21 47 50 58 75 10 80 7c 4 ed 75 a 66 8b 4c 34 66 8b 5c 38
eb 4 66 8b 4c 8 66 53 66 51 6 57 8e dd 8e c5 b2 80 52 be 0 7c bf 0 6 b9 0
1 f3 a5 ea 57 6 0 0 52 b4 41 bb aa 55 31 c9 30 f6 f9 cd 13 72 16 81 fb 55
aa 75 10 83 e1 1 74 b 66 c7 6 fd 6 b4 42 eb 15 eb 0 5a 51 b4 8 cd 13 83 e1
3f 5b 51 f b6 c6 40 50 f7 e1 53 52 50 bb 0 7c b9 4 0 66 a1 b0 7 e8 44 0 f
82 80 0 66 40 80 c7 2 e2 f2 66 81 3e 40 7c fb c0 78 70 75 9 fa bc ec 7b ea
44 7c 0 0 e8 83 0 69 73 6f 6c 69 6e 75 78 2e 62 69 6e 20 6d 69 73 73 69 6e
67 20 6f 72 20 63 6f 72 72 75 70 74 2e d a 66 60 66 31 d2 66 3 6 f8 7b 66
13 16 fc 7b 66 52 66 50 6 53 6a 1 6a 10 89 e6 66 f7 36 e8 7b c0 e4 6 88 e1
88 c5 92 f6 36 ee 7b 88 c6 8 e1 41 b8 1 2 8a 16 f2 7b cd 13 8d 64 10 66 61
c3 e8 1e 0 4f 70 65 72 61 74 69 6e 67 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 20 6c 6f 61 64
20 65 72 72 6f 72 2e d a 5e ac b4 e 8a 3e 62 4 b3 7 cd 10 3c a 75 f1 cd 18
f4 eb fd 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
*
fa 31 ed 8e d5 bc 0 7c fb fc 66 31 db 66 31 c9 21 f6 74 26 f6 4 7f 75 21 38
4c 4 74 1c 66 3d 21 47 50 58 75 10 80 7c 4 ed 75 a 66 8b 4c 34 66 8b 5c 38
eb 4 66 8b 4c 8 66 53 66 51 6 57 8e dd 8e c5 f6 6 17 4 4 74 2 b2 80 52 be
0 7c bf 0 6 b9 0 1 f3 a5 ea 5e 6 0 0 52 b4 41 bb aa 55 31 c9 30 f6 f9 cd 13
72 16 81 fb 55 aa 75 10 83 e1 1 74 b 66 c7 6 4 7 b4 42 eb 15 eb 0 5a 51 b4
8 cd 13 83 e1 3f 5b 51 f b6 c6 40 50 f7 e1 53 52 50 bb 0 7c b9 4 0 66 a1 b0
7 e8 44 0 f 82 80 0 66 40 80 c7 2 e2 f2 66 81 3e 40 7c fb c0 78 70 75 9 fa
bc ec 7b ea 44 7c 0 0 e8 83 0 69 73 6f 6c 69 6e 75 78 2e 62 69 6e 20 6d 69
73 73 69 6e 67 20 6f 72 20 63 6f 72 72 75 70 74 2e d a 66 60 66 31 d2 66 3
6 f8 7b 66 13 16 fc 7b 66 52 66 50 6 53 6a 1 6a 10 89 e6 66 f7 36 e8 7b c0
e4 6 88 e1 88 c5 92 f6 36 ee 7b 88 c6 8 e1 41 b8 1 2 8a 16 f2 7b cd 13 8d
64 10 66 61 c3 e8 1e 0 4f 70 65 72 61 74 69 6e 67 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 20
6c 6f 61 64 20 65 72 72 6f 72 2e d a 5e ac b4 e 8a 3e 62 4 b3 7 cd 10 3c a
75 f1 cd 18 f4 eb fd 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
*

Can you please explain this message:

Warning: more than 1024 cylinders (1099).
Not all BIOSes will be able to boot this device.

I think it may be the reason TAILS USB still doesn't work on my MacBook Pro (Retina, 13-inch, Early 2015, i7).