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| <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">American bullfrog</h1> | |
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| <tr> | |
| <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(211,211,164)">American bullfrog</th> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr> | |
| <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/File:North-American-bullfrog1.jpg" class="image"><img alt="North-American-bullfrog1.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/North-American-bullfrog1.jpg/220px-North-American-bullfrog1.jpg" width="220" height="170" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/North-American-bullfrog1.jpg/330px-North-American-bullfrog1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/North-American-bullfrog1.jpg/440px-North-American-bullfrog1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2287" data-file-height="1770" /></a></td> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr> | |
| <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Adult male bullfrog</td> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(211,211,164)"> | |
| <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Conservation_status" title="Conservation status">Conservation status</a></th> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr> | |
| <td colspan="2"> | |
| <div style="text-align: center"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg/220px-Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg.png" width="220" height="59" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg/330px-Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg/440px-Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="64" /><br /> | |
| <a href="/wiki/Least_Concern" title="Least Concern" class="mw-redirect">Least Concern</a><small> (<a href="/wiki/IUCN_Red_List" title="IUCN Red List">IUCN 3.1</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-IUCN_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IUCN-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup></small></div> | |
| </td> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr> | |
| <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(211,211,164)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_classification" title="Biological classification" class="mw-redirect">Scientific classification</a></th> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr> | |
| <td>Kingdom:</td> | |
| <td><span class="kingdom" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></span></td> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr> | |
| <td>Phylum:</td> | |
| <td><span class="phylum" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordata</a></span></td> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr> | |
| <td>Subphylum:</td> | |
| <td><span class="subphylum" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">Vertebrata</a></span></td> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr> | |
| <td>Class:</td> | |
| <td><span class="class" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Amphibia" title="Amphibia" class="mw-redirect">Amphibia</a></span></td> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr> | |
| <td>Order:</td> | |
| <td><span class="order" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Frog" title="Frog">Anura</a></span></td> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr> | |
| <td>Family:</td> | |
| <td><span class="family" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Ranidae" title="Ranidae" class="mw-redirect">Ranidae</a></span></td> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr> | |
| <td>Genus:</td> | |
| <td><span class="genus" style="white-space:nowrap;"><i><a href="/wiki/Lithobates" title="Lithobates">Lithobates</a></i></span></td> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr> | |
| <td>Species:</td> | |
| <td><span class="species" style="white-space:nowrap;"><i><b>L. catesbeianus</b></i></span></td> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr> | |
| <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(211,211,164)"><a href="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></th> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr> | |
| <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><b><span class="binomial"><i>Lithobates catesbeianus</i></span></b><br /> | |
| <small>(<a href="/wiki/George_Shaw" title="George Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1802)</small></td> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr> | |
| <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/File:Carte_r%C3%A9partitionGt_monde.png" class="image"><img alt="Carte répartitionGt monde.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Carte_r%C3%A9partitionGt_monde.png/220px-Carte_r%C3%A9partitionGt_monde.png" width="220" height="113" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Carte_r%C3%A9partitionGt_monde.png/330px-Carte_r%C3%A9partitionGt_monde.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Carte_r%C3%A9partitionGt_monde.png/440px-Carte_r%C3%A9partitionGt_monde.png 2x" data-file-width="591" data-file-height="303" /></a></td> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr> | |
| <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Natural range – red;<br /> | |
| Introduced range – dark green</td> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr> | |
| <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(211,211,164)"><a href="/wiki/Synonym_(taxonomy)" title="Synonym (taxonomy)">Synonyms</a></th> | |
| </tr> | |
| <tr> | |
| <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> | |
| <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;"> | |
| <div class="NavHead" style="font-size: 105%; background: transparent; text-align: left;">List</div> | |
| <ul class="NavContent" style="list-style: none none; margin-left: 0; text-align: left; font-size: 105%; margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;"> | |
| <li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> | |
| <div class="plainlist" style="margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em;"> | |
| <ul> | |
| <li><i>Rana catesbeiana</i> <small>Shaw, 1802</small></li> | |
| <li><i>Rana pipiens</i> <small>– <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Marie_Daudin" title="François Marie Daudin">Daudin</a>, 1802</small></li> | |
| <li><i>Rana taurina</i> <small><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Cuvier</a>, 1817</small></li> | |
| <li><i>Rana mugiens</i> <small><a href="/wiki/Blasius_Merrem" title="Blasius Merrem">Merrem</a>, 1820</small></li> | |
| <li><i>Rana scapularis</i> <small><a href="/wiki/Richard_Harlan" title="Richard Harlan">Harlan</a>, 1826</small></li> | |
| <li><i>Rana conspersa</i> <small><a href="/wiki/John_Eatton_LeConte" title="John Eatton LeConte" class="mw-redirect">LeConte</a>, 1855</small></li> | |
| <li><i>Rana (Rana) catesbeiana</i><br /> | |
| <small>– <a href="/wiki/George_Albert_Boulenger" title="George Albert Boulenger">Boulenger</a>, 1920</small></li> | |
| <li><i>Rana nantaiwuensis</i> <small>Hsü, 1930</small></li> | |
| <li><i>Rana mugicus</i> <small>– <a href="//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernand_Angel" class="extiw" title="fr:Fernand Angel">Angel</a>, 1947</small></li> | |
| <li><i>Rana catesbyana</i> <small>– Smith, 1978</small></li> | |
| <li><i>Rana (Rana) catesbeiana</i><br /> | |
| <small>– Dubois, 1987</small></li> | |
| <li><i>Rana (Aquarana) catesbeiana</i><br /> | |
| <small>– Dubois, 1992</small></li> | |
| <li><i>Rana (Novirana, Aquarana) catesbeiana</i> <small>– Hillis & Wilcox, 20</small></li> | |
| <li><i>Rana catesbeianus</i></li> | |
| <li><i>Lithobates (Aquarana) catesbeianus</i> <small>– Dubois, 2006</small></li> | |
| </ul> | |
| </div> | |
| </li> | |
| </ul> | |
| </div> | |
| </td> | |
| </tr> | |
| </table> | |
| </div> | |
| <p>The <b>American bullfrog</b> (<i>Lithobates catesbeianus</i> or <i>Rana catesbeiana</i>), often simply known as the <b>bullfrog</b> in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, is an aquatic <a href="/wiki/Frog" title="Frog">frog</a>, a member of the family <a href="/wiki/Ranidae" title="Ranidae" class="mw-redirect">Ranidae</a>, or “true frogs”. The species was traditionally classified as <i>Rana catesbeiana</i>, but the classification was changed to <i><a href="/wiki/Lithobates" title="Lithobates">Lithobates</a></i> due to <a href="/wiki/Paraphyly" title="Paraphyly">paraphyly</a> in Ranidae. This frog has an olive green back and sides blotched with brownish markings and a whitish belly spotted with yellow or grey. The upper lip is often bright green and males have yellow throats. It inhabits large, permanent water bodies, such as <a href="/wiki/Swamp" title="Swamp">swamps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">ponds</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lakes</a>, where it is usually found along the water's edge. The male bullfrog defends a territory during the breeding season. His call is reminiscent of the roar of a <a href="/wiki/Bull" title="Bull">bull</a>, which gives the frog its common name. This frog is native to southern and eastern parts of the United States and Canada, but has been widely introduced across other parts of North, Central and South America, Western Europe, and parts of Asia, and in some areas is regarded as an <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>.</p> | |
| <p>The bullfrog is harvested for use as food in North America and in several countries into which it has been introduced. It is also cultured in controlled environments, though this is a difficult and not always successful undertaking. Some international trade in <a href="/wiki/Frog_legs" title="Frog legs">frog legs</a> occurs for human consumption. Bullfrogs are used in <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> classes in schools for <a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">dissection</a> and are sometimes kept as <a href="/wiki/Pet" title="Pet">pets</a>, though this is not recommended.</p> | |
| <p></p> | |
| <div id="toc" class="toc"> | |
| <div id="toctitle"> | |
| <h2>Contents</h2> | |
| </div> | |
| <ul> | |
| <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Taxonomy"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Taxonomy</span></a></li> | |
| <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Description"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Description</span></a></li> | |
| <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Distribution"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Distribution</span></a></li> | |
| <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Breeding_behavior"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Breeding behavior</span></a> | |
| <ul> | |
| <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Choruses"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Choruses</span></a></li> | |
| <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Aggressive_behavior"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Aggressive behavior</span></a></li> | |
| </ul> | |
| </li> | |
| <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Growth_and_development"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Growth and development</span></a></li> | |
| <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Feeding"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Feeding</span></a></li> | |
| <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Ecology"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Ecology</span></a></li> | |
| <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Human_use"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Human use</span></a></li> | |
| <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> | |
| <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> | |
| </ul> | |
| </div> | |
| <p></p> | |
| <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Taxonomy">Taxonomy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_bullfrog&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Taxonomy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> | |
| <p>Most authorities accept the specific name <i>Rana catesbeiana</i><sup id="cite_ref-Hillis2007_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hillis2007-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HillisandWilcox2005_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HillisandWilcox2005-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> and this is the name used in scientific papers before 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> A recent view is that this frog should be included in the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Lithobates" title="Lithobates">Lithobates</a></i> as <i>Lithobates catesbeianus</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-IUCN_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IUCN-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ontario_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ontario-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <p><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">Mitochondrial DNA</a> studies of New World species put <i>Rana catesbeiana</i> in the <i>Aquarana</i> <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a> of ranids and suggest this is a sister group to <i><a href="/wiki/Rana_sylvatica" title="Rana sylvatica" class="mw-redirect">Rana sylvatica</a></i>, the wood frog. The data strongly supported the <a href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">monophyly</a> of the <i>Aquarana</i> grouping, which includes the green frog (<i><a href="/wiki/Rana_clamitans" title="Rana clamitans" class="mw-redirect">Rana clamitans</a></i>) and the Florida bog frog (<i><a href="/wiki/Rana_okaloosae" title="Rana okaloosae" class="mw-redirect">Rana okaloosae</a></i>), which appear to have recently diverged, and the closely related American bullfrog (<i>R. catesbeiana</i>) and river frog (<i><a href="/wiki/River_frog" title="River frog" class="mw-redirect">R. heckscheri</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-HillisandWilcox2005_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HillisandWilcox2005-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> This placement was disputed by <a href="/wiki/Darrel_Frost" title="Darrel Frost">Darrel Frost</a> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="American Museum of Natural History">American Museum of Natural History</a>, who placed most of the North American ranids in the genus <i>Lithobates</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> His view is rejected by Bryan Stuart<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup> and Pauly et al. (2009)<sup id="cite_ref-Pauly2009_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pauly2009-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> and it is not accepted by AmphibiaWeb.<sup id="cite_ref-AmphibiaWeb2012_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmphibiaWeb2012-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Description">Description</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_bullfrog&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Description">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> | |
| <div class="thumb tleft"> | |
| <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:American_Bullfrog_Rana_catesbeiana_Front_838px.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/American_Bullfrog_Rana_catesbeiana_Front_838px.jpg/220px-American_Bullfrog_Rana_catesbeiana_Front_838px.jpg" width="220" height="143" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/American_Bullfrog_Rana_catesbeiana_Front_838px.jpg/330px-American_Bullfrog_Rana_catesbeiana_Front_838px.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/American_Bullfrog_Rana_catesbeiana_Front_838px.jpg/440px-American_Bullfrog_Rana_catesbeiana_Front_838px.jpg 2x" data-file-width="838" data-file-height="545" /></a> | |
| <div class="thumbcaption"> | |
| <div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:American_Bullfrog_Rana_catesbeiana_Front_838px.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> | |
| American bullfrog</div> | |
| </div> | |
| </div> | |
| <p>The <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location" title="Anatomical terms of location">dorsal</a> (upper) surface of the bullfrog has an olive-green basal color, either plain or with a mottling and banding of grayish-brown. The <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location" title="Anatomical terms of location">ventral</a> (under) surface is off-white blotched with yellow or gray. There is often a marked contrast in color between the green upper lip and the pale lower lip.<sup id="cite_ref-Georgia_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Georgia-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> The teeth are tiny and are useful only in grasping.<sup id="cite_ref-Cardini_1974_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cardini_1974-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup> The eyes are prominent with brown <a href="/wiki/Iris_(anatomy)" title="Iris (anatomy)">irises</a> and horizontal almond-shaped <a href="/wiki/Pupil" title="Pupil">pupils</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Tympanum_(anatomy)" title="Tympanum (anatomy)">tympani</a> (eardrums) are easily seen just behind the eyes and the <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location" title="Anatomical terms of location">dorsolateral</a> folds of skin end close to them. The limbs are blotched or banded with gray. The forelegs are short and sturdy and the hind legs long. The front toes are not webbed, but the back toes have webbing between the digits with the exception of the fourth toe which is unwebbed.<sup id="cite_ref-Georgia_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Georgia-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <p>Bullfrogs are <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">sexually dimorphic</a>, with males being smaller than females and having yellow throats. Males have tympani larger than their eyes, whereas the tympani in females are about the same size as the eyes.<sup id="cite_ref-Georgia_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Georgia-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> Bullfrogs measure about 3.6 to 6 in (9 to 15 cm) from snout to vent. They grow fast in the first eight months of life, typically increasing in weight from 5 to 175 g (0.18 to 6.17 oz),<sup id="cite_ref-Lutz_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lutz-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup> and large mature individuals can weigh up to 500 g (1.1 lb).<sup id="cite_ref-r1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r1-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> In some cases bullfrogs have been recorded as attaining 800 g (1.8 lb) and measuring up to 8 in (20 cm) in length.<sup id="cite_ref-Lutz_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lutz-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-r2_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r2-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Distribution">Distribution</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_bullfrog&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Distribution">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> | |
| <div class="thumb tright"> | |
| <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Bullfrog_-_natures_pics.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Bullfrog_-_natures_pics.jpg/220px-Bullfrog_-_natures_pics.jpg" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Bullfrog_-_natures_pics.jpg/330px-Bullfrog_-_natures_pics.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Bullfrog_-_natures_pics.jpg/440px-Bullfrog_-_natures_pics.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="960" /></a> | |
| <div class="thumbcaption"> | |
| <div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Bullfrog_-_natures_pics.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> | |
| In typical aquatic habitat</div> | |
| </div> | |
| </div> | |
| <p>The bullfrog is native to eastern North America. Its natural range extends from the Atlantic Coast to as far west as <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a>. It is not found on offshore islands near <a href="/wiki/Cape_Cod" title="Cape Cod">Cape Cod</a> and is largely absent from <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Dakota" title="South Dakota">South Dakota</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NAGS71_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAGS71-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup> It has been introduced into <a href="/wiki/Nantucket" title="Nantucket">Nantucket</a> island, <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>, <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a>, other parts of Colorado and Nebraska, <a href="/wiki/Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a>, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington_(U.S._state)" title="Washington (U.S. state)" class="mw-redirect">Washington</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>. In these states, it is considered to be an <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a> and there is concern that it may outcompete native species of amphibians and upset the ecological balance.<sup id="cite_ref-NAGS71_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAGS71-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup> It is very common in California, where it is believed to pose a threat to the <a href="/wiki/California_red-legged_frog" title="California red-legged frog">California red-legged frog</a> and is considered to be a factor in the decline of that <a href="/wiki/Vulnerable_species" title="Vulnerable species">vulnerable species</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <p>Other countries into which the bullfrog has been introduced include Mexico, the western half of Canada, Cuba, Jamaica, Italy, the Netherlands, and France.<sup id="cite_ref-ISSG_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISSG-18"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup> It is also found in Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Venezuela, Colombia, China and Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-AmphibiaWeb_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmphibiaWeb-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup> The reasons for introducing the bullfrog to these countries have included their intentional release, either to provide a source of food or as biological control agents, the escape of frogs from breeding establishments, and the escape or release of frogs kept as pets.<sup id="cite_ref-ISSG_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISSG-18"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup> Conservationists are concerned the bullfrog is relatively immune to the fungal infection <a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycosis" title="Chytridiomycosis">chytridiomycosis</a> and as it invades new territories, it may assist the spread of this lethal disease to more susceptible native species of frog.<sup id="cite_ref-AmphibiaWeb_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmphibiaWeb-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Breeding_behavior">Breeding behavior</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_bullfrog&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Breeding behavior">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> | |
| <p>The bullfrog <a href="/wiki/Breeding_in_the_wild" title="Breeding in the wild">breeding</a> season typically lasts two to three months.<sup id="cite_ref-lekorganization_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lekorganization-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-notesrana_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-notesrana-21"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup> A study of bullfrogs in Michigan showed the males arriving at the breeding site in late May or early June, and remaining in the area into July. The territorial males that occupy sites are usually spaced some 3 to 6 m (9.8 to 19.7 ft) apart and call loudly.<sup id="cite_ref-territoriality_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-territoriality-22"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vocalizationaggression_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vocalizationaggression-23"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup> At least three different types of calls have been noted in male bullfrogs under different circumstances. These distinctive calls include territorial calls made as threats to other males, advertisement calls made to attract females, and encounter calls which precede combat.<sup id="cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-territorygreenfrog-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-reproductivebehavior_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reproductivebehavior-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <p>The bullfrogs have a prolonged breeding season,<sup id="cite_ref-lekorganization_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lekorganization-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup> with the males continuously engaging in sexual activity throughout. Males are present at the breeding pond for longer periods than females during the entire season, increasing their chances of multiple matings.<sup id="cite_ref-territoriality_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-territoriality-22"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vocalizationaggression_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vocalizationaggression-23"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup> The sex ratio is typically skewed toward males.<sup id="cite_ref-reproductivebehavior_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reproductivebehavior-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup> Conversely, females have brief periods of sexual receptivity during the season. In one study, female sexual activity typically lasted for a single night and mating did not occur unless the females initiated the physical contact.<sup id="cite_ref-lekorganization_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lekorganization-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-reproductivebehavior_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reproductivebehavior-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup> Males only <a href="/wiki/Amplexus" title="Amplexus">clasp females</a> after they have indicated their willingness to mate.<sup id="cite_ref-lekorganization_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lekorganization-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup> This finding refutes previous claims that a male frog will clasp any proximate female with no regard to whether the female has consented.<sup id="cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-territorygreenfrog-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-callstructure_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-callstructure-26"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-soundinfluence_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-soundinfluence-27"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-acousticinteraction_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-acousticinteraction-28"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <p>These male and female behaviors cause male-to-male competition to be high within the bullfrog population and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a> for the females to be an intense process.<sup id="cite_ref-lekorganization_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lekorganization-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup> Kentwood Wells postulated <a href="/wiki/Lek_mating" title="Lek mating">leks</a>, territorial <a href="/wiki/Polygyny" title="Polygyny">polygyny</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Harem_(zoology)" title="Harem (zoology)">harems</a> are the most likely classifications for the bullfrog mating system. Leks would be a valid description because males congregate to attract females, and the females arrive to the site for the purpose of copulation.<sup id="cite_ref-lekorganization_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lekorganization-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-territorygreenfrog-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> In a 1980 study on bullfrogs in New Jersey, the mating system was classified as resource-defense polygyny. The males defended territories within the group and demonstrated typical physical forms of defense.<sup id="cite_ref-reproductivebehavior_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reproductivebehavior-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Choruses">Choruses</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_bullfrog&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Choruses">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> | |
| <p>Male bullfrogs aggregate into groups called choruses. The male chorus behavior is analogous to the lek formation of birds, mammals, and other vertebrates. Choruses are dynamic, forming and remaining associated for a few days, breaking down temporarily, and then forming again in a new area with a different group of males.<sup id="cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-territorygreenfrog-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> Male movement has experimentally been noted to be dynamic.<sup id="cite_ref-reproductivebehavior_25-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reproductivebehavior-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup> In the Michigan study, the choruses were described as “centers of attraction” in which their larger numbers enhanced the males’ overall acoustical displays. This is more attractive to females and also attractive to other sexually active males. Choruses in this study were dynamic, constantly forming and breaking up. New choruses were formed in other areas of the site. Males moved around and were highly mobile within the choruses.<sup id="cite_ref-lekorganization_20-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lekorganization-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <p>A review of multiple studies on bullfrogs and other anurans noted male behavior within the groups changes according to the population density of the <a href="/wiki/Leks" title="Leks" class="mw-redirect">leks</a>. At higher population densities, leks are favored due to the difficulty in defending individual territories among a large population of males. This variance causes differences in how females choose their mates. When the male population density is low and males maintain clearer, more distinct territories, female choice is mostly determined by territory quality.<sup id="cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-territorygreenfrog-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> When male population density is higher, females depend on other cues to select their mates. These cues include the males’ positions within the chorus and differences in male display behaviors among other determinants.<sup id="cite_ref-territoriality_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-territoriality-22"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-territorygreenfrog-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Social dominance</a> within the choruses is established through challenges, threats, and other physical displays. Older males tend to acquire more central locations while younger males were restricted to the periphery.<sup id="cite_ref-lekorganization_20-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lekorganization-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <p>Chorus tenure is the number of nights that a male participates in the breeding chorus.<sup id="cite_ref-chorustenure_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chorustenure-29"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup> One study distinguishes between chorus tenure and dominant tenure. Dominant tenure is more strictly defined as the amount of time a male maintains a dominant status.<sup id="cite_ref-chorusparticipation_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chorusparticipation-30"><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></a></sup> Chorus tenure is restricted due to increased risk of predation,<sup id="cite_ref-costbenefitchorus_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-costbenefitchorus-31"><span>[</span>31<span>]</span></a></sup> lost foraging opportunities,<sup id="cite_ref-foragingsuccess_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-foragingsuccess-32"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup> and higher energy consumption.<sup id="cite_ref-energycommunication_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-energycommunication-33"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup> Calling is postulated to be energetically costly to anurans in general.<sup id="cite_ref-envphysiology_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-envphysiology-34"><span>[</span>34<span>]</span></a></sup> Energy is also expended through locomotion and aggressive interactions of male bullfrogs within the chorus.<sup id="cite_ref-chorusparticipation_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chorusparticipation-30"><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Aggressive_behavior">Aggressive behavior</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_bullfrog&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Aggressive behavior">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> | |
| <p>To establish social dominance within choruses, bullfrogs demonstrate various forms of aggression, especially through visual displays. Posture is a key factor in establishing social position and threatening challengers.<sup id="cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-territorygreenfrog-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> Territorial males have inflated postures while nonterritorial males remain in the water with only their heads showing. For dominant (territorial) males, their elevated posture reveals their yellow-colored throats.<sup id="cite_ref-territoriality_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-territoriality-22"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-territorygreenfrog-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> When two dominant males encounter each other, they engage in a wrestling bout. The males have their <a href="/wiki/Abdomen" title="Abdomen">venters</a> clasped, each individual in an erect position rising to well above water level.<sup id="cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-territorygreenfrog-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> The New Jersey study noted the males would approach each other to within a few centimeters and then tilt back their heads, displaying their brilliantly colored <a href="/wiki/Gular" title="Gular" class="mw-disambig">gular</a> sacs. The gular is dichromatic in bullfrogs, with dominant and fitter males displaying yellow gulars. The New Jersey study also reported low posture with only the head exposed above the water surface was typical of subordinate, or nonterritorial males, and females. High posture was demonstrated by territorial males, which floated on the surface of the water with their lungs inflated, displaying their yellow gulars.<sup id="cite_ref-reproductivebehavior_25-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reproductivebehavior-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup> Males optimize their reproductive fitness in a number of ways. Early arrival at the breeding site, prolonged breeding with continuous sexual activity throughout the season, ownership of a centrally located territory within the chorus, and successful movement between the dynamically changing choruses are all common ways for males to maintain dominant, or territorial, status within the chorus. Older males have greater success in all of these areas than younger males.<sup id="cite_ref-lekorganization_20-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lekorganization-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup> Some of the males display a more inferior role, termed by many researchers as the silent male status. These silent males adopt a submissive posture, sit near resident males and make no attempt to displace them. The silent males do not attempt to intercept females but are waiting for the territories to become vacant.<sup id="cite_ref-territoriality_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-territoriality-22"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-territorygreenfrog-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> This has also been called the alternate or satellite male strategy.<sup id="cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-territorygreenfrog-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Growth_and_development">Growth and development</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_bullfrog&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Growth and development">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> | |
| <div class="thumb tright"> | |
| <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Bullfrtadpole.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Bullfrtadpole.jpg/220px-Bullfrtadpole.jpg" width="220" height="123" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Bullfrtadpole.jpg/330px-Bullfrtadpole.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Bullfrtadpole.jpg/440px-Bullfrtadpole.jpg 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="453" /></a> | |
| <div class="thumbcaption"> | |
| <div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Bullfrtadpole.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> | |
| Bullfrog larva and mouthparts</div> | |
| </div> | |
| </div> | |
| <div class="thumb tright"> | |
| <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Juvenile_bullfrog.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Juvenile_bullfrog.JPG/220px-Juvenile_bullfrog.JPG" width="220" height="164" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Juvenile_bullfrog.JPG/330px-Juvenile_bullfrog.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Juvenile_bullfrog.JPG/440px-Juvenile_bullfrog.JPG 2x" data-file-width="934" data-file-height="698" /></a> | |
| <div class="thumbcaption"> | |
| <div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Juvenile_bullfrog.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> | |
| Juvenile with a small, grey, oval-shaped area on top of the head, the <a href="/wiki/Parietal_eye" title="Parietal eye">parietal eye</a></div> | |
| </div> | |
| </div> | |
| <p>After selecting a male, the female deposits eggs in his territory.<sup id="cite_ref-reproductivebehavior_25-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reproductivebehavior-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup> During the mating grasp, or <a href="/wiki/Amplexus" title="Amplexus">amplexus</a>, the male rides on top of the female, grasping her just behind her fore limbs. The female chooses a site in shallow water among vegetation, and lays a batch of up to 20,000 <a href="/wiki/Egg_(biology)" title="Egg (biology)" class="mw-redirect">eggs</a>, and the male simultaneously releases sperm, resulting in external <a href="/wiki/Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">fertilization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Casper.2C_G._S_2005_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Casper.2C_G._S_2005-35"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a></sup> The eggs form a thin, floating sheet which may cover an area of 0.5 to 1 m<sup>2</sup> (5.4 to 10.8 sq ft). The embryos develop best at water temperatures between 24 and 30 °C (75 and 86 °F) and hatch in three to five days. If the water temperature rises above 32 °C (90 °F), developmental abnormalities occur, and if it falls below 15 °C (59 °F), normal development ceases.<sup id="cite_ref-NAGS71_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAGS71-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup> Newly hatched tadpoles show a preference for living in shallow water on fine gravel bottoms. This may reflect a lesser number of <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predators</a> in these locations. As they grow, they tend to move into deeper water. The tadpoles initially have three pairs of external gills and several rows of labial teeth. They pump water through their <a href="/wiki/Gill" title="Gill">gills</a> by movements of the floor of their mouths, trapping <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, single-celled <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pollen_grain" title="Pollen grain" class="mw-redirect">pollen grains</a>, and other small particles on mucus in a filtration organ in their <a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">pharanges</a>. As they grow, they begin to ingest larger particles and use their teeth for rasping. They have downward-facing mouths, deep bodies, and tails with broad dorsal and ventral fins.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span>[</span>36<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <p>Time to <a href="/wiki/Metamorphosis" title="Metamorphosis">metamorphosis</a> ranges from a few months in the southern part of the range to three years in the north where the colder water slows development.<sup id="cite_ref-Casper.2C_G._S_2005_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Casper.2C_G._S_2005-35"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a></sup> Maximum lifespan in the wild is estimated to be eight to ten years, but one frog lived for almost sixteen years in captivity.<sup id="cite_ref-Casper.2C_G._S_2005_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Casper.2C_G._S_2005-35"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Feeding">Feeding</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_bullfrog&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Feeding">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> | |
| <p>Bullfrogs are voracious, opportunistic, ambush <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predators</a> that prey on any small animal they can overpower and stuff down their throats. Bullfrog stomachs have been found to contain <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">rodents</a>, small <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crayfish" title="Crayfish">crayfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">bats</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-eattheinvaders_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eattheinvaders-37"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup> as well as the many <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>, which are the usual food of ranid frogs. These studies revealed the bullfrog's diet to be unique among North American ranids in the inclusion of a large percentage of aquatic animals, such as fish, tadpoles, <a href="/wiki/Planorbis" title="Planorbis">ram's horn snails</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dytiscus" title="Dytiscus">dytiscid beetles</a>. Bullfrogs can capture large, strong prey because of the powerful grip of their jaws after the initial ranid tongue strike. The bullfrog is able to make allowance for light <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refraction</a> at the water-air interface by striking at a position posterior to the target's perceived location. The comparative ability of bullfrogs to capture submerged prey, compared to that of the green frog, leopard frog, and wood frog (<i><a href="/wiki/Rana_clamitans" title="Rana clamitans" class="mw-redirect">R. clamitans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rana_pipiens" title="Rana pipiens" class="mw-redirect">R. pipiens</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rana_sylvatica" title="Rana sylvatica" class="mw-redirect">R. sylvatica</a></i>, respectively) was also demonstrated in laboratory experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-Cardini_1974_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cardini_1974-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <p>Prey motion elicits feeding behavior. First, if necessary, the frog performs a single, orienting bodily rotation ending with the frog aimed towards the prey, followed by approaching leaps, if necessary. Once within striking distance, the bullfrog begins its feeding strike, which consists of a ballistic lunge (eyes closed as during all leaps) that ends with the mouth opening. At this stage, the fleshy, mucous-coated tongue is extended towards the prey, often engulfing it, while the jaws continue their forward travel to close (bite) just as the tongue is retracted. Large prey that do not fit entirely into the mouth are stuffed in with the hands. In laboratory observations, bullfrogs taking mice usually swam underwater with prey in mouth, apparently with the advantageous result of altering the mouse's defense from counter-attack to struggling for air. <a href="/wiki/Asphyxiation" title="Asphyxiation" class="mw-redirect">Asphyxiation</a> is the most likely cause of death of <a href="/wiki/Endotherm" title="Endotherm">endothermic</a> (warm-blooded) prey.<sup id="cite_ref-Cardini_1974_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cardini_1974-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Ecology">Ecology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_bullfrog&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ecology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> | |
| <div class="thumb tright"> | |
| <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Gator_with_bullfrog_at_Lake_Woodruff_-_Flickr_-_Andrea_Westmoreland.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Gator_with_bullfrog_at_Lake_Woodruff_-_Flickr_-_Andrea_Westmoreland.jpg/220px-Gator_with_bullfrog_at_Lake_Woodruff_-_Flickr_-_Andrea_Westmoreland.jpg" width="220" height="178" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Gator_with_bullfrog_at_Lake_Woodruff_-_Flickr_-_Andrea_Westmoreland.jpg/330px-Gator_with_bullfrog_at_Lake_Woodruff_-_Flickr_-_Andrea_Westmoreland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Gator_with_bullfrog_at_Lake_Woodruff_-_Flickr_-_Andrea_Westmoreland.jpg/440px-Gator_with_bullfrog_at_Lake_Woodruff_-_Flickr_-_Andrea_Westmoreland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2724" data-file-height="2205" /></a> | |
| <div class="thumbcaption"> | |
| <div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Gator_with_bullfrog_at_Lake_Woodruff_-_Flickr_-_Andrea_Westmoreland.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> | |
| Alligator feeding on a bullfrog</div> | |
| </div> | |
| </div> | |
| <p>Bullfrogs are an important item of prey to many <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> (especially large <a href="/wiki/Heron" title="Heron">herons</a>), <a href="/wiki/North_American_river_otter" title="North American river otter">North American river otters</a> (<i>Lontra canadensis</i>), predatory <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, and occasionally other amphibians. Predators of American bullfrogs once in their adult stages can range from 150 g (5.3 oz) <a href="/wiki/Belted_Kingfisher" title="Belted Kingfisher" class="mw-redirect">Belted Kingfishers</a> (<i>Megaceryle alcyon</i>) to 1,100 pound <a href="/wiki/American_alligator" title="American alligator">American alligators</a> (<i>Alligator mississippiensis</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span>[</span>38<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span>[</span>39<span>]</span></a></sup> The eggs and larvae are unpalatable to many <a href="/wiki/Salamander" title="Salamander">salamanders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, but the high levels of activity of the tadpoles may make them more noticeable to a predator not deterred by their unpleasant taste. Humans hunt bullfogs as <a href="/wiki/Game_(food)" title="Game (food)" class="mw-redirect">game</a> and consume their legs. Adult frogs try to escape by splashing and leaping into deep water. A trapped individual may squawk or emit a piercing scream, which may surprise the attacker sufficiently for the frog to escape. An attack on one bullfrog is likely to alert others in the vicinity to danger and they will all retreat into the safety of deeper water. Bullfrogs may be at least partially resistant to the <a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">venom</a> of copperhead (<i><a href="/wiki/Agkistrodon_contortrix" title="Agkistrodon contortrix">Agkistrodon contortrix</a></i>) and cottonmouth (<i><a href="/wiki/Agkistrodon_piscivorus" title="Agkistrodon piscivorus">Agkistrodon piscivorus</a></i>) snakes, though these species are known natural predators of bullfrogs as are <a href="/wiki/Northern_water_snake" title="Northern water snake">Northern water snakes</a> (<i>Nerodia sipedon</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-AmphibiaWeb_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmphibiaWeb-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Human_use">Human use</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_bullfrog&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Human use">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> | |
| <div class="thumb tleft"> | |
| <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Supermarktfrosch.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Supermarktfrosch.jpg/220px-Supermarktfrosch.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Supermarktfrosch.jpg/330px-Supermarktfrosch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Supermarktfrosch.jpg/440px-Supermarktfrosch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1224" /></a> | |
| <div class="thumbcaption"> | |
| <div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Supermarktfrosch.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> | |
| Bullfrogs in a Chinese supermarket</div> | |
| </div> | |
| </div> | |
| <p>The American bullfrog provides a <a href="/wiki/Frog_legs" title="Frog legs">food source</a>, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern</a> and some areas of the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern United States</a>. The traditional way of hunting them is to paddle or pole silently by canoe or flatboat in ponds or swamps at night; when the frog's call is heard, a light is shone at the frog which temporarily inhibits its movement. The frog will not jump into deeper water as long as it is approached slowly and steadily. When close enough, the frog is <a href="/wiki/Gigging" title="Gigging">gigged</a> with a multiple-tined spear and brought into the boat.<sup id="cite_ref-eattheinvaders_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eattheinvaders-37"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup> Bullfrogs can also be stalked on land, by again taking great care not to startle them.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span>[</span>42<span>]</span></a></sup> In some states, breaking the skin while catching them is illegal, and either grasping gigs or hand capture are used. The only parts normally eaten are the rear legs, which resemble small <a href="/wiki/Chicken" title="Chicken">chicken</a> <a href="/wiki/Poultry" title="Poultry">drumsticks</a> and can be cooked in similar ways.<sup id="cite_ref-eattheinvaders_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eattheinvaders-37"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <p>Commercial bullfrog culture in near-natural enclosed ponds has been attempted, but is fraught with difficulties. Although pelleted feed is available, the frogs will not willingly consume artificial diets, and providing sufficient live prey is challenging. Disease also tends to be a problem even when great care is taken to provide sanitary conditions. Other challenges to be overcome may be predation, <a href="/wiki/Cannibalism" title="Cannibalism">cannibalism</a>, and low water quality.<sup id="cite_ref-culture_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-culture-43"><span>[</span>43<span>]</span></a></sup> The frogs are large, have powerful leaps, and inevitably escape after which they may wreak havoc among the native frog population.<sup id="cite_ref-eattheinvaders_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eattheinvaders-37"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup> Countries that export bullfrog legs include Belgium, the Netherlands, Mexico, Bangladesh, Japan, China, Taiwan and Indonesia. Most of these frogs are caught from the wild, but some are captive-reared. The United States is a net importer of frog legs.<sup id="cite_ref-culture_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-culture-43"><span>[</span>43<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <p>Although occasionally kept as pets, PetWatch, a project of <a href="/wiki/EcoHealth_Alliance" title="EcoHealth Alliance">EcoHealth Alliance</a> advising on the suitability of different species as pets, has classified bullfrogs as "worst choice pets".<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span>[</span>44<span>]</span></a></sup> The American bullfrog is also used as a specimen for dissection in many schools across the world. It is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_amphibians" title="List of U.S. state amphibians">state amphibian</a> of <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span>[</span>45<span>]</span></a></sup></p> | |
| <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_bullfrog&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> | |
| <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-width: 35em; column-width: 35em; list-style-type: decimal;"> | |
| <ol class="references"> | |
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| <li id="cite_note-HillisandWilcox2005-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HillisandWilcox2005_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HillisandWilcox2005_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Hillis, D. M. and Wilcox, T. P. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/215.pdf">"Phylogeny of the New World True Frogs (<i>Rana</i>)"</a>. <i>Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution</i> <b>34</b> (2): 299–314. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2004.10.007">10.1016/j.ympev.2004.10.007</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier" class="mw-redirect">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15619443">15619443</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=Phylogeny+of+the+New+World+True+Frogs+%28Rana%29&rft.au=Hillis%2C+D.+M.+and+Wilcox%2C+T.+P.&rft.aulast=Hillis%2C+D.+M.+and+Wilcox%2C+T.+P.&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnah.org%2Fpdf_files%2F215.pdf&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2004.10.007&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15619443&rft.issue=2&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Phylogenetics+and+Evolution&rft.pages=299-314&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=34" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Orchard, Stan A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bullfrogcontrol.com/rana_or_lithobates__.html">"Is the American bullfrog Rana catesbeiana or Lithobates catesbeianus?"</a>. Bullfrog control<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-09-06</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.aulast=Orchard%2C+Stan+A.&rft.au=Orchard%2C+Stan+A.&rft.btitle=Is+the+American+bullfrog+Rana+catesbeiana+or+Lithobates+catesbeianus%3F&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bullfrogcontrol.com%2Frana_or_lithobates__.html&rft.pub=Bullfrog+control&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
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| <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Frost, Darell (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/">"American Museum of Natural History: Amphibian Species of the World 5.5, an Online Reference"</a>. <i>Herpetology</i>. The American Museum of Natural History<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-02-17</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=American+Museum+of+Natural+History%3A+Amphibian+Species+of+the+World+5.5%2C+an+Online+Reference&rft.au=Frost%2C+Darell&rft.aulast=Frost%2C+Darell&rft.date=2011&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresearch.amnh.org%2Fvz%2Fherpetology%2Famphibia%2F&rft.jtitle=Herpetology&rft.pub=The+American+Museum+of+Natural+History&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Stuart, Bryan L. (2008). "The phylogenetic problem of Huia (Amphibia: Ranidae)". <i>Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution</i> <b>46</b> (1): 40–60. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2007.09.016">10.1016/j.ympev.2007.09.016</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier" class="mw-redirect">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18042407">18042407</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=The+phylogenetic+problem+of+Huia+%28Amphibia%3A+Ranidae%29&rft.aulast=Stuart%2C+Bryan+L.&rft.au=Stuart%2C+Bryan+L.&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2007.09.016&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18042407&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Phylogenetics+and+Evolution&rft.pages=40-60&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=46" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-Pauly2009-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pauly2009_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Pauly, Greg B.; Hillis, David M.; Cannatella, David C. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnah.org/pdf_files/1225.pdf">"Taxonomic freedom and the role of official lists of species names"</a>. <i>Herpetologica</i> <b>65</b> (2): 115–128. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1655%2F08-031R1.1">10.1655/08-031R1.1</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=Taxonomic+freedom+and+the+role+of+official+lists+of+species+names&rft.au=Cannatella%2C+David+C.&rft.au=Hillis%2C+David+M.&rft.aulast=Pauly%2C+Greg+B.&rft.au=Pauly%2C+Greg+B.&rft.date=2009&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnah.org%2Fpdf_files%2F1225.pdf&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1655%2F08-031R1.1&rft.issue=2&rft.jtitle=Herpetologica&rft.pages=115-128&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=65" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
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| <li id="cite_note-Cardini_1974-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cardini_1974_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cardini_1974_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cardini_1974_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cardini, F. (1974) Specializations of the Feeding Response of the Bullfrog, <i>Rana catesbeiana</i>, for the Capture of Prey Submerged in Water. M.S. Thesis, U. of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA</span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-Lutz-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lutz_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lutz_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Lutz, G. & Avery, J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://srac.tamu.edu/index.cfm/event/getFactSheet/whichfactsheet/96/">"Bullfrog Culture"</a>. Southern Regional Aquaculture Center<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-01-09</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.aulast=Lutz%2C+G.+%26+Avery%2C+J.&rft.au=Lutz%2C+G.+%26+Avery%2C+J.&rft.btitle=Bullfrog+Culture&rft.genre=book&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsrac.tamu.edu%2Findex.cfm%2Fevent%2FgetFactSheet%2Fwhichfactsheet%2F96%2F&rft.pub=Southern+Regional+Aquaculture+Center&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
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| <li id="cite_note-ISSG-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ISSG_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ISSG_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Crayon, John J. (2009-12-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=80&fr=1&sts=">"<i>Lithobates catesbeianus</i> (=<i>Rana catesbeiana</i>) (amphibian)"</a>. <i>Global Invasive Species Database</i>. Invasive Species Specialist Group<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-01-20</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=Lithobates+catesbeianus+%28%3DRana+catesbeiana%29+%28amphibian%29&rft.au=Crayon%2C+John+J.&rft.aulast=Crayon%2C+John+J.&rft.date=2009-12-03&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.issg.org%2Fdatabase%2Fspecies%2Fecology.asp%3Fsi%3D80%26fr%3D1%26sts%3D&rft.jtitle=Global+Invasive+Species+Database&rft.pub=Invasive+Species+Specialist+Group&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-AmphibiaWeb-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AmphibiaWeb_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AmphibiaWeb_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AmphibiaWeb_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Lu, Christine; Sopory, Ambika (2010-08-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?rel-common_name=like&where-scientific_name=rana+catesbeiana&account=amphibiaweb">"<i>Rana catesbeiana</i>"</a>. AmphibiaWeb<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-01-20</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.aulast=Lu%2C+Christine%3B+Sopory%2C+Ambika&rft.au=Lu%2C+Christine%3B+Sopory%2C+Ambika&rft.btitle=Rana+catesbeiana&rft.date=2010-08-23&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amphibiaweb.org%2Fcgi-bin%2Famphib_query%3Frel-common_name%3Dlike%26where-scientific_name%3Drana%2Bcatesbeiana%26account%3Damphibiaweb&rft.pub=AmphibiaWeb&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-lekorganization-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lekorganization_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lekorganization_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lekorganization_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lekorganization_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lekorganization_20-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lekorganization_20-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lekorganization_20-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lekorganization_20-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lekorganization_20-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Emlen, Stephen T (1976). "Lek organization and mating strategies in the bullfrog". <i>Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology</i> <b>1</b> (3): 283–313. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00300069">10.1007/BF00300069</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/4599103">4599103</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=Lek+organization+and+mating+strategies+in+the+bullfrog&rft.au=Emlen%2C+Stephen+T&rft.aulast=Emlen%2C+Stephen+T&rft.date=1976&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00300069&rft.issue=3&rft.jstor=4599103&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+Ecology+and+Sociobiology&rft.pages=283-313&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=1" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-notesrana-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-notesrana_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Blair, Albert P (1963). "Notes on anuran behavior, especially <i>Rana catesbeiana</i>". <i>Herpetologica</i> <b>19</b> (2): 151–151.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=Notes+on+anuran+behavior%2C+especially+Rana+catesbeiana&rft.au=Blair%2C+Albert+P&rft.aulast=Blair%2C+Albert+P&rft.date=1963&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=2&rft.jtitle=Herpetologica&rft.pages=151-151&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=19" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-territoriality-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-territoriality_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-territoriality_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-territoriality_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-territoriality_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-territoriality_22-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Emlen, Stephen T (1968). "Territoriality in the bullfrog, <i>Rana catesbeiana</i>". <i>Copeia</i> <b>1968</b> (2): 240–243. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F1441748">10.2307/1441748</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1441748">1441748</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=Territoriality+in+the+bullfrog%2C+Rana+catesbeiana&rft.au=Emlen%2C+Stephen+T&rft.aulast=Emlen%2C+Stephen+T&rft.date=1968&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1441748&rft.issue=2&rft.jstor=1441748&rft.jtitle=Copeia&rft.pages=240-243&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=1968" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-vocalizationaggression-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vocalizationaggression_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vocalizationaggression_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Wiewandt, Thomas A (1969). "Vocalization, aggressive behavior, and territoriality in the bullfrog, <i>Rana catesbeiana</i>". <i>Copeia</i> <b>1969</b> (2): 276–285. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F1442074">10.2307/1442074</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1442074">1442074</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=Vocalization%2C+aggressive+behavior%2C+and+territoriality+in+the+bullfrog%2C+Rana+catesbeiana&rft.aulast=Wiewandt%2C+Thomas+A&rft.au=Wiewandt%2C+Thomas+A&rft.date=1969&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1442074&rft.issue=2&rft.jstor=1442074&rft.jtitle=Copeia&rft.pages=276-285&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=1969" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-territorygreenfrog-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-territorygreenfrog_24-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Wells, Kentwood D (1977). "Territoriality and male mating success in the green frog (<i>Rana clamitans</i>)". <i>Ecology</i> <b>58</b> (4): 750–762. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F1936211">10.2307/1936211</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1936211">1936211</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=Territoriality+and+male+mating+success+in+the+green+frog+%28Rana+clamitans%29&rft.aulast=Wells%2C+Kentwood+D&rft.au=Wells%2C+Kentwood+D&rft.date=1977&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1936211&rft.issue=4&rft.jstor=1936211&rft.jtitle=Ecology&rft.pages=750-762&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=58" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-reproductivebehavior-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-reproductivebehavior_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-reproductivebehavior_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-reproductivebehavior_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-reproductivebehavior_25-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-reproductivebehavior_25-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-reproductivebehavior_25-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-reproductivebehavior_25-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Ryan, Michael J. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/ryan/Publications/1980-82/1980Copeia108.pdf">"The Reproductive Behavior of the Bullfrog (<i>Rana catesbiana</i>)"</a>. <i>Copeia</i> <b>1980</b>: 108–114. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F1444139">10.2307/1444139</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1444139">1444139</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=The+Reproductive+Behavior+of+the+Bullfrog+%28Rana+catesbiana%29&rft.aulast=Ryan%2C+Michael+J.&rft.au=Ryan%2C+Michael+J.&rft.date=1980&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sbs.utexas.edu%2Fryan%2FPublications%2F1980-82%2F1980Copeia108.pdf&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1444139&rft.jstor=1444139&rft.jtitle=Copeia&rft.pages=108-114&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=1980" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
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| <li id="cite_note-chorusparticipation-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-chorusparticipation_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chorusparticipation_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Judge, Kevin A.; Brooks, Ronald J. (2001). "Chorus participation by male bullfrogs, <i>Rana catesbeiana</i>: a test of the energetic constraint hypothesis". <i>Animal Behaviour 62</i> <b>62</b> (5): 849–861. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1006%2Fanbe.2001.1801">10.1006/anbe.2001.1801</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=Chorus+participation+by+male+bullfrogs%2C+Rana+catesbeiana%3A+a+test+of+the+energetic+constraint+hypothesis&rft.au=Brooks%2C+Ronald+J.&rft.au=Judge%2C+Kevin+A.&rft.aulast=Judge%2C+Kevin+A.&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fanbe.2001.1801&rft.issue=5&rft.jtitle=Animal+Behaviour+62&rft.pages=849-861&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=62" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-costbenefitchorus-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-costbenefitchorus_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Ryan, Michael J.; Tuttle, Merlin D.; Taft, Lucinda K. (1981). "The costs and benefits of frog chorusing behavior". <i>Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology</i> <b>8</b> (4): 273–278. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00299526">10.1007/BF00299526</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=The+costs+and+benefits+of+frog+chorusing+behavior&rft.aulast=Ryan%2C+Michael+J.&rft.au=Ryan%2C+Michael+J.&rft.au=Taft%2C+Lucinda+K.&rft.au=Tuttle%2C+Merlin+D.&rft.date=1981&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00299526&rft.issue=4&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+Ecology+and+Sociobiology&rft.pages=273-278&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=8" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-foragingsuccess-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-foragingsuccess_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Woolbright, Lawrence L.; Stewart, Margaret M. (1987). "Foraging success of the tropical frog, <i>Eleutherodactylus coqui</i>: the cost of calling". <i>Copeia</i> <b>1987</b>: 69–75. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F1446039">10.2307/1446039</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1446039">1446039</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=Foraging+success+of+the+tropical+frog%2C+Eleutherodactylus+coqui%3A+the+cost+of+calling&rft.aulast=Woolbright%2C+Lawrence+L.&rft.au=Stewart%2C+Margaret+M.&rft.au=Woolbright%2C+Lawrence+L.&rft.date=1987&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1446039&rft.jstor=1446039&rft.jtitle=Copeia&rft.pages=69-75&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=1987" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-energycommunication-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-energycommunication_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Prestwich, Kenneth N., Kristin E. Brugger, and Mary Topping (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jeb.biologists.org/content/144/1/53">"Energy and communication in three species of hylid frogs: power input, power output and efficiency"</a>. <i>Journal of Experimental Biology</i> <b>144</b> (1): 53–80.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=Energy+and+communication+in+three+species+of+hylid+frogs%3A+power+input%2C+power+output+and+efficiency&rft.aulast=Prestwich%2C+Kenneth+N.%2C+Kristin+E.+Brugger%2C+and+Mary+Topping&rft.au=Prestwich%2C+Kenneth+N.%2C+Kristin+E.+Brugger%2C+and+Mary+Topping&rft.date=1989&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjeb.biologists.org%2Fcontent%2F144%2F1%2F53&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Biology&rft.pages=53-80&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=144" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-envphysiology-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-envphysiology_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pough, F. H., et al. (1992) "Behavioral energetics", pp. 395–436 in <i>Environmental physiology of the amphibians</i>, University of Chicago Press, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226239446" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0226239446</a>.</span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-Casper.2C_G._S_2005-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Casper.2C_G._S_2005_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Casper.2C_G._S_2005_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Casper.2C_G._S_2005_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Casper, G. S. and Hendricks, R. (2005) <i>Amphibian Declines: The Conservation Status of United States Species</i>, M. Lannoo (ed.) University of California Press <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520235924" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0520235924</a>.</span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Stebbins, Robert C.; Cohen, Nathan W. (1995). <i>A Natural History of Amphibians</i>. Princeton University Press. pp. 181–184. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-03281-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-03281-5">0-691-03281-5</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.au=Cohen%2C+Nathan+W.&rft.aufirst=Robert+C.&rft.aulast=Stebbins&rft.au=Stebbins%2C+Robert+C.&rft.btitle=A+Natural+History+of+Amphibians&rft.date=1995&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-691-03281-5&rft.pages=181-184&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-eattheinvaders-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eattheinvaders_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eattheinvaders_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eattheinvaders_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eattheinvaders_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Moyle, Peter (2012-07-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eattheinvaders.org/bullfrog/">"Bullfrog"</a>. <i>Eat the Invaders</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-02-18</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=Bullfrog&rft.aulast=Moyle%2C+Peter&rft.au=Moyle%2C+Peter&rft.date=2012-07-04&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feattheinvaders.org%2Fbullfrog%2F&rft.jtitle=Eat+the+Invaders&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Murray, B. G.; Jehl, J. R. (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sora.unm.edu/node/49837">"Weight of autumn migrants from coastal New Jersey"</a>. <i>Bird-Banding</i> <b>35</b> (4): 253–63. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/4511101">4511101</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=Weight+of+autumn+migrants+from+coastal+New+Jersey&rft.au=Jehl%2C+J.+R.&rft.aulast=Murray%2C+B.+G.&rft.au=Murray%2C+B.+G.&rft.date=1964&rft.genre=article&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsora.unm.edu%2Fnode%2F49837&rft.issue=4&rft.jstor=4511101&rft.jtitle=Bird-Banding&rft.pages=253-63&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=35" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://genomics.senescence.info/species/entry.php?species=Alligator_mississippiensis">"American Alligator (<i>Alligator mississippiensis</i>) longevity, ageing, and life history"</a>. The Animal Ageing and Longevity Database<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-02-06</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.btitle=American+Alligator+%28Alligator+mississippiensis%29+longevity%2C+ageing%2C+and+life+history&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgenomics.senescence.info%2Fspecies%2Fentry.php%3Fspecies%3DAlligator_mississippiensis&rft.pub=The+Animal+Ageing+and+Longevity+Database&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conant, Roger. (1975). <i>A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central America</i>. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.</span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Ryan, M. J. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/ryan/Publications/1980-82/1980Copeia108.pdf">"The reproductive behavior of the bullfrog (<i>Rana catesbeiana</i>)"</a>. <i>Copeia</i> <b>1</b>: 108–114.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=The+reproductive+behavior+of+the+bullfrog+%28Rana+catesbeiana%29&rft.aulast=Ryan%2C+M.+J.&rft.au=Ryan%2C+M.+J.&rft.date=1980&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sbs.utexas.edu%2Fryan%2FPublications%2F1980-82%2F1980Copeia108.pdf&rft.jtitle=Copeia&rft.pages=108-114&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=1" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Catch-a-Bullfrog">"How to Catch a Bullfrog"</a>. <i>WikiHow to do anything</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-02-17</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=How+to+Catch+a+Bullfrog&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikihow.com%2FCatch-a-Bullfrog&rft.jtitle=WikiHow+to+do+anything&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-culture-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-culture_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-culture_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Lutz, C. Greg; Avery, Jimmy L. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://srac.tamu.edu/index.cfm/event/getFactSheet/whichfactsheet/96/">"Bullfrog Culture"</a>. Southern Regional Aquaculture Center<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-02-17</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.aulast=Lutz%2C+C.+Greg%3B+Avery%2C+Jimmy+L.&rft.au=Lutz%2C+C.+Greg%3B+Avery%2C+Jimmy+L.&rft.btitle=Bullfrog+Culture&rft.date=1999&rft.genre=book&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsrac.tamu.edu%2Findex.cfm%2Fevent%2FgetFactSheet%2Fwhichfactsheet%2F96%2F&rft.pub=Southern+Regional+Aquaculture+Center&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.petwatch.net/browse_animals/amphibians/3-north_american_bullfrog">"North American Bullfrog"</a>. <i>PetWatch</i>. EcoHealth Alliance<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-02-18</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.atitle=North+American+Bullfrog&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.petwatch.net%2Fbrowse_animals%2Famphibians%2F3-north_american_bullfrog&rft.jtitle=PetWatch&rft.pub=EcoHealth+Alliance&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.netstate.com/states/tables/state_amphibians.htm">"Official state amphibians"</a>. NetState.com. 2012-07-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-01-23</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+bullfrog&rft.btitle=Official+state+amphibians&rft.date=2012-07-11&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.netstate.com%2Fstates%2Ftables%2Fstate_amphibians.htm&rft.pub=NetState.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> | |
| </ol> | |
| </div> | |
| <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_bullfrog&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> | |
| <table class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="border:1px solid #aaa;background-color:#f9f9f9"> | |
| <tr> | |
| <td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="30" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></td> | |
| <td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a href="//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Rana_catesbeiana" class="extiw" title="commons:Rana catesbeiana">Rana catesbeiana</a></b></i>.</td> | |
| </tr> | |
| </table> | |
| <table class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="border:1px solid #aaa;background-color:#f9f9f9"> | |
| <tr> | |
| <td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/34px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png" width="34" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/51px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/68px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="1103" /></td> | |
| <td class="mbox-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a> has information related to: <i><b><a href="//species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Rana_catesbeiana" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Rana catesbeiana">Rana catesbeiana</a></b></i></td> | |
| </tr> | |
| </table> | |
| <ul> | |
| <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.herpsoftexas.org/content/american-bullfrog">Herps of Texas: <i>Rana catesbeiana</i></a></li> | |
| <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/frogwatch/whoswho/factshts/bullfrog.htm">British Columbia Frog Watch Program: Bull Frog Fact Sheet</a></li> | |
| <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://allaboutfrogs.org/info/species/bullfrog.html">Bullfrog at allaboutfrogs.com</a></li> | |
| <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=80&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN">Bullfrog at the Global Invasive Species Database</a></li> | |
| <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/results.php?CISOOP1=exact&CISOOP2=exact&CISOMODE=grid&CISOGRID=thumbnail,A,1;title,A,1;subjec,A,0;common,200,0;none,A,0;20;title,none,none,none,none&CISOBIB=title,A,1,N;identi,A,0,N;common,200,0,N;none,A,0,N;none,A,0,N;20;title,none,none,none,none&CISOTHUMB=20%20%284x5%29;title,none,none,none,none&CISOTITLE=20;title,none,none,none,none&CISOHIERA=20;identi,title,none,none,none&CISOSUPPRESS=0&CISOFIELD1=subjec&CISOROOT=/wss&CISOBOX1=Amphibians&CISOFIELD2=common&CISOBOX2=Bullfrog">Bullfrog recordings</a></li> | |
| </ul> | |
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| /* | |
| gcc -o webkitcrash webkitcrash.c `pkg-config --cflags --libs webkit2gtk-3.0` | |
| gcc -o webkitcrash webkitcrash.c `pkg-config --cflags --libs webkit2gtk-4.0` | |
| */ | |
| #include <gtk/gtk.h> | |
| #include <webkit2/webkit2.h> | |
| static gboolean | |
| fetch_html (gpointer data) | |
| { | |
| WebKitURISchemeRequest *request = WEBKIT_URI_SCHEME_REQUEST (data); | |
| GFile *file = g_file_new_for_path ("bullfrog.html"); | |
| GFileInputStream *stream = g_file_read (file, NULL, NULL); | |
| g_assert (stream); | |
| webkit_uri_scheme_request_finish (request, G_INPUT_STREAM (stream), -1, "text/html; charset=utf-8"); | |
| return G_SOURCE_REMOVE; | |
| } | |
| static void | |
| handle_uri (WebKitURISchemeRequest *request, gpointer data) | |
| { | |
| g_object_ref (request); | |
| g_timeout_add (200 /* ms */, fetch_html, request); | |
| } | |
| int | |
| main (int argc, char **argv) | |
| { | |
| WebKitWebContext *context = webkit_web_context_get_default (); | |
| webkit_web_context_register_uri_scheme (context, "crashy", handle_uri, NULL, NULL); | |
| gtk_init (&argc, &argv); | |
| GtkWidget *window = gtk_window_new (GTK_WINDOW_TOPLEVEL); | |
| GtkWidget *webview = webkit_web_view_new (); | |
| gtk_container_add (GTK_CONTAINER (window), webview); | |
| webkit_web_view_load_uri (WEBKIT_WEB_VIEW (webview), "crashy://foo"); | |
| webkit_web_view_load_uri (WEBKIT_WEB_VIEW (webview), "crashy://foo"); | |
| gtk_widget_show_all (window); | |
| gtk_window_present (GTK_WINDOW (window)); | |
| g_signal_connect (window, "destroy", gtk_main_quit, NULL); | |
| gtk_main (); | |
| return 0; | |
| } |
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