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| Joplo Bartu | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
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| Joplo Bartu | |
| refer to caption | |
| Bartu at University of Phoenix Stadium in 2016 | |
| Personal information | |
| Born: October 3, 1989 (age 32) | |
| Seattle, Washington | |
| Height: 6 ft 2 in (1.88 m) | |
| Weight: 245 lb (111 kg) | |
| Career information | |
| High school: Waller (TX) | |
| College: Texas State | |
| Position: Linebacker | |
| Undrafted: 2013 | |
| Career history | |
| Atlanta Falcons (2013–2015) | |
| Jacksonville Jaguars (2015) | |
| Arizona Cardinals (2016) | |
| Career NFL statistics | |
| Total tackles: 180 | |
| Sacks: 4.5 | |
| Pass deflections: 2 | |
| Fumble recoveries: 2 | |
| Player stats at NFL.com · PFR | |
| Joplo Johnny Bartu (born October 3, 1989) is an American football linebacker who is a free agent. He played college football for Texas State. He was signed by the Atlanta Falcons as an undrafted free agent in 2013.[1] | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Early life | |
| 2 High school | |
| 3 College career | |
| 4 Professional career | |
| 4.1 Atlanta Falcons | |
| 4.1.1 2013 season | |
| 4.1.2 2014 season | |
| 4.1.3 2015 season | |
| 4.2 Jacksonville Jaguars | |
| 4.3 Arizona Cardinals | |
| 5 Personal life | |
| 6 References | |
| 7 External links | |
| Early life | |
| Bartu was born in Seattle, Washington on October 3, 1989 to Esther Sando. His mother was seven months pregnant when she immigrated from Monrovia, Liberia, to get a better education for herself and family. The name "Joplo" comes from a Liberian warrior, meaning "strength". At the age of one, Joplo moved from Seattle, Washington to Prairie View, Texas, located just outside the Houston area. | |
| Bartu grew up in a low-income neighborhood with his two brothers and three sisters. At the age of 8, his mother registered Joplo and his older brother, Wellington, to play Pop Warner Football. Joplo did not attend a single game. Instead, he went to all of Wellington's games and watched as his older brother became a local star of the league. The following season Joplo, now understanding football, became one of the most talented little league players in Waller County. | |
| High school | |
| As a freshman, at 5'6" and 135 lbs, Bartu started off on freshmen B-Team for Waller High School. After a couple games, he moved up and started as a running back on the freshmen A-Team. During the summer of his freshmen year, Joplo grew over six inches, becoming a standout hybrid wide receiver while playing free-safety for the Waller Bulldogs varsity squad. In his senior year, he helped lead the team to the Texas State Playoffs where they made Waller History by advancing past the 3rd round, previously set by his brother's 2004 class. Eventually, they lost a nail-biter in the State-Quarterfinals with a 10-4 record under coach Jim Phillips. Being recruited by many Division I schools across the U.S, Bartu opted to follow his brother footsteps by committing to Texas State University.[2] [3] | |
| College career | |
| At Texas State, Bartu was a four-year starter that was recruited as a free safety out of high school. However, Bartu was switched to linebacker after he gained over 20 pounds during his redshirt year. He was moved to defensive end for half of his senior year. When Bartu moved back to linebacker halfway through the season, he posted 62 tackles in four games. In his final collegiate game, Bartu finished with 17 tackles, 8 tackles for loss, 4 sacks and a forced fumble for a touchdown against New Mexico State.[4] His performance earned him National Player of the Week by collegefootballperformance.com and he received All-WAC honors.[5] | |
| Professional career | |
| In his rookie season, Bartu and fellow undrafted rookie Paul Worrilow started at linebacker due to the injuries of Sean Weatherspoon and Kroy Biermann. He recorded 96 tackles and 3.5 sacks. He was nicknamed "High Top Jop" by Sean Weatherspoon on the 1st episode of "D-Block" in 2013, because of his Kid 'n Play style haircut. | |
| Atlanta Falcons | |
| 2013 season | |
| Bartu saw action in all 16 games with 13 starts during his rookie season. Ranked third on the team with 96 total tackles (53 solo) while tying for the club lead with seven tackles for loss. Also added 3.5 sacks and one pass defense. His 3.5 sacks are the second most by an undrafted rookie in team history trailing Buddy Moor, who tallied four sacks in 1987 (sacks became an official stat in 1982). Led all NFL undrafted rookies with 3.5 sacks in 2013. Saw action in his first NFL game against the Saints where the Atlanta defense totaled 77 tackles and 7 tackles for loss at New Orleans. Saw extensive action for the first time in his career and delivered with eight tackles (six solo), two tackles for loss, one pass defended, and one quarterback hit against St. Louis (9/15). Had his first career start in the NFL against the dolphins and posted 6 tackles (1 solo), one quarterback hit, one pass break up and teamed up with Akeem Dent for a sack in the fourth quarter at Miami (9/22). Notched the first full sack of his career when he brought down Smith for a three-yard loss. Bartu split one sack with LB Akeem Dent at Miami in Week 3. Bartu finished the game with six tackles (three solo) with one tackle for loss and one sack against the Jets (10/7). Led the defense with 13 total tackles (eight solo) and two quarterback hits. Bartu and DE Jonathan Massaquoi combined for a five-yard sack on QB Mike Glennon against Tampa Bay (10/20). DT Peria Jerry and Bartu combined to bring down QB Carson Palmer for a nine-yard loss, giving the Falcons their third consecutive game with three-or-more sacks. Also added six tackles (four solo). Finished the game with six tackles (one solo), including an eight-yard sack of QB Russell Wilson against Seattle (11/10). He ranks second on the team with 3.5 sacks and has recorded at least one half-sack in four of the last five games. Additionally, Bartu leads all undrafted rookie defenders in the NFL with 3.5 sacks. Stated for the defense and finished the game with two tackles (two solo) against Buffalo (12/1). Credited with five tackles (four solo) against the Packers at Green Bay (12/8). Credited with six tackles (three solo) and one quarterback hit against the Redskins (12/15). Bartu had one of the best games of his young career, collaring 11 total tackles (10 solo) with one tackle for loss and one quarterback hit at San Francisco (12/23).[6] [7] | |
| At the conclusion of the 2013 season, Bartu was ranked as the #1 undrafted free agent rookie of the 2013 Draft Class by Bleacher Report.[8] | |
| 2014 season | |
| In Bartu's second season he played all 16 games logging 83 combined tackles, 47 tackles solo and 36 assisted. He also had one sack and two fumble recoveries. | |
| 2015 season | |
| On November 27, 2015 Bartu was waived by the Falcons to make room for place kicker Shayne Graham. | |
| Jacksonville Jaguars | |
| On December 7, 2015, Bartu signed with the Jacksonville Jaguars. On August 29, 2016, Bartu was waived by the Jaguars.[9] | |
| Arizona Cardinals | |
| On September 28, 2016, Bartu was signed by the Cardinals.[10] He was released with an injury settlement by the Cardinals on November 22, 2016.[11] | |
| Personal life | |
| Joplo is the middle child of 5 siblings: Precious (oldest sister), Wellington (older brother), Bindu (younger sister), Lawrence (younger brother) and Lula (youngest sister). | |
| In October 2013, Bartu was told that his mother was sick and had 3 months to live. On December 29, 2013, Bartu's mother passed away from breast cancer. His mother would text the verses Psalms 18:1-3 every Sunday morning before each game. He now has the verses tattooed on his arm in her honor. | |
| References | |
| Former Texas State standout Bartu catching on with Falcons | |
| "Joplo Bartu's (Waller, Tx) MaxPreps Football". | |
| Waller High School | |
| "Emerging Star: Joplo Bartu". | |
| "College Football Performance". | |
| "Atlanta Falcons: Joplo Bartu". | |
| "The Falcoholic". | |
| "Ranking the Best Undrafted Free Agents from 2013 NFL Draft Class". | |
| Oehser, John (August 29, 2016). "CB Demetrius McCray among eight players waived". Jaguars.com. Archived from the original on August 9, 2017. | |
| Urban, Darren. "Cardinals Add Aaron Brewer To Snap". AZCardinals.com. Archived from the original on September 29, 2016. Retrieved September 28, 2016. | |
| Urban, Darren (November 22, 2016). "Cardinals add vet LB Sio Moore". Blog.AZCardinals.com. | |
| External links | |
| Atlanta Falcons bio | |
| Texas State Bobcats bio | |
| Categories: 1989 birthsLiving peoplePlayers of American football from TexasAmerican football linebackersTexas State Bobcats football playersAtlanta Falcons playersJacksonville Jaguars playersArizona Cardinals playersPeople from Prairie View, TexasPlayers of American football from Seattle | |
| Distretto di Polizia | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
| Jump to navigationJump to search | |
| This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in Italian. (September 2011) Click [show] for important translation instructions. | |
| Distretto di Polizia | |
| Created by Pietro Valsecchi and Simone De Rita | |
| Country of origin Italy | |
| No. of seasons 11 | |
| No. of episodes 282 | |
| Production | |
| Running time 45 - 50 min (episode) | |
| Release | |
| Original release September 26, 2000 – | |
| January 15, 2012 | |
| Distretto di Polizia is an Italian television series. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Synopsis | |
| 2 Cast | |
| 3 Episodes | |
| 3.1 Season 1 (2000) | |
| 3.2 Season 2 (2001) | |
| 3.3 Season 3 (2002) | |
| 3.4 Season 4 (2003) | |
| 3.5 Season 5 (2005) | |
| 3.6 Season 6 (2006) | |
| 3.7 Season 7 (2007) | |
| 3.8 Season 8 (2008) | |
| 3.9 Season 9 (2009) | |
| 3.10 Season 10 (2010) | |
| 3.11 Season 11 (2011-2012) | |
| 4 See also | |
| 5 External links | |
| Synopsis | |
| [icon] | |
| This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (December 2011) | |
| Cast | |
| Isabella Ferrari: Giovanna Scalise | |
| Giorgio Tirabassi: Roberto Ardenzi | |
| Ricky Memphis: Mauro Belli | |
| Lorenzo Flaherty: Walter Manrico | |
| Simone Corrente: Luca Benvenuto | |
| Serena Bonanno: Nina Moretti | |
| Roberto Nobile: Antonio Parmesan | |
| Marco Marzocca: Ugo Lombardi | |
| Carlotta Natoli: Angela Rivalta | |
| Claudia Pandolfi: Giulia Corsi | |
| Giorgio Pasotti: Paolo Libero | |
| Giampaolo Morelli: Davide Rea | |
| Giulia Bevilacqua: Anna Gori | |
| Francesca Inaudi: Irene Valli | |
| Enrico Silvestrin: Alessandro Berti | |
| Massimo Dapporto: Marcello Fontana | |
| Max Giusti: Raffaele Marchetti | |
| Anna Foglietta: Elena Argenti | |
| Stefano Pesce: Lorenzo Monti | |
| Flavio Parenti: Gabriele Mancini | |
| Dino Abbrescia: Pietro Esposito | |
| Lucilla Agosti: Barbara Rostagno | |
| Andrea Renzi: Leonardo Brandi | |
| Episodes | |
| Season Episodes Premiere Finale | |
| 1 24 September 26, 2000 December 5, 2000 | |
| 2 24 September 25, 2001 December 9, 2001 | |
| 3 26 September 17, 2002 December 2, 2002 | |
| 4 26 September 21, 2003 December 2, 2003 | |
| 5 26 September 27, 2005 November 22, 2005 | |
| 6 26 September 12, 2006 November 21, 2006 | |
| 7 26 September 6, 2007 November 19, 2007 | |
| 8 26 September 4, 2008 November 20, 2008 | |
| 9 26 September 11, 2009 November 29, 2009 | |
| 10 26 September 5, 2010 November 14, 2010 | |
| 11 26 October 9, 2011 January 15, 2012 (Series Finale) | |
| Season 1 (2000) | |
| Season # Italian title | |
| English title Directed by Original air date | |
| 1 "L'agguato" | |
| "The Ambush" Alberto Ferrari September 26, 2000 | |
| 2 "Il ricatto" | |
| "Blackmail" Alberto Ferrari September 26, 2000 | |
| Season 2 (2001) | |
| Season # Italian title | |
| English title Directed by Original air date | |
| 1 "La vendetta" | |
| "Revenge" Alberto Ferrari September 25, 2001 | |
| 2 "L'incarico" | |
| "The Assignment" Alberto Ferrari September 25, 2001 | |
| Season 3 (2002) | |
| Season # Italian title | |
| English title Directed by Original air date | |
| 1 "Minuti contati" | |
| "Nick of Time" Alberto Ferrari September 17, 2002 | |
| 2 "Morte in diretta" | |
| "Death Live" Alberto Ferrari September 17, 2002 | |
| Season 4 (2003) | |
| Season # Italian title | |
| English title Directed by Original air date | |
| 1 "L'ostaggio" | |
| "The Hostage" Alberto Ferrari September 21, 2003 | |
| 2 "Senza via di fuga" | |
| "No Way To Escape" Alberto Ferrari September 21, 2003 | |
| Season 5 (2005) | |
| Season # Italian title | |
| English title Directed by Original air date | |
| 1 "L'angelo custode" | |
| "The Guardian Angel" Alberto Ferrari September 27, 2005 | |
| 2 "Tradimenti" | |
| "Betrayal" Alberto Ferrari September 27, 2005 | |
| Season 6 (2006) | |
| Season # Italian title | |
| English title Directed by Original air date | |
| 1 "Un giorno perfetto (prima parte)" | |
| "A Perfect Day (Part One)" Alberto Ferrari September 12, 2006 | |
| 2 "Un giorno perfetto (seconda parte)" | |
| "A Perfect Day (Part Two)" Alberto Ferrari September 12, 2006 | |
| Season 7 (2007) | |
| Season # Italian title | |
| English title Directed by Original air date | |
| 1 "L'innocente" | |
| "The Innocent" Alberto Ferrari September 6, 2007 | |
| 2 "Il branco" | |
| "The Herd" Alberto Ferrari September 6, 2007 | |
| Season 8 (2008) | |
| Season # Italian title | |
| English title Directed by Original air date | |
| 1 "Il tempo che ci resta" | |
| "The Time That Remains" Alberto Ferrari September 4, 2008 | |
| 2 "Lezioni di vita" | |
| "Life Lessons" Alberto Ferrari September 4, 2008 | |
| Season 9 (2009) | |
| Season # Italian title | |
| English title Directed by Original air date | |
| 1 "Prede (prima parte)" | |
| "Prey (Part One)" Alberto Ferrari September 11, 2009 | |
| 2 "Prede (seconda parte)" | |
| "Prey (Part Two)" Alberto Ferrari September 11, 2009 | |
| Season 10 (2010) | |
| Season # Italian title | |
| English title Directed by Original air date | |
| 1 "Passato, presente" | |
| "Past, Present" Alberto Ferrari September 5, 2010 | |
| 2 "Atto di accusa" | |
| "Indictment" Alberto Ferrari September 5, 2010 | |
| 3 "Ricordi e bugie" | |
| "Memories and Lies" Alberto Ferrari September 6, 2010 | |
| 4 "Un futuro migliore" | |
| "A Better Future" Alberto Ferrari September 6, 2010 | |
| 5 "Maschere e volti" | |
| "Masks and Faces" Alberto Ferrari September 12, 2010 | |
| 6 "Era mia madre" | |
| "It Was My Mother" Alberto Ferrari September 12, 2010 | |
| 7 "Fantasmi" | |
| "Ghosts" Alberto Ferrari September 19, 2010 | |
| 8 "Prova d'amore" | |
| "Test of Love" Alberto Ferrari September 19, 2010 | |
| 9 "Tsunami" | |
| "Tsunami" Alberto Ferrari September 26, 2010 | |
| 10 "Cause e affetti" | |
| "Causes and Affected" Alberto Ferrari September 26, 2010 | |
| 11 "Lontano da qui" | |
| "Far From Here" Alberto Ferrari September 27, 2010 | |
| 12 "Sensi di colpa" | |
| "Senses of Guilt" Alberto Ferrari September 27, 2010 | |
| 13 "Il terzo occhio" | |
| "The Third Eye" Alberto Ferrari October 3, 2010 | |
| 14 "Appesi a un filo" | |
| "Hanging By a Thread" Alberto Ferrari October 3, 2010 | |
| 15 "All'ultimo secondo" | |
| "At The Last Second" Alberto Ferrari October 10, 2010 | |
| 16 "La tana del lupo" | |
| "The Tana of the Wolf" Alberto Ferrari October 10, 2010 | |
| 17 "Un sospetto pericoloso" | |
| "A Dangerous Suspect" Alberto Ferrari October 17, 2010 | |
| 18 "Una triste risata" | |
| "Sad Laughter" Alberto Ferrari October 17, 2010 | |
| 19 "Insoliti sospetti" | |
| "Unusual Suspects" Alberto Ferrari October 24, 2010 | |
| 20 "Morto che cammina" | |
| "Walking Dead" Alberto Ferrari October 24, 2010 | |
| 21 "La vita in gioco" | |
| "Life in the Game" Alberto Ferrari October 31, 2010 | |
| 22 "Un'altra opportunità" | |
| "Another Opportunity" Alberto Ferrari October 31, 2010 | |
| 23 "Vite in segreto" | |
| "Lives in Secrets" Alberto Ferrari November 7, 2010 | |
| 24 "Il sesso debole" | |
| "The Weaker Sex" Alberto Ferrari November 7, 2010 | |
| 25 "Prima che accada" | |
| "Before It Happens" Alberto Ferrari November 14, 2010 | |
| 26 "Giochi di bimba" | |
| "Games of Baby Girl" Alberto Ferrari November 14, 2010 | |
| Season 11 (2011-2012) | |
| Season # Italian title | |
| English title Directed by Original air date | |
| 1 "Destini incrociati (prima parte)" | |
| "Crossfire Destinies (Part One)" Alberto Ferrari October 9, 2011 | |
| 2 "Destini incrociati (seconda parte)" | |
| "Crossfire Destinies (Part Two)" Alberto Ferrari October 9, 2011 | |
| 3 "Divisi in due (prima parte)" | |
| "Divided in Two (Part One)" Alberto Ferrari October 16, 2011 | |
| 4 "Divisi in due (seconda parte)" | |
| "Divided in Two (Part Two)" Alberto Ferrari October 16, 2011 | |
| 5 "Giarabub" | |
| "Giarabub" Alberto Ferrari October 23, 2011 | |
| 6 "Pirati" | |
| "Pirates" Alberto Ferrari October 23, 2011 | |
| 7 "La fabbrica dei cloni" | |
| "The Factory of the Clones" Alberto Ferrari October 30, 2011 | |
| 8 "La forza di un amore" | |
| "The Force of a Love" Alberto Ferrari October 30, 2011 | |
| 9 "Amore in vendita" | |
| "Love in Sale" Alberto Ferrari November 6, 2011 | |
| 10 "Sciacalli" | |
| "Jackals" Alberto Ferrari November 6, 2011 | |
| 11 "Giochi clandestini" | |
| "Illegals Game" Alberto Ferrari November 8, 2011 | |
| 12 "La trappola" | |
| "The Trap" Alberto Ferrari November 8, 2011 | |
| 13 "Perduta" | |
| "Lost" Alberto Ferrari November 13, 2011 | |
| 14 "Un talento fatale" | |
| "Fatal Talent" Alberto Ferrari November 13, 2011 | |
| 15 "Il sangue di Luca" | |
| "The Blood of Luca" Alberto Ferrari November 20, 2011 | |
| 16 "La cattiva strada" | |
| "The Bad Road" Alberto Ferrari November 20, 2011 | |
| 17 "Il campione" | |
| "The Sample" Alberto Ferrari November 27, 2011 | |
| 18 "Il ricordo di Chiara" | |
| "The Remember of Chiara" Alberto Ferrari December 4, 2011 | |
| 19 "Scelte" | |
| "Choices" Alberto Ferrari December 11, 2011 | |
| 20 "Un unico errore" | |
| "A Single Error" Alberto Ferrari December 18, 2011 | |
| 21 "Impunibile" | |
| "Unpunished" Alberto Ferrari January 1, 2012 | |
| 22 "Fatto in casa" | |
| "Made in Home" Alberto Ferrari January 1, 2012 | |
| 23 "Pregiudizi e brave persone" | |
| "Prejudices and Good People" Alberto Ferrari January 8, 2012 | |
| 24 "Il figlio sbagliato" | |
| "The Wrong Son" Alberto Ferrari January 8, 2012 | |
| 25 "Il grano e la pula (prima parte)" | |
| "The Grain and the Pula (Part One)" Alberto Ferrari January 15, 2012 | |
| 26 "Il grano e la pula (seconda parte)" | |
| "The Grain and the Pula (Part Two)" Alberto Ferrari January 15, 2012 - Series Finale | |
| See also | |
| List of Italian television series | |
| External links | |
| Distretto di Polizia at IMDb Edit this at Wikidata | |
| Categories: Italian crime television series2000 Italian television series debuts2012 Italian television series endings2000s Italian television series2010s Italian television seriesEvolution of metal ions in biological systems | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
| Jump to navigationJump to search | |
| Evolution of metal ions in biological systems refers to the incorporation of metallic ions into living organisms and how it has changed over time. Metal ions have been associated with biological systems for billions of years, but only in the last century have scientists began to truly appreciate the scale of their influence. Major (iron, manganese, magnesium and zinc) and minor (copper, cobalt, nickel, molybdenum, tungsten) metal ions have become aligned with living organisms through the interplay of biogeochemical weathering and metabolic pathways involving the products of that weathering. The associated complexes have evolved over time. | |
| Natural development of chemicals and elements challenged organisms to adapt or die. Current organisms require redox reactions to induce metabolism and other life processes. Metals have a tendency to lose electrons and are important for redox reactions. | |
| Metals have become so central to cellular function that the collection of metal-binding proteins (referred to as the metallomes) accounts for over 30% of all proteins in the cell. Metals are known to be involved in over 40% of enzymatic reactions, and metal-binding proteins carry out at least one step in almost all biological pathways.[1] | |
| Metals are also toxic so a balance must be acquired to regulate where the metals are in an organism as well as in what quantities. Many organisms have flexible systems in which they can exchange one metal for another if one is scarce. Metals in this discussion are naturally occurring elements that have a tendency to undergo oxidation. Vanadium, molybdenum, cobalt, copper, chromium, iron, manganese, nickel, and zinc are deemed essential because without them biological function is impaired. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Origins | |
| 2 Importance of metal ions in evolution | |
| 2.1 Catalysis | |
| 2.1.1 Redox catalysts | |
| 2.1.2 Condensation and hydrolysis | |
| 3 Abundance of metals in seawater | |
| 3.1 Prebiotic (anaerobic) conditions | |
| 3.2 Aerobic conditions | |
| 4 Irving–Williams series | |
| 5 Metal ions | |
| 5.1 Magnesium | |
| 5.2 Manganese | |
| 5.3 Iron | |
| 5.4 Nickel and cobalt | |
| 5.5 Copper | |
| 5.6 Zinc | |
| 5.7 Molybdenum | |
| 5.8 Tungsten | |
| 6 References | |
| Origins | |
| The Great Oxygenation Event. The upper red and lower green lines represent the range of the estimates. | |
| The Earth began as an iron aquatic world with low oxygen. The Great Oxygenation Event occurred approximately 2.4 Ga (billion years ago) as cyanobacteria and photosynthetic life induced the presence of dioxygen in the planet's atmosphere. Iron became insoluble (as did other metals) and scarce while other metals became soluble. Sulfur was a very important element during this time. Once oxygen was released into the environment, sulfates made metals more soluble and released those metals into the environment; especially into the water.[1] Incorporation of metals perhaps combatted oxidative stress. | |
| The central chemistry of all these cells has to be reductive in order that the synthesis of the required chemicals, especially biopolymers, is possible. The different anaerobic, autocatalysed, reductive, metabolic pathways seen in the earliest known cells developed in separate energised vesicles, protocells, where they were produced cooperatively with certain bases of the nucleic acids.[2] | |
| Hypotheses proposed for how elements became essential is their relative quantity in the environment as life formed. This has produced research on the origin of life; for instance, Orgel and Crick hypothesized that life was extraterrestrial due to the alleged low abundance of molybdenum on early Earth (it is now suspected that there were larger quantities than previously thought[citation needed]). Another example is life forming around thermal vents based on the availability of zinc and sulfur.[1] In conjunction with this theory is that life evolved as chemoautotrophs. Therefore, life occurred around metals and not in response to their presence. Some evidence for this theory is that inorganic matter has self-contained attributes that life adopted as shown by life's compartmentalization.[2] Other evidence includes the ready binding of metals by artificial proteins without evolutionary history.[3] | |
| Importance of metal ions in evolution | |
| Catalysis | |
| Redox catalysts | |
| The prebiotic chemistry of life had to be reductive in order to obtain, e.g. Carbon monoxide (CO) and Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) from existing CO2 and N2 in the atmosphere. CO and HCN were precursor molecules of the essential biomolecules, proteins, lipids, nucleotides and sugars.[4] However, atmospheric oxygen levels increased considerably, and it was then necessary for cells to have control over the reduction and oxidation of such small molecules in order to build and break down cells when necessary, without the inevitable oxidation (breaking down) of everything. Transition metal ions, due to their multiple oxidation states, were the only elements capable of controlling the oxidation states of such molecules, and thus were selected for.[5] | |
| Condensation and hydrolysis | |
| O-donors[definition needed] such as HPO2− | |
| 4 were abundant in the prebiotic atmosphere.[6] Metal ion binding to such O-donors was required to build the biological polymers, since the bond is generally weak, it can catalyze the required reaction and dissociate after (i.e. Mg2+ in DNA synthesis). | |
| Abundance of metals in seawater | |
| Element Prebiotic conditions (M)[6] Aerobic Conditions (M)[6] | |
| Mg2+ ~ 10−2 ~ 10−2 | |
| Mn2+ ~ 10−6 ~ 10−8 | |
| Fe ~ 10−7 [Fe(II)] ~ 10−19 [Fe(III)] | |
| Co2+ ~ 10−9 ~ 10−9 | |
| Ni2+ < 10−9 < 10−9 | |
| Cu < 10−20 (very low) [Cu(I)] < 10−10 [Cu(II)] | |
| Zn2+ < 10−12 (very low) ~ 10−8 | |
| Mo ~ 10−9 (MoS2− | |
| 4, Mo(OH)6) 10−8 (MoO2− | |
| 4) | |
| W WS2− | |
| 4 10−9 (WO2− | |
| 4) | |
| H+ low pH (5.5?) pH 8.5 | |
| H2S 10−2 (High) low [SO2− | |
| 4 (10−2)] | |
| O2 < 10−6 atm ~ 10−1 atm (21%) | |
| Prebiotic (anaerobic) conditions | |
| Around 4 Ga, the acidic seawater contained high amounts of H2S and thus created a reducing environment with a potential of around −0.2 V.[6] So any element that had a large negative value with respect to the reduction potential of the environment was available in its free ionic form and can subsequently be incorporated into cells, i.e. Mg2+ has a reduction potential of −2.372 V, and was available in its ionic form at that time. | |
| Aerobic conditions | |
| Around 2 Ga, an increase in atmospheric oxygen levels took place, causing an oxidation of H2S in the surroundings, and an increase in the pH of the sea water. The resulting environment had become more oxidizing and thus allowed the later incorporation of the heavier metals such as copper and zinc.[7] | |
| Irving–Williams series | |
| Another factor affecting the availability of metal ions was their solubilities with H2S. Hydrogen sulfide was abundant in the early sea giving rise to H2S in the prebiotic acidic conditions and HS− in the neutral (pH = 7.0) conditions. In the series of metal sulfides, insolubility increases at neutral pH following the Irving–Williams series: | |
| Mn(II) < Fe(II) < Co(II) ≤ Ni(II) < Cu(II) > Zn(II) | |
| So in high amounts of H2S, which was the prebiotic condition, only Fe was most prominently available in its ionic form due to its low insolubility with sulfides. The increasing oxidation of H2S into SO2− | |
| 4 leads to the later release of Co+2, Ni+2, Cu+2, and Zn+2 since all of their sulfates are soluble. | |
| Metal ions | |
| Magnesium | |
| Magnesium is the eighth most abundant element on earth. It is the fourth most abundant element in vertebrates and the most abundant divalent cation within cells. The most available form of magnesium (Mg2+) for living organisms can be found in the hydrosphere. The concentration of Mg2+ in seawater is around 55 mM. Mg2+ is readily available to cells during early evolution due to its high solubility in water. Other transition metals like calcium precipitate from aqueous solutions at much lower concentrations than the corresponding Mg2+ salts.[8] | |
| Since magnesium was readily available in early evolution, it can be found in every cell type living organism. Magnesium in anaerobic prokaryotes can be found in MgATP. Magnesium also has many functions in prokaryotes such as glycolysis, all kinases, NTP reaction, signalling, DNA/RNA structures and light capture. In aerobic eukaryotes, magnesium can be found in cytoplasm and chloroplasts. The reactions in these cell compartments are glycolysis, photophosphorylation and carbon assimilation. | |
| ATP, the main source of energy in almost all living organisms, must bind with metal ions such as Mg2+ or Ca2+ to function. Examination of cells with limited magnesium supply has shown that a lack of magnesium can cause a decrease in ATP.[9] Magnesium in ATP hydrolysis acts as a co-factor to stabilize the high negative charge transition state.[10] MgATP can be found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes cells. However, most of the ATP in cells is MgATP. Following the Irving–Williams series, magnesium has a higher binding constant than the Ca2+. Therefore, the dominant ATP in living organisms is MgATP. A greater binding constant also gives magnesium the advantage as a better catalyst over other competing transition metals. | |
| Manganese | |
| Magnesium Center in Cyanobacterial photosystem II. Incorporation of manganese sparked evolution of complex plant life. | |
| Evidence suggests that manganese (Mn) was first incorporated into biological systems roughly 3.2–2.8 billion years ago, during the Archean Period. Together with calcium, it formed the manganese-calcium oxide complex (determined by X-ray diffraction) which consisted of a manganese cluster, essentially an inorganic cubane (cubical) structure. The incorporation of a manganese center in photosystem II was highly significant, as it allowed for photosynthetic oxygen evolution of plants. The oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) is a critical component of photosystem II contained in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts; it is responsible for terminal photooxidation of water during light reactions.[11] | |
| The incorporation of Mn in proteins allowed the complexes the ability to reduce reactive oxygen species in Mn-superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) and catalase, in electron transfer-dependent catalysis (for instance in certain class I ribonucleotide reductases) and in the oxidation of water by photosystem II (PSII), where the production of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances is decreased. This is due to manganese's ability to reduce superoxide anion and hydroxyl radicals as well as its chain-breaking capacity.[12] | |
| Iron | |
| Iron (Fe) is the most abundant element in the Earth and the fourth most abundant element in the crust, approximately 5 percent by mass. Due to the abundance of iron and its role in biological systems, the transition and mineralogical stages of iron have played a key role in Earth surface systems. It played a larger role in the geological past in marine geochemistry, as evidenced by the deposits of Precambrian iron-rich sediments. The redox transformation of Fe(II) to Fe(III), or vice versa, is vital to a number of biological and element cycling processes. The reduction of Fe(III) is seen to oxidize sulfur (from H2S to SO4−2), which is a central process in marine sediments. Many of the first metalloproteins consisted of iron-sulphur complexes formed during photosynthesis.[13] Iron is the main redox metal in biological systems. In proteins, it is found in a variety of sites and cofactors, including, for instance, haem groups, Fe–O–Fe sites, and iron–sulfur clusters. | |
| The prevalence of iron is apparently due to the large availability of Fe(II) in the initial evolution of living organisms, before the rise of photosynthesis and an increase in atmospheric oxygen levels which resulted in the precipitation of iron in the environment as Fe(OH)3. It has flexible redox properties because such properties are sensitive to ligand coordination, including geometry. Iron can be also used in enzymes due to its Lewis acid properties, for example in nitrile hydratase. Iron is frequently found in mononuclear sites in the reduced Fe(II) form, and functions in dioxygen activation; this function is used as a major mechanism adopted by living organisms to avoid the kinetic barrier hindering the transformation of organic compounds by O2.[14] Iron can be taken up selectively as ferredoxins, Fe-O-Fe (hemerythrin and ribonucleotide reductase), Fe (many oxidases), apart from iron porphyrin. Variation in the related proteins with any one of these chemical forms of iron has produced a wide range of enzymes. All of these arrangements are modified to function both in the sense of reactivity and the positioning of the protein in the cell. Iron can have various redox and spin states, and it can be held in many stereochemistries.[15] | |
| Coenzyme F430 – Theorized as the first occurrence of nickel in biological systems | |
| Nickel and cobalt | |
| Coenzyme B12 – Theorized as the first occurrence of cobalt in a biological system | |
| Around 4–3 Ga, anaerobic prokaryotes began developing metal and organic cofactors for light absorption. They ultimately ended up making chlorophyll from Mg(II), as is found in cyanobacteria and plants, leading to modern photosynthesis. However, chlorophyll synthesis requires numerous steps. The process starts with uroporphyrin, a primitive precursor to the porphyrin ring which may be biotic or abiotic in origin, which is then modified in cells differently to make Mg, Fe, nickel (Ni), and cobalt (Co) complexes. The centers of these rings are not selective, thus allowing the variety of metal ions to be incorporated. Mg porphyrin gives rise to chlorophyll, Fe porphyrin to heme proteins, Ni porphyrin yields factor F-430, and Co porphyrin Coenzyme B12.[16] | |
| Copper | |
| Before the Great Oxygenation Event, copper was not readily available for living organisms. Most early copper was Cu+ and Cu. This oxidation state of copper is not very soluble in water. One billion years ago, after the great oxidation event the oxygen pressure rose sufficiently to oxidise Cu+ to Cu2+, increasing its solubility in water. As a result, the copper became much more available for living organisms. | |
| Most copper-containing proteins and enzymes can be found in eukaryotes. Only a handful of prokaryotes such as aerobic bacteria and cyanobacteria contain copper enzymes or proteins. Copper can be found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzyme. There are three distinct types of SOD, containing Mn, Fe and Cu respectively. Mn-SOD and Fe-SOD are found in most prokaryotes and mitochondria of the eukaryotic cell. Cu-SOD can be found in the cytoplasmic fraction of the eukaryotic cells. The three elements, copper, iron and manganese, can all catalyze superoxide to ordinary molecular oxygen or hydrogen peroxide. However, Cu-SOD is more efficient than Fe-SOD and Mn-SOD. Most prokaryotes only utilize Fe-SOD or Mn-SOD due to the lack of copper in the environment. Some organisms did not develop Cu-SOD due to the lack of a gene pool for the Cu-SOD adoption.[17] | |
| Zinc | |
| Zinc (Zn) was incorporated into living cells in two waves. Four to three Ga, anaerobic prokaryotes arose, and the atmosphere was full of H2S and highly reductive. Thus most zinc was in the form of insoluble ZnS. However, because seawater at the time was slightly acidic, some Zn(II) was available in its ionic form and became part of early anaerobic prokaryotes' external proteases, external nucleases, internal synthetases and dehydrogenases.[7] | |
| During the second wave, once the Great Oxygenation Event occurred, more Zn(II) ions were available in the seawater. This allowed its incorporation in the single-cell eukaryotes as they arose at this time. It is believed that the later addition of ions such as zinc and copper allowed them to displace iron and manganese from the enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD). Fe and Mn complexes dissociate readily (Irving–Williams series) while Zn and Cu do not. This is why eukaryotic SOD contains Cu or Zn and its prokaryotic counterpart contains Fe or Mn.[7] | |
| Zn (II) doesn't pose an oxidation threat to the cytoplasm. This allowed it to become a major cytoplasmic element in the eukaryotes. It became associated with a new group of transcription proteins, zinc fingers. This could only have occurred due to the long life of eukaryotes, which allowed time for zinc to exchange and hence become an internal messenger coordinating the action of other transcription factors during growth.[7] | |
| Molybdenum | |
| Molybdenum (Mo) is the most abundant transition element in solution in the sea (mostly as dianionic molybdate ion) and in living organisms, its abundance in the Earth's crust is quite low. Therefore, the use of Mo by living organisms seems surprising at first glance. Archaea, bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals, including humans, require molybdenum. It is also found in over 50 different enzymes. Its hydrolysis to water-soluble oxo-anionic species makes Mo readily accessible. Mo is found in the active sites of metalloenzymes that perform key transformations in the metabolism of carbon, nitrogen, arsenic, selenium, sulfur, and chlorine compounds. The mononuclear Mo enzymes are widely distributed in the biosphere; they catalyze many significant reactions in the metabolism of nitrogen and sulfur-containing compounds as well as various carbonyl compounds (e.g., aldehydes, CO, and CO2). Nitrate reductases enzymes are important for the nitrogen cycle. They belong to a class of enzymes with a mononuclear Mo center and they catalyze the metabolism reaction of C, N, S, etc., in bacteria, plants, animals, and humans.[18] Due to the oxidation of sulfides, The first considerable development was that of aerobic bacteria which could now utilize Mo.[11] As oxygen began to accumulate in the atmosphere and oceans, the reaction of MoS2 to MoO4 also increased. This reaction made the highly soluble molybdate ion available for incorporation into critical metalloenzymes, and may have thus allowed life to thrive. It allowed organisms to occupy new ecological niches. Mo plays an important role in the reduction of dinitrogen to ammonia, which occurs in one type of nitrogenases. These enzymes are used by bacteria that usually live in a symbiotic relationship with plants; their role is nitrogen fixation, which is vital for sustaining life on earth. Mo enzymes also play important roles in sulfur metabolism of organisms ranging from bacteria to humans.[18] | |
| Tungsten | |
| Pyrococcus furiosus, one of the few modern organisms in which the incorporation of tungsten is still essential | |
| Tungsten is one of the oldest metal ions to be incorporated in biological systems, preceding the Great Oxygenation Event. Before the abundance of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere, oceans teemed with sulfur and tungsten, while molybdenum, a metal that is highly similar chemically, was inaccessible in solid form. The abundance of tungsten and lack of free molybdenum likely explains why early marine organisms incorporated the former instead of the latter. However, as cyanobacteria began to fill the atmosphere with oxygen, molybdenum became available (molybdenum becomes soluble when exposed to oxygen) and molybdenum began to replace tungsten in the majority of metabolic processes, which is seen today, as tungsten is only present in the biological complexes of prokaryotes (methanogens, gram-positive bacteria, gram-negative aerobes and anaerobes), and is only obligated in hyperthermophilic archaea such as P. furiosus. Tungsten's extremely high melting point (3,422 °C), partially explains its necessity in these archaea, found in extremely hot areas.[19] | |
| Although research into the specific enzyme complexes in which tungsten is incorporated is relatively recent (1970s), natural tungstoenzymes are abundantly found in a large number of prokaryotic microorganisms. These include formate dehydrogenase, formyl methanufuran dehydrogenase, acetylene hydratase, and a class of phylogenetically related oxidoreductases that catalyze the reversible oxidation of aldehydes. The first crystal structure of a tungsten- or pterin-containing enzyme, that of aldehyde ferredoxin oxidoreductase from P. furiosus, has revealed a catalytic site with one W atom coordinated to two pterin molecules which are themselves bridged by a magnesium ion.[18] | |
| References | |
| Monosson, Emily (2012). Evolution in a Toxic World. Springer. doi:10.5822/978-1-61091-221-1. ISBN 978-1-59726-341-2. S2CID 83040488. | |
| Russel, MJ; William, M (2003). "On the origins of cells: a hypothesis for the evolutionary transitions from abiotic geochemistry to chemoautotrophic prokaryotes, and from prokaryotes to nucleated cells". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 358 (1429): 59–85. doi:10.1098/rstb.2002.1183. PMC 1693102. PMID 12594918. | |
| Wang, MS; Hoegler, KH; Hecht, M (2019). "Unevolved De Novo Proteins Have Innate Tendencies to Bind Transition Metals". Life. 9 (8): 8. doi:10.3390/life9010008. PMC 6463171. PMID 30634485. | |
| Gonzalez, R.N.; Ponnamperuma, C. (1995). "Role of Trace Metal ions in Chemical Evolution. The case of free radical reactions". Advances in Space Research. 15 (3): 357–364. Bibcode:1995AdSpR..15..357N. doi:10.1016/s0273-1177(99)80107-0. PMID 11539250. | |
| Kleczkowski, M; Garncarz, M (2012). "The role of metal ions in biological oxidation- the past and the present". Polish Journal of Veterinary Sciences. 15 (1): 165–173. doi:10.2478/v10181-011-0130-8. PMID 22708374. | |
| Williams, R.J.P.; Frausto da Silva, J.J.R. (2006). The Chemistry of Evolution. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 9780080460529. | |
| Williams, R.J.P. (2012). "Zinc in Evolution". Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry. 111: 104–109. doi:10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2012.01.004. PMID 22855949. | |
| Maguire, Michael E.; Cowan, James A (2002). "Magnesium chemistry and biochemistry". BioMetals. 15 (3): 203–210. doi:10.1023/a:1016058229972. PMID 12206387. S2CID 31622669. | |
| Gout, Elisabeth; Rébeillé, Fabrice; Douce, Roland; Bligny, Richard (October 13, 2014). "Interplay of Mg2+, ADP, and ATP in the cytosol and mitochondria: Unraveling the role of Mg2+ in cell respiration". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (43): E4560–E4567. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111E4560G. doi:10.1073/pnas.1406251111. PMC 4217410. PMID 25313036. | |
| Williams, Nicholas H. (2000). "Magnesium Ion Catalyzed ATP Hydrolysis". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 122 (48): 12023–12024. doi:10.1021/ja0013374. | |
| Williams, R.J.P. (2007). "Systems biology of evolution: the involvement of metal ions". BioMetals. 20 (2): 107–112. doi:10.1007/s10534-007-9087-6. PMID 17295048. S2CID 29462278. | |
| Salomon, Etian; Keren, Nir (2011). "Manganese in Biological systems: Transport and Function". Patai's Chemistry of Functional Groups. doi:10.1002/9780470682531.pat0540. ISBN 9780470682531. | |
| Taylor, K.G.; Konhauser, K.O. (2011). "Iron in Earth surface systems: A major player in chemical and biological processes". Elements. 7 (2): 83–88. doi:10.2113/gselements.7.2.83. | |
| Andreini, C.; Bertini, I.; Cavallaro, G.; Holliday, G.L.; Thornton, J.M. (2008). "Metal ions in biological catalysis: from enzyme databases to general principles". Journal of Biological Inorganic Chemistry. 13 (8): 1205–1218. doi:10.1007/s00775-008-0404-5. PMID 18604568. S2CID 22862135. | |
| Williams, R.J.P. (1985). "The symbiosis of metal and protein functions". European Journal of Biochemistry. 150 (2): 231–248. doi:10.1111/j.1432-1033.1985.tb09013.x. PMID 2990929. | |
| Frank, S.; Brindley, A.A.; Deery, E.; Heathcote, P.; Lawrence, A.D.; Leech, H.K.; Pickersgill, R.W.; Warren, M.J. (2005). "Anaerobic synthesis of vitamin B12: characterization of the early steps in the pathway". Biochemical Society Transactions. 33 (4): 811–814. doi:10.1042/BST0330811. PMID 16042604. | |
| Ochiai, Ei-Ichiro (1983). "Copper and the Biological Evolution". Biosystems. 16 (2): 81–86. doi:10.1016/0303-2647(83)90029-1. PMID 6640084. | |
| Sigel, A.; Sigel, H., eds. (2002). Metal ions in biological systems: molybdenum and tungsten: their roles in biological processes. Vol. 39. Taylor & Francis. | |
| Kletzin, Arnulf; Adams, Michael W. (1996). "Tungsten in Biological Systems". FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 18 (1): 5–63. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6976.1996.tb00226.x. PMID 8672295. | |
| Categories: Evolutionary biologyBioinorganic chemistryMetalsSomeone to Watch Over Me (album) | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
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| Someone to Watch Over Me | |
| SomeonetoWatchOverMe.jpg | |
| Studio album by Susan Boyle | |
| Released 1 November 2011 | |
| Recorded 2010–2011 | |
| Genre Operatic pop, adult contemporary, crossover | |
| Length 33:36 | |
| Label Syco, Columbia (US) | |
| Producer Steve Mac[1] | |
| Susan Boyle chronology | |
| The Gift | |
| (2010) Someone to Watch Over Me | |
| (2011) Standing Ovation: The Greatest Songs from the Stage | |
| (2012) | |
| Singles from Someone to Watch Over Me | |
| "You Have to Be There" | |
| Released: 20 September 2011 | |
| "Enjoy the Silence" | |
| Released: 30 September 2011 | |
| "Unchained Melody" | |
| Released: 14 October 2011 | |
| "Autumn Leaves" | |
| Released: 25 October 2011 | |
| Professional ratings | |
| Aggregate scores | |
| Source Rating | |
| Metacritic 56/100[2] | |
| Review scores | |
| Source Rating | |
| AllMusic [3] | |
| Someone to Watch Over Me is the third album by Scottish singer Susan Boyle, released on 7 November 2011 in the United Kingdom and 1 November 2011 in the United States. The album has been described as a "diverse mix of music" which includes songs inspired by the stories of Boyle's fans who write letters to her. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Background | |
| 2 Commercial performance | |
| 3 Track listing | |
| 4 Charts | |
| 4.1 Weekly charts | |
| 4.2 Year-end charts | |
| 4.3 Decade-end charts | |
| 5 Certifications and sales | |
| 6 Release history | |
| 7 References | |
| Background | |
| Boyle announced the album title and release date on 1 September 2011, on the semi-final results show of America's Got Talent, after performing a track from "You Have to Be There". The song was written by ABBA members Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus, from their musical Kristina från Duvemåla. After Boyle performed on America's Got Talent she said: "I was also a little nervous introducing something new. America's Got Talent - it's where I started with my first album, so it was wonderful to be back and for the support."[4] | |
| Commercial performance | |
| In the United Kingdom, the album debuted in the top position of the UK Albums Chart, her third consecutive album to do so.[5] It sold 72,000 copies in its debut week.[6] As of 22 December 2011, the album has sold 416,000 copies in the US.[7] | |
| In Australia, the album debuted in the top position of the Australian Album Chart, so far it has been certified double platinum. | |
| In the United States, the album debuted at number four on the Billboard 200, becoming her third top five album on the chart. It sold 132,000 copies in its first week.[8] In its second week, the album was number seven selling 72,000 copies.[9] | |
| Track listing | |
| No. Title Writer(s) Original artist Length | |
| 1. "You Have to Be There" Benny Andersson, Björn Ulvaeus Helen Sjöholm, from Kristina från Duvemåla 3:53 | |
| 2. "Unchained Melody" Hy Zaret, Alex North Todd Duncan, from Unchained 3:47 | |
| 3. "Enjoy the Silence" Martin Gore Depeche Mode 4:11 | |
| 4. "Both Sides, Now" Joni Mitchell Joni Mitchell 3:29 | |
| 5. "Lilac Wine" James Shelton Hope Foye, from Dance Me a Song 3:15 | |
| 6. "Mad World" Roland Orzabal Tears for Fears 4:00 | |
| 7. "Autumn Leaves" Jim Duguidi, Paolo Giovanni Nutini Paolo Giovanni Nutini 2:54 | |
| 8. "This Will Be the Year" Emeli Sandé, Josh Kear, Shahid Khan Original Composition 3:53 | |
| 9. "Return" Steve Mac, Wayne Hector Original Composition 2:58 | |
| 10. "Someone to Watch Over Me" George Gershwin, Ira Gershwin Gertrude Lawrence, from Oh, Kay! 1:17 | |
| Japanese bonus tracks[10] | |
| No. Title Writer(s) Length | |
| 11. "Ue o Muite Arukō/The First Star" Rokusuke Ei, Hachidai Nakamura 4:01 | |
| 12. "Third Man Theme" Anton Karas 1:22 | |
| QVC bonus CD[11] | |
| No. Title Writer(s) Length | |
| 1. "Don't Give Up on Me" Dan Penn, Carson Whitsett, Hoy Lindsey | |
| 2. "You Are My Sunshine" Jimmie Davis, Charles Mitchell | |
| 3. "Perfect Day" Lou Reed 4:31 | |
| 4. "I Dreamed a Dream" Claude-Michel Schönberg, Alain Boublil, Herbert Kretzmer 4:33 | |
| The album is also available in a Special Edition that features a bonus DVD with music videos of the songs "You Have to Be There", "Unchained Melody", "Autumn Leaves", and "Perfect Day".[12] | |
| Charts | |
| Weekly charts | |
| Chart (2011) Peak | |
| position | |
| Australian Albums (ARIA)[13] 1 | |
| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)[14] 4 | |
| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)[15] 39 | |
| Canadian Albums (Billboard)[16] 6 | |
| Danish Albums (Hitlisten)[17] 36 | |
| Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)[18] 18 | |
| Finnish Albums (Suomen virallinen lista)[19] 38 | |
| French Albums (SNEP)[20] 145 | |
| Greek Albums (IFPI)[21] 17 | |
| Hungarian Albums (MAHASZ)[22] 34 | |
| Irish Albums (IRMA)[23] 11 | |
| New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)[24] 2 | |
| Norwegian Albums (VG-lista)[25] 20 | |
| Scottish Albums (OCC)[26] 1 | |
| Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)[27] 9 | |
| Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)[28] 47 | |
| UK Albums (OCC)[29] 1 | |
| US Billboard 200[30] 4 | |
| Year-end charts | |
| Chart (2011) Position | |
| Australian Albums (ARIA)[31] 7 | |
| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)[32] 70 | |
| Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)[33] 59 | |
| UK Albums (OCC)[34] 33 | |
| US Billboard 200[35] 156 | |
| Chart (2012) Position | |
| Canadian Albums (Billboard)[36] 35 | |
| US Billboard 200[37] 94 | |
| Decade-end charts | |
| Chart (2010-2019) Position | |
| Australian Albums (ARIA)[38] 86 | |
| Certifications and sales | |
| Region Certification Certified units/sales | |
| Australia (ARIA)[39] 2× Platinum 140,000^ | |
| Belgium (BEA)[40] Gold 15,000* | |
| Ireland (IRMA)[41] Gold 7,500^ | |
| New Zealand (RMNZ)[42] Platinum 15,000^ | |
| United Kingdom (BPI)[43] Platinum 300,000^ | |
| United States (RIAA)[44] Gold 500,000^ | |
| * Sales figures based on certification alone. | |
| ^ Shipments figures based on certification alone. | |
| Release history | |
| Region Date Format Label | |
| United Kingdom[45] 7 November 2011 CD, digital download Syco Music, Sony Music Entertainment | |
| United States 1 November 2011 Columbia Records | |
| Japan[10] 2 November 2011 Sony Music | |
| Germany[46] 4 November 2011 Syco, Sony Music | |
| References | |
| Erlewine, Stephen Thomas. "Someone to Watch Over Me - Susan Boyle | AllMusic". AllMusic. Retrieved 9 November 2011. | |
| "Reviews for Someone To Watch over Me by Susan Boyle - Metacritic". metacritic.com. Retrieved 28 July 2016. | |
| Erlewine, Review: Someone to Watch Over Me. AllMusic. Retrieved 17 November 2011. | |
| "Susan Boyle announces new album 'Someone to Watch Over Me'". Digital Spy. | |
| "Susan Boyle's Someone to Watch Over Me tops chart". BBC News. Retrieved 16 November 2011. | |
| "Susan Boyle, Rihanna Rise Again on U.K. Charts". Billboard. Retrieved 16 November 2011. | |
| "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 15 November 2011. Retrieved 26 December 2011. | |
| Caulfield, Keith (9 November 2011). "Justin Bieber's 'Mistletoe' Brightens Billboard 200 With No. 1 Debut". Billboard. Retrieved 9 November 2011. | |
| "Mac Miller Moves in at No. 1 on Billboard 200 | Billboard". billboard. Retrieved 28 July 2016. | |
| "Sony Music Shop". Sony Music Shop. Retrieved 9 November 2011. | |
| "Susan Boyle "Someone to Watch Over Me" 10 Track CD & Bonus CD – QVC.com". qvc.com. Retrieved 28 July 2016. | |
| "Susan Boyle - Someone To Watch Over Me". Sony Music Entertainment Germany GmbH. Archived from the original on 21 October 2011. Retrieved 9 November 2011. | |
| "Australiancharts.com – Susan Boyle – Someone To Watch Over Me". Hung Medien. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "Ultratop.be – Susan Boyle – Someone To Watch Over Me" (in Dutch). Hung Medien. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "Ultratop.be – Susan Boyle – Someone To Watch Over Me" (in French). Hung Medien. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "Susan Boyle Chart History (Canadian Albums)". Billboard. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "Danishcharts.dk – Susan Boyle – Someone To Watch Over Me". Hung Medien. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "Dutchcharts.nl – Susan Boyle – Someone To Watch Over Me" (in Dutch). Hung Medien. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "Susan Boyle: Someone To Watch Over Me" (in Finnish). Musiikkituottajat – IFPI Finland. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "Lescharts.com – Susan Boyle – Someone To Watch Over Me". Hung Medien. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "IFPI". Retrieved 27 July 2013. | |
| "MAHASZ – Magyar Hanglemezkiadók Szövetsége". mahasz.hu. Retrieved 1 December 2011. | |
| "Irish-charts.com – Discography Susan Boyle". Hung Medien. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "Charts.nz – Susan Boyle – Someone To Watch Over Me". Hung Medien. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "Norwegiancharts.com – Susan Boyle – Someone To Watch Over Me". Hung Medien. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "Official Scottish Albums Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "Swedishcharts.com – Susan Boyle – Someone To Watch Over Me". Hung Medien. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "Swisscharts.com – Susan Boyle – Someone To Watch Over Me". Hung Medien. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "Official Albums Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "Susan Boyle Chart History (Billboard 200)". Billboard. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "ARIA Top 100 Albums 2011". ARIA. Retrieved 15 January 2015. | |
| "Jaaroverzichten 2011". Ultratop. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "Årslista Album – År 2011" (in Swedish). Sverigetopplistan. Retrieved 11 May 2021. | |
| "End of Year Album Chart Top 100 – 2011". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "Top Billboard 200 Albums – Year-End 2011". Billboard. Retrieved 20 May 2021. | |
| "Top Canadian Albums – Year-End 2012". Billboard. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "Top Billboard 200 Albums – Year-End 2012". Billboard. Retrieved 10 September 2020. | |
| "2019 ARIA End of Decade Albums Chart". January 2020. Retrieved 17 January 2020. | |
| "ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2011 Albums" (PDF). Australian Recording Industry Association. | |
| "Ultratop − Goud en Platina – albums 2011". Ultratop. Hung Medien. Retrieved 19 November 2021. | |
| "The Irish Charts - 2012 Certification Awards - Gold". Irish Recorded Music Association. | |
| "New Zealand album certifications – Susan Boyle – Someone To Watch Over Me". Recorded Music NZ. | |
| "British album certifications – Susan Boyle – Someone To Watch Over Me". British Phonographic Industry.Select albums in the Format field. Select Platinum in the Certification field. Type Someone To Watch Over Me in the "Search BPI Awards" field and then press Enter. | |
| "American album certifications – Susan Boyle – Someone To Watch Over Me". Recording Industry Association of America. | |
| "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 25 September 2011. Retrieved 12 November 2011. | |
| "Susan Boyle - Someone To Watch Over Me". Sony Music Entertainment Germany GmbH. Archived from the original on 21 October 2011. Retrieved 9 November 2011. | |
| vte | |
| Susan Boyle | |
| Discography | |
| Studio albums | |
| I Dreamed a DreamThe GiftSomeone to Watch Over MeStanding Ovation: The Greatest Songs from the StageHome for ChristmasHopeA Wonderful World | |
| Compilation albums | |
| Ten | |
| Singles | |
| "Wild Horses""I Dreamed a Dream""Perfect Day""I Know Him So Well""Enjoy the Silence""Unchained Melody""The Winner Takes It All""You'll See" | |
| Other songs | |
| "Who I Was Born to Be" | |
| Television | |
| I Dreamed a Dream: The Susan Boyle StorySusan Boyle: An Unlikely Superstar | |
| Theatre | |
| I Dreamed a Dream (musical) | |
| Concert tours | |
| Susan Boyle in Concert | |
| Authority control Edit this at Wikidata | |
| MusicBrainz release group | |
| Categories: Susan Boyle albums2011 albumsSyco Music albumsColumbia Records albumsMillcreek Township, Clarion County, Pennsylvania | |
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| For other Pennsylvania townships with similar names, see Millcreek Township, Pennsylvania (disambiguation). | |
| Millcreek Township, | |
| Clarion County, | |
| Pennsylvania | |
| Township | |
| Confluence of the namesake Mill Creek with the Clarion River | |
| Confluence of the namesake Mill Creek with the Clarion River | |
| Map of Clarion County, Pennsylvania highlighting Millcreek Township | |
| Map of Clarion County, Pennsylvania highlighting Millcreek Township | |
| Map of Clarion County, Pennsylvania | |
| Map of Clarion County, Pennsylvania | |
| Country United States | |
| State Pennsylvania | |
| County Clarion | |
| Settled 1820 | |
| Area[1] | |
| • Total 29.25 sq mi (75.76 km2) | |
| • Land 28.94 sq mi (74.96 km2) | |
| • Water 0.31 sq mi (0.80 km2) | |
| Population (2010) | |
| • Total 396 | |
| • Estimate (2018)[2] 371 | |
| • Density 12.92/sq mi (4.99/km2) | |
| Time zone UTC-5 (Eastern (EST)) | |
| • Summer (DST) UTC-4 (EDT) | |
| FIPS code 42-031-49536 | |
| Millcreek Township is a township in Clarion County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 396 at the 2010 census.[3] | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Geography | |
| 2 Demographics | |
| 3 References | |
| 4 External links | |
| Geography | |
| The township is in northeastern Clarion County, bordered on the east by Jefferson County, on the northwest by the Clarion River, and on the southwest by its tributaries Mill Creek and Little Mill Creek. The unincorporated community of Fisher is near the center of the township. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has a total area of 29.3 square miles (75.8 km2), of which 29.0 square miles (75.0 km2) is land and 0.31 square miles (0.8 km2), or 1.06%, is water.[3] | |
| Demographics | |
| Historical population | |
| Census Pop. %± | |
| 2010 396 — | |
| 2018 (est.) 371 [2] −6.3% | |
| U.S. Decennial Census[4] | |
| As of the census[5] of 2000, there were 415 people, 178 households, and 126 families residing in the township. The population density was 14.3 people per square mile (5.5/km2). There were 496 housing units at an average density of 17.1/sq mi (6.6/km2). The racial makeup of the township was 98.55% White, 0.48% African American, and 0.96% from two or more races. | |
| There were 178 households, out of which 20.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64.6% were married couples living together, 2.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.7% were non-families. 24.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.76. | |
| In the township the population was spread out, with 18.8% under the age of 18, 6.7% from 18 to 24, 28.7% from 25 to 44, 28.9% from 45 to 64, and 16.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 111.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 108.0 males. | |
| The median income for a household in the township was $40,625, and the median income for a family was $46,500. Males had a median income of $38,281 versus $17,143 for females. The per capita income for the township was $22,329. None of the families and 0.9% of the population were living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and 2.9% of those over 64. | |
| References | |
| "2016 U.S. Gazetteer Files". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved Aug 13, 2017. | |
| Bureau, U. S. Census. "U.S. Census website". United States Census Bureau. US Census Bureau. Retrieved 30 November 2019. | |
| "Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Census Summary File 1 (G001): Millcreek township, Clarion County, Pennsylvania". U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Archived from the original on April 27, 2015. Retrieved April 27, 2015. | |
| "Census of Population and Housing". Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2016. | |
| "U.S. Census website". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31. | |
| External links | |
| Millcreek Township listing at Clarion County Association of Township Officials | |
| vte | |
| Municipalities and communities of Clarion County, Pennsylvania, United States | |
| County seat: Clarion | |
| Boroughs | |
| CallensburgClarionEast BradyEmlenton‡FoxburgHawthornKnoxNew BethlehemRimersburgShippenvilleSligoSt. PetersburgStrattanville | |
| Townships | |
| AshlandBeaverBradyClarionElkFarmingtonHighlandKnoxLickingLimestoneMadisonMillcreekMonroePaintPerryPineyPorterRedbankRichlandSalemTobyWashington | |
| CDPs | |
| CrownLeeperMarianneTylersburgVowinckel | |
| Unincorporated | |
| communities | |
| Cooksburg‡CurllsvilleFairmount CityFisherHelen FurnaceKossuthLamartineLickingvilleLimestoneLucindaMarbleMayportScotch HillSnydersburgTurkey CityTurnip HoleVenus‡ | |
| Footnotes | |
| ‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties | |
| Pennsylvania portalUnited States portal | |
| Coordinates: 41°16′07″N 79°14′40″W | |
| Categories: Populated places established in 18201820 establishments in PennsylvaniaTownships in Clarion County, PennsylvaniaAnime song | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
| Jump to navigationJump to search | |
| Anime song | |
| Native name | |
| アニメソング | |
| Other names Anison (アニソン) | |
| Stylistic origins | |
| Kayōkyoku | |
| Cultural origins 1970s, Japan | |
| Derivative forms | |
| Denpa songmoe song | |
| Other topics | |
| J-popJ-rockVideo game music | |
| Anime song (アニメソング, anime songu), also shortened to anison (アニソン), is a genre of music originating from Japanese pop music. Anime songs consist of theme, insert, and image songs for anime, video game, and audio drama CD series, as well as any other song released primarily for the anime market, including music from Japanese voice actors. | |
| The anime song genre was first defined in the 1970s. It later gained popularity from the public when mainstream artists begin releasing songs as tie-ins for anime series. By the 1990s, companies began creating record labels that would exclusively produce anime songs for their series and artists. The increase in voice actors beginning in the mid 2000s led to growing market interest in the genre. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 History | |
| 1.1 1930-1970: Early influences | |
| 1.2 1970-1980: Growing popularity of anime songs | |
| 1.3 1980-1990: Mainstream recognition | |
| 1.4 1990-2000: In-house production and modernization | |
| 1.5 2000-present: Voice actor boom | |
| 2 Derivatives | |
| 3 Media | |
| 3.1 Record labels | |
| 3.2 Concerts | |
| 4 Artists | |
| 4.1 Performers | |
| 4.1.1 Soloists | |
| 4.1.2 Groups | |
| 4.2 Composers | |
| 5 See also | |
| 6 References | |
| History | |
| 1930-1970: Early influences | |
| Namakura Gatana (1917), by Jun'ichi Kōuchi, is regarded as the first animated film in Japan. Kuroi Nyago (1931) is the first Japanese animated work to include music. The film includes a character dancing to a song, retroactively seen as the prototype of anime songs.[1] | |
| Following World War II, the 1950s and 1960s saw a revival in entertainment and cultural development.[1] In 1963, Astro Boy premiered and subsequently, the theme song "Theme of Astro Boy" became well-known to the Japanese public due to it being used as the departure song at Takadanobaba Station.[1] The song was also notable due to the lyrics being written by poet Shuntarō Tanikawa.[1] | |
| 1970-1980: Growing popularity of anime songs | |
| Japan's economic growth in the 1970s led to more cultural development, and people who exclusively sang theme songs for anime were known as "anime song singers."[1] Despite the lack of public appearances from the singers, theme songs from the series Mazinger Z, Space Battleship Yamato, and Candy Candy became known to the Japanese public, even outside of fans who watched the shows.[1] At the same time, Mobile Suit Gundam voice actors Toshio Furukawa and Toru Furuya gained a large female fanbase with through Slapstick, a vocal unit consisting of voice actors from the show meant to its theme songs.[2][3] While anime theme songs originally used the name and settings from the series of which they were based, this led to the lyrics of anime songs being centered on the characters' thoughts and feelings for more universal appeal and allowing for context outside of the original animated work.[1] | |
| 1980-1990: Mainstream recognition | |
| At the height of Japan's bubble economy, in the 1980s, anime songs began crossing over to mainstream entertainment.[1] In 1984, the single "Ai Oboete Imasu ka", which was released for Macross under the character Lynn Minmay's name, charted at #7 on the Oricon Weekly Singles Chart.[1][4] Furthermore, Cat's Eye (1983) received widespread media attention for having Anri, a singer whose activities had no connection to the anime industry, perform its theme songs.[1] Likewise, TM Network, a band who were active outside of the anime industry, received media attention when their 1987 song "Get Wild" was released as the theme song to City Hunter.[1] As a result of the song's popularity, TM Network were invited to the 72nd Kohaku Uta Gassen to perform it.[1] From then on, mainstream artists releasing tie-in songs for anime became common.[1] | |
| 1990-2000: In-house production and modernization | |
| Following the collapse of the bubble economy in Japan, labels exclusively dedicated to exclusively producing anime songs were formed, most notably King Records' Starchild label.[1] This was in part due the "Being Boom [ja]" phenomenon named after Being Inc., which gained a fanbase after their artists Zard and Maki Ohguro released songs that were well-received by the public.[1] Yoko Takahashi, who was part of the Starchild label, released "A Cruel Angel's Thesis" as the theme song for Neon Genesis Evangelion (1995), and the song's popularity led to audiences outside of anime fans to recognize it.[1] In addition, as popular music from Japan shifted from kayōkyoku to J-pop, anime song singers, such as Masami Okui, began incorporating J-pop sounds into her music.[1] Among others, voice actors such as Hekiru Shiina, Mariko Kouda, and Megumi Hayashibara were also active in singing in addition to voice acting.[2] Some voice actors also formed their own groups and perform theme songs to other anime series, such as Minami Takayama with Two-Mix.[5] | |
| 2000-present: Voice actor boom | |
| Nana Mizuki (pictured 2018) was the best-selling voice actress in 2011.[6] | |
| As more late-night anime series were being produced in the 2000s, Yui Horie, Yukari Tamura, and Nana Mizuki, who were signed with King Records, were produced and marketed as idol singers and voice actors by the record label.[2][7] During the mid-2000s, there was a "voice actor boom",[1] in addition to a period known as the "Idol Warring Period", a phenomenon named after a rapid growth in the idol industry.[8] Mizuki's "Eternal Blaze" reached #2 on the Oricon Weekly Single Charts in 2005, and shortly after, the release of "Hare Hare Yukai" in 2006 led to the "Haruhi boom" mainly because of the animated dance sequence in the show's ending.[1] In the following years, there was a substantial increase of voice actors in anime, and anime songs as a whole became more widely known to the general public.[1] The anime song industry shifted to recruit young girls who were able to have an "idol" presence, naming Riisa Naka, Koharu Kusumi, and Aya Hirano as examples.[7] | |
| In 2010, Ho-kago Tea Time, a fictional band from the series K-On!, became the first anime characters to receive simultaneous #1 and #2 rankings on the Oricon Weekly Singles Chart with the release of both their singles.[9] In the following years, idol-themed multimedia projects, such as Love Live!, The Idolmaster, and Uta no Prince-sama, became popular.[10][11] Billboard Japan launched the Billboard Japan Hot Animation Chart on December 1, 2010 exclusively for anime and video game music releases.[12] | |
| Derivatives | |
| The anime song genre became the direct influence of genres such as denpa song and moe song.[5] | |
| Media | |
| Record labels | |
| The following record labels are exclusively for anime song music: | |
| Animex[13] | |
| Flying Dog[13] | |
| King Amusement Creative (formerly Starchild)[1] | |
| Lantis[13] | |
| Mages (formerly 5pb Records)[13] | |
| Sacra Music[13] | |
| Toho Animation Record[13] | |
| Concerts | |
| Animelo Summer Live | |
| King Super Live [ja] (King Amusement Creative) | |
| Artists | |
| Performers | |
| This is a list of singers and bands who primarily perform anime songs, including groups created from media mix anime projects. This list does not count singers or bands who release incidental songs for the genre, nor group names that the voice actors are credited under solely for performing the theme songs in the anime they are starring in. | |
| Soloists | |
| Eir Aoi[14] | |
| Shouta Aoi[15] | |
| Kana Hanazawa[13] | |
| Megumi Hayashibara[15] | |
| Yui Horie[15] | |
| Sōichirō Hoshi[15] | |
| Miyu Irino[16] | |
| Kanako Itō[13] | |
| Hironobu Kageyama[13] | |
| LiSA[13] | |
| May'n[13] | |
| Inori Minase[15] | |
| Mamoru Miyano[15] | |
| Nana Mizuki[1][15] | |
| Hiroko Moriguchi[15] | |
| Megumi Nakajima[13] | |
| Yui Ogura[15] | |
| Machico[14] | |
| Masami Okui[1] | |
| Daisuke Ono[13] | |
| Soma Saito[13] | |
| Maaya Sakamoto[13][16] | |
| Minori Suzuki[13] | |
| Yoko Takahashi[1][15] | |
| Yukari Tamura[13] | |
| Haruka Tomatsu[14] | |
| Nao Toyama[13] | |
| Maaya Uchida[17] | |
| Yuma Uchida[15] | |
| Sumire Uesaka[15] | |
| Kōji Wada[18] | |
| Zaq[13] | |
| Groups | |
| Ali Project[13] | |
| Aqours[13] | |
| Angela[13][15] | |
| ClariS[13] | |
| Dialogue[14] | |
| Egoist[13] | |
| Garnidelia[13] | |
| Granrodeo[13] | |
| Iris[19] | |
| JAM Project[20] | |
| Mia Regina[21] | |
| Oldcodex[13] | |
| OxT[16] | |
| Roselia[14] | |
| Trefle[22] | |
| TrySail[13] | |
| Walkure[16] | |
| Composers | |
| This is a list of songwriters who primarily compose and produce anime songs. This list does not count composers who produce incidental releases for the genre. | |
| Aki Hata[23] | |
| Arte Refact[21] | |
| Elements Garden[24] | |
| Noriyasu Agematsu[24] | |
| Tomoya Tabuchi [ja][23] | |
| Hidekazu Tanaka[23] | |
| See also | |
| Animax Anison Grand Prix | |
| References | |
| Ito, Taisei. "日本で最初のアニメが誕生した大正時代". 70 Seeds (in Japanese). Retrieved March 21, 2022. | |
| "「アイドル声優」のブームは継続中！ その歴史は意外と深いって本当？". Tokyo School of Anime (in Japanese). January 4, 2019. Archived from the original on March 21, 2019. Retrieved March 21, 2019. | |
| Anu; Katrin (March 8, 2009). "Toru Furuya at Desucon". Japan Music Entertainment. Retrieved March 21, 2022. | |
| Eisenbeis, Richard (September 7, 2012). "The Fictional (Yet Amazingly Popular) Singers of Japan". Kotaku. Archived from the original on May 13, 2021. Retrieved May 10, 2021. | |
| Murakami, Reina (February 16, 2020). "TWO-MIX、fripSide、GRANRODEO、Sir Vanity……声優が属する音楽ユニットの歴史を辿る". Real Sound (in Japanese). Retrieved March 21, 2022. | |
| Loo, Egan (December 2, 2011). "Top-Selling Voice Actresses/Actors: 2011". Anime News Network. Retrieved September 28, 2021. | |
| "角川とアップフロントがアイドル声優オーディション開催". Oricon (in Japanese). July 2, 2008. Archived from the original on December 29, 2018. Retrieved December 28, 2018. | |
| Sevakis, Justin (September 3, 2018). "Why Isn't Idol Culture Bigger in America?". Anime News Network. Archived from the original on March 22, 2019. Retrieved March 22, 2019. | |
| Loo, Egan (May 3, 2010). "K-On!! Puts 1st Anime Band at #1 on Weekly Singles Chart (Updated)". Anime News Network. Retrieved March 21, 2022. | |
| Tai, Hiroki (February 15, 2015). "最近よく聞く"2.5次元"、その定義とは？". Oricon (in Japanese). Archived from the original on January 3, 2019. Retrieved January 16, 2019. | |
| Itabashi, Fujiko (September 1, 2016). "「うたプリ」「Bプロ」…女性ターゲットのアイドルアニメ大豊作！ 新時代の覇者は生まれるか". Real Sound (in Japanese). Archived from the original on March 22, 2019. Retrieved January 16, 2019. | |
| "ビルボードジャパン新チャート提供開始のお知らせ" [Announcement regarding the beginning the Billboard Japan Charts]. Kyodo News (in Japanese). December 1, 2010. Archived from the original on June 24, 2012. Retrieved October 31, 2019. | |
| "人気"アニソンレーベル"6社の個性を徹底比較! 今後の注目アーティストは?". Pia [ja] (in Japanese). April 27, 2018. Retrieved March 21, 2022. | |
| "寒さも吹き飛ばす大熱狂のアニソンのパワー「ANIMAX MUSIX 2021」Part2ライブレポート". Spice (in Japanese). November 24, 2021. Retrieved March 24, 2022. | |
| "『KING SUPER LIVE』オンラインで30日開催 過去ライブ映像使用しセットリスト組む". Oricon (in Japanese). May 26, 2020. Retrieved March 23, 2022. | |
| "2019年、アニソンアプリ「アニュータ」で最も再生されたのは誰だ!? 年間ランキング大賞「ANiUTa AWARD」発表" [Who was replayed the most on tne anime song app AniUta in 2019?! Announcement of the yearly ranking award Aniuta Award]. Anime! Anime! (in Japanese). December 20, 2019. Retrieved March 23, 2022. | |
| Oda, Junji (November 3, 2021). "水樹奈々、上坂すみれ、内田真礼……貫禄の歌声とクリエイターの手腕味わえる女性声優の最新作" [Nana Mizuki, Sumire Uesaka, Maaya Uchida... the latest works where you can taste the voice actresses' dignified singing and the creative skills]. Real Sound (in Japanese). Retrieved March 23, 2022. | |
| "和田光司" [Kōji Wada]. Solid Vox. Archived from the original on April 14, 2016. Retrieved April 8, 2016. | |
| "アニサマ2021：i☆Ris 幹葉、犬寄しのぶ（高木美佑）とコラボ 「こどちゃ」OP「ウルトラ リラックス」披露 テンション爆上げ！". Mantan Web (in Japanese). August 27, 2021. Retrieved March 23, 2022. | |
| "アニソン界のパイオニア JAM Project、待望の有観客ライブ映像リリース「120%の力で臨んだ」". Oricon (in Japanese). January 28, 2022. Retrieved March 23, 2022. | |
| "Mia REGINA×Arte Refact 桑原 聖＆本多友紀が考える、"アニソン"の定義と2010年代の展開". Real Sound (in Japanese). January 3, 2017. Retrieved March 23, 2022. | |
| "声優ユニットTrefle、デビュー作で「チェンクロ」とコラボ" [Voice actor unit Trefle collaborates with Chain Chronicle for their debut work]. Natalie (in Japanese). October 22, 2013. Retrieved November 19, 2019. | |
| "田中秀和さん ジャンルを超える！アニソンシーンを驚かせた作編曲とは？". NHK (in Japanese). December 18, 2020. Retrieved March 23, 2022. | |
| "アニクラ文化を世界へ届けたい！Elements Garden上松範康・竹田祐介とD4DJ Peaky P-keyが企む世界征服への道のりとは！？". Spice (in Japanese). April 14, 2021. Retrieved March 25, 2022. | |
| vte | |
| Music of Japan | |
| Categories: Anime musicAnime songsJapanese styles of music1970s in Japanese music20th-century music genresJ-popFane Lozman | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
| Jump to navigationJump to search | |
| Fane Lozman is an American inventor and futures and options trader known for his long-running legal battles with the city of Riviera Beach, Florida. His litigation against the city has reached the U.S. Supreme Court twice: a 2013 case about whether a floating home is a vessel and a 2018 case about retaliatory arrest for protected speech. The court ruled in his favor in both cases. | |
| Prior to moving to Riviera Beach, Lozman lived in North Bay Village, Florida, where his investigative efforts resulted in the arrests of corrupt government officials. For his activism in Riviera Beach and North Bay Village, Lozman has been described as a "persistent gadfly"[1] and a "relentless opponent of public corruption" and a "provocateur".[2] | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Early life, education, and career | |
| 2 Legal battles | |
| 2.1 North Bay Village | |
| 2.2 Riviera Beach | |
| 2.2.1 Sunshine Law suit and attempted eviction | |
| 2.2.2 Floating home dispute and first U.S. Supreme Court case | |
| 2.2.3 Arrest and second U.S. Supreme Court case | |
| 2.2.4 Subsequent disputes | |
| 3 References | |
| Early life, education, and career | |
| Born in Miami, Florida, Lozman received a B.A. in mathematics from the University of Miami. He then joined the United States Marine Corps,[3][4] where he served a tour of duty as a Marine attack pilot.[3][5][6] | |
| After returning to civilian life, Lozman moved to Chicago and invented a new market trading screen interface, which he named Scanshift.[7] The interface was "modeled on the cockpit displays of the planes he used to fly",[7] along with the technology that is used to land fighter planes on aircraft carriers. Scanshift employs a visually ergonomic layout incorporating a hub and spoke display that uses "a variety of rectangles, lines, and arrows to indicate which kinds of securities were moving and what that movement signaled".[5] | |
| Lozman filed a patent application for his Scanshift interface in 1994, and the patent was issued on November 18, 1997.[8][7] Lozman formed a small brokerage firm called Terra Nova, that became the foundation for the Terra Nova ECN, later renamed Archipelago ECN.[7] After several years of futures trading and options trading, he became a "self-made millionaire".[4] | |
| As of 2016, Lozman had become involved in real estate development with an overwater stilt home community called Renegade on 25 acres parcel of submerged lands. This property, with 1,025 feet of private beach, was located on the northwest side of Singer Island, Florida, adjacent to the intracoastal waterway.[9][10] | |
| Legal battles | |
| North Bay Village | |
| In 2002, Lozman moved back to South Florida to escape the Chicago winters.[11] He purchased a 60-foot by 12-foot two-story floating home[12] and had it towed from Fort Myers, Florida to North Bay Village, Florida, in northern Miami-Dade County.[13][11] After mooring his residence in a North Bay Village marina, Lozman became embroiled in a dispute with the marina landlord over a proposed wheelchair ramp for a disabled World War II veteran, for which Lozman offered to pay.[11] The landlord evicted Lozman, who then began researching the landlord's business activities, discovering an illegal connection to a Village elected official.[11] While calling out this corrupt behavior, Lozman was ejected from public meetings on several occasions, and was arrested on two occasions for publicly accusing officials of corruption.[3] The state attorney declined prosecution in both instances. Lozman's efforts ultimately led to the arrest of the mayor and three city commissioners and their subsequent removal from office.[3][11] | |
| Riviera Beach | |
| Lozman remained in North Bay Village until the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season, when the marina where his floating home was moored was destroyed by Hurricane Wilma.[3] Lozman then had his home towed about 70 miles north to the City of Riviera Beach. | |
| Sunshine Law suit and attempted eviction | |
| The day Lozman arrived at the City marina with his floating home, Lozman learned that the City planned to redevelop its waterfront, by using the power of eminent domain. The City intended to take 2,200 homes and adjacent businesses, along with the City marina, for a $2.4 billion redevelopment plan, and then transfer these properties to a private developer.[14] Lozman became an outspoken critic of the plan, accusing the Council members of corruption in public meetings.[3][12] Before the City could finalize its agreement with the developers, the Florida Legislature passed a bill prohibiting the use of eminent domain for private purposes. But the day before the Governor signed the bill into law, the City convened a meeting to approve its agreement with the developer.[2] In response, Lozman filed a lawsuit alleging that the agreement was invalid as violative of Florida's Sunshine Law. After Lozman filed his lawsuit, members of the City Council came under investigation by the Florida Department of Law Enforcement.[15] | |
| On June 28, 2006, the City Council held a closed-door meeting to discuss the lawsuit Lozman had recently filed. The Council members were in agreement that Lozman should be "intimidated" and made to feel "unwarranted heat".[15][4] The City undertook a series of actions against Lozman, which began with legal actions to evict Lozman and his floating home from the City marina. During the eviction trial, the City argued that Lozman's ten pound dachshund, "Lady", might bite someone. After a three-day jury trial, with Lozman proceeding pro se, the jury ruled in Lozman's favor, finding that the eviction was unlawful retaliation for Lozman's exercise of his right to free speech.[16][17]: 439 | |
| Floating home dispute and first U.S. Supreme Court case | |
| After failing to evict Lozman from the Riviera Beach marina under state landlord-tenant law, the city asked Lozman to sign an agreement requiring that his floating home be able to be moved in an emergency.[17]: 441 When he refused, the city brought a lawsuit under federal admiralty law against Lozman's floating home in 2009.[12] Lozman, acting pro se, asked the federal district court to dismiss the suit on the ground that the court lacked admiralty jurisdiction. The court improperly found that the floating home was a "vessel" and concluded that admiralty jurisdiction was proper. The judge awarded the City $3,039.88 for dockage along with $1 in nominal damages for trespass.[12] The court ordered Lozman to sell the home at auction.[17]: 441 The City purchased it and had it destroyed.[18] The United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit affirmed the lower court and Lozman filed a petition for a writ of certiorari with the United States Supreme Court.[12] | |
| Lozman gained his first Supreme Court victory, when the Court reversed the Eleventh Circuit in a landmark admiralty opinion, ruling that floating structures are subject to a "reasonable observer" test in determining if they are vessels for the purposes of United States law. Writing for the 7-2 majority, Justice Stephen G. Breyer stated: "Not every floating structure is a 'vessel.’ To state the obvious, a wooden washtub, a plastic dishpan, a swimming platform on pontoons, a large fishing net, a door taken off its hinges, or Pinocchio (when inside the whale) are not 'vessels,' even if they are 'artificial contrivances' capable of floating, moving under tow, and incidentally carrying even a fair-sized item or two when they do so".[19][12][3] Chief Justice John Roberts stated in a later interview that the Lozman case was his favorite case of the term.[20][21] A federal judge later awarded Lozman only $7,500 for his damages.[3] In 2016, Lozman returned to Riviera Beach with a new, larger floating house, bearing a banner that read "Fane Lozman returns, THANK YOU... U.S. Supreme Court".[22] | |
| Arrest and second U.S. Supreme Court case | |
| Main article: Lozman v. City of Riviera Beach (2018) | |
| 1:20 | |
| Lozman's arrest | |
| The City Council met in regular session on November 15, 2006, at which time the City abandoned its plans to redevelop the waterfront.[23] During a time for members of the public to make comments to the council, Lozman began to raise the subject of corruption charges brought against Palm Beach County officials.[4][24] Council chairperson Elizabeth Wade interrupted Lozman and instructed him to stop speaking. When Lozman refused, the council member ordered a police officer to "carry him out"; Lozman, objecting that his First Amendment rights were being violated, was then handcuffed and placed in a jail cell at the police station,[18] and charged with disorderly conduct and trespass. The trespass charge was later whited out and modified to one of "resisting w/out violence, to wit obstruction".[16]: 1401 [17]: 440 The state's attorney later dismissed the charges as having "no reasonable likelihood of successful prosecution".[25] | |
| In 2008, Lozman filed a First Amendment retaliation lawsuit, claiming his 2006 arrest for refusing to leave the podium at a City Council meeting and the City's effort to evict him from the City marina were part of an unconstitutional effort to stop him from criticizing the City and its policies.[3] | |
| The case finally went to trial in November 2014, with Lozman representing himself once again on a pro se basis. The district judge instructed the jury that Lozman needed to prove a new charge that was only added for the first time during the second week of trial, that there was no probable cause for the offense of "disturbing a public assembly". The jury found for the City, and Lozman appealed. The Eleventh Circuit affirmed, and Lozman again successfully filed a petition for a writ of certiorari to the United States Supreme Court. During oral argument, Chief Justice Roberts stated: "I found the video pretty chilling. I mean, the fellow is up there for about fifteen seconds, and the next thing he knows he's being led off in handcuffs, speaking in a very calm voice the whole time".[18][4] | |
| On June 18, 2018, in an eight-to-one opinion authored by Justice Anthony M. Kennedy, the Supreme Court once again ruled in Lozman’s favor, vacating the Eleventh Circuit opinion and remanding to the appellate court with instructions to determine whether the City acted with animus in Lozman's arrest.[26] While the Eleventh Circuit was drafting its opinion on remand, Lozman offered to settle the matter for "$650,000, an apology and an invitation to address the city council".[27] After the Eleventh Circuit remanded Lozman's case to the district court, a retrial was scheduled for April 2020. In lieu of a second trial, the City settled with Lozman in February 2020 for $875,000, a substantial increase of $225,000 from Lozman's earlier settlement offer.[28] | |
| Subsequent disputes | |
| In 2021, the U.S. Department of Justice accused Lozman of violating the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899.[29] | |
| References | |
| Liptak, Adam (June 18, 2018). "A Persistent Gadfly Wins Again in the Supreme Court". The New York Times. | |
| Barnes, Robert (February 25, 2018). "A Florida provocateur has his day before the U.S. Supreme Court—again". The Washington Post. | |
| "Lozman faces Riviera Beach in U.S. Supreme Court for rare second time". The Palm Beach Post. | |
| "U.S. Supreme Court chief justice calls Fane Lozman's arrest 'chilling'". The Palm Beach Post. | |
| ID: Magazine of International Design, Volume 54, Issues 1-4, p. 87. | |
| "That's The Ticker". Bloomberg. | |
| Gary Wolf, Joey Anuff, Dumb Money: Adventures of a Day Trader (2000), p. 86-87. | |
| United States Patent 5,689,651. | |
| Keegan, Charlie (December 7, 2016). "Developer receives addresses for property he plans to turn into floating community". WPTV Channel 5, West Palm Beach. | |
| Kleinberg, Eliot (November 14, 2016). "Judge gives Riviera Beach five days to assign Fane Lozman addresses". The Palm Beach Post. | |
| "Crusader Upends Tiny South Florida Town". The Orlando Sentinel. | |
| Lozman v. City of Riviera Beach, 568 U.S. 115 (2013). | |
| David R. Maass, "If it Looks Like a Vessel: the Supreme Court's "Reasonable Observer" Test for Vessel Status", Florida Law Review, Volume 65, Issue 3 (2013), p. 896. | |
| Garvin, Glenn (January 13, 2018). "He's a Marine, a renegade, a vanquisher of corrupt pols. And now: First Amendment icon". The Miami Herald. | |
| Norman, Bob (December 13, 2007). "Targeting Citizen Lozman". New Times Broward-Palm Beach. Retrieved June 23, 2018. | |
| Lozman v. City of Riviera Beach, 39 F.Supp. 3d 1392 (S.D. Fla. 2014). | |
| Snyder, Jesse (January 1, 2019). "What Fane Lozman Can Teach Us About Free Speech". Wyoming Law Review. 19 (2): 419–451. | |
| "Fane Lozman Goes to the Supreme Court, Again". The New Yorker. | |
| Barnes, Robert (January 15, 2013). "Floating home is not vessel, Supreme Court says". The Washington Post. | |
| "Everyday heroes etched in Supreme Court history". USA Today. | |
| "Fourth Judicial Conference, Justice John Roberts talks about the Lozman case". C-SPAN. August 19, 2013. | |
| "First the city sank his house. Now, he's at the Supreme Court over free speech case". The Miami Herald. | |
| Cooper, William (November 17, 2006). "Fears fail to ease over loss of land". The Palm Beach Post. | |
| Totenberg, Nina (February 27, 2018). "The Curious Case Of A Florida Man Who Called Politicians Corrupt, Got Thrown In Jail". NPR. Retrieved June 23, 2018. | |
| Liptak, Adam (December 4, 2017). "This 'Tenacious Underdog' Won His First Supreme Court Case. Now He's Back". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved February 1, 2022. | |
| "U.S. Supreme Court hands Fane Lozman second win against Riviera Beach". The Palm Beach Post. | |
| "Fane Lozman to Riviera Beach: Ending lawsuit will cost $650K, apology". The Palm Beach Post. | |
| Anderson, Curt (February 5, 2020). "After 2 Supreme Court wins, Florida man gets $875K from city". ABC News. | |
| Daley, Kevin (August 14, 2021). "An Infamous Florida Man Is in Biden DOJ's Crosshairs". The Washington Free Beacon. Retrieved August 21, 2021. | |
| Categories: Living peopleBusinesspeople from MiamiMilitary personnel from FloridaUniversity of Miami alumniUnited States Marine Corps officersPeople from Riviera Beach, FloridaParadigm Lost | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
| Jump to navigationJump to search | |
| Paradigm Lost.jpg | |
| Author Ian S. Lustick | |
| Genre Nonfiction | |
| Publisher University of Pennsylvania Press | |
| Publication date November 15, 2019 | |
| Pages 232 | |
| ISBN 978-0812251951 | |
| Paradigm Lost: From Two-State Solution to One-State Reality is a 2019 book by political scientist Ian S. Lustick, published by University of Pennsylvania Press about the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Lustick formerly supported the two-state solution, but in the book he analyzes the reasons why, in his view, this solution has become unviable. He proposes working with the current one-state reality—in which a single state controls the entirety of Israel/Palestine—in order to achieve democratization and equal rights for all inhabitants. Many reviewers agreed with Lustick's diagnosis of the current situation as a one-state reality, but several questioned the likelihood of his proposed solution. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Background | |
| 2 Argument | |
| 3 Reception | |
| 4 References | |
| 5 Further reading | |
| Background | |
| Ian S. Lustick is a political scientist and Bess W. Heyman Chair at the University of Pennsylvania. For decades, he supported the two-state solution for the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, but abandoned this in 2013.[1][2][3] Lustick was one of the founders of the Association for Israel Studies and served as its president.[4] The English version of the book was published in 2019[5] and a Hebrew translation was released by Resling [he] in 2022.[6] | |
| Argument | |
| Lustick argues that the proposed two-state solution (TSS) is unlikely to materialize and that the current reality on the ground is one of "one and only one state [Israel] ruling the territory between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River", under what he calls the "one-state reality" (OSR).[7] Lustick views the failure of the two-state solution as primarily due to Israel, which had overwhelming military superiority and controlled the Palestinian territories from 1967 onwards.[8] He argues that three elements of Israeli society led to a failure to compromise by Israel's leaders. First, while the Iron Wall strategy accurately predicted Arab responses to Zionist victories, it did not predict that these victories would entrench maximalism and refusal to compromise by Israel. Second, he argues that the prominence of the Holocaust in Israel and the lessons drawn from it lead to seeing threats to Israel as Nazis, which harms the prospects of a negotiated peace. Third, he argues that the Israel lobby in the United States has pressed the United States government to support Israel in the conflict, marginalizing moderates in Israel.[3][9][10] The fourth chapter of the book addresses why Lustick believes the two-state solution is unlikely and the last chapter presents alternatives.[2] Lustick argues for establishing a single democratic state in Israel/Palestine with equal rights for all inhabitants, but according to him it will probably take decades to establish and is not guaranteed.[4] | |
| Reception | |
| Oren Barak, political scientist at Hebrew University of Jerusalem, called the book "well-written and thought-provoking", its arguments "persuasive, eloquent, and supported by ample evidence", and said it would be helpful to policy makers and other readers.[9] | |
| Yasmeen Abu-Laban, political scientist at the University of Alberta, called the book a "well-written and carefully researched new volume" and "an important intervention in the literature on Israel/Palestine". However, she argues that he ignores the literature on settler colonialism and Zionism as an example thereof: "From the perspective of settler-colonial studies, there is nothing unusual in the violence associated with the Iron Wall strategy, nor is there anything unintentional about continually seizing land, controlling resources, and blatantly denying self-rule to the Indigenous population through codification of discriminatory treatment."[2] | |
| According to Nathan Brown, "Paradigm Lost declares what most observers have come to recognize is the case". Brown argues that Lustick exaggerates the two-state solution, which Brown says did not become paradigmatic until it was no longer realistic. Brown sees a weakness in the book as its lack of attention to Palestinian politics and "the desiccation of Palestinian national institutions" in the failure of the two-state solution.[10] Lawrence Davidson calls it "a good book: well written, well researched and presenting a necessary and welcome argument". However, Davidson argues that the Palestinian–Jewish cooperation that Lustick called for was coming into existence in the early twentieth century, but was destroyed by Zionism. He is not optimistic that democratization can be achieved.[11] | |
| David Abraham, Marxist historian and Professor Emeritus of Law at the University of Miami, argues that the solutions Lustick proposes are improbable, overlooking anti-normalization sentiment in Palestinian society as well as overestimating the likelihood that Israeli annexation supporters would choose equality over apartheid: "the incentives for the OSR programme today are as lacking as those for the TSS".[3] Yoav Peled describes Paradigm Lost as "a path-breaking book, anchoring the credo of the ‘one-state reality paradigm’ in a foundational text" but criticizes some minor errors.[1] | |
| The book received a book forum in Israel Studies Review. According to Oded Haklai, political scientist at Queen's University at Kingston, Lustick is proposing to change the institutional design approach to a social realignment approach. However, he disputes Lustick's suggestions for resolving the conflict, because in his view there is little likelihood that social realignment can occur and minority rule has been stable in other countries. Ronnie Olesker argues that Lustick's diagnosis is correct but his proposals are overly optimistic as to the likelihood of democratizing the one-state reality. Mira Sucharov, Jewish political scientist at Carleton University, argues that the book overlooks some issues, such as Palestinian refugees, and says that some readers will consider the obstacles to a single democratic state more insurmountable than to the TSS, although overall she agrees with his argument. Ehud Eiran, political scientist and member of the think tank Mitvim, called it an "important book" but said that there are still some aspects of reality that point to a TSS and argues that realities can shift in the future.[4] | |
| Dov Waxman described the book as a "provocative and pathbreaking study of the conflict", "short and succinct... clearly written, tightly argued, and very timely". Although he argues that the book neglects Palestinian politics and therefore presents a "somewhat skewed and incomplete" account of the failure of the TSS, it is convincing on others—such as treating all of Israel/Palestine as a single, nondemocratic entity—and at a minimum would stimulate thinking and discussion.[12] | |
| Former Meretz MK Naomi Chazan says that "Lustick's reading of the retrogressive trajectory of the two-state strategy is difficult to dispute" and even committed two-state supporters struggle to argue that it is still viable. She argues that the contribution of the book is in forcing readers to consider questions of future political settlements for Israel/Palestine.[13] | |
| References | |
| Peled, Yoav (2020). "Book Review: Ian S. Lustick, Paradigm Lost: From Two-State Solution to One-State Reality (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019), 232 pp. Hardback, $27.50". Israel Studies Review. 35 (2): 175–203. doi:10.3167/isr.2020.350211. | |
| Abu-Laban, Yasmeen (2020). "Review: Paradigm Lost: From Two-State Solution to One-State Reality , by Ian S. Lustick". Journal of Palestine Studies. 49 (4): 145–147. doi:10.1525/jps.2020.49.4.145. | |
| Abraham, David (2021). "Paradigm lost: from two-state solution to one-state reality: by Ian Lustick, Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019, x+194pp., $27.50, ISBN 9780812251951". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 44 (3): 448–451. doi:10.1080/01419870.2020.1780287. | |
| Haklai, Oded; Olesker, Ronnie; Sucharov, Mira; Eiran, Ehud; Lustick, Ian S. (2021). "Book Forum:". Israel Studies Review. 36 (1): 144–164. doi:10.3167/isr.2021.360110. | |
| Lustick 2019. | |
| "New Articles, Interviews, and Events". Paradigm Lost. 17 May 2019. Retrieved 7 April 2022. | |
| Lustick 2019, p. 2. | |
| Lustick 2019, p. 4. | |
| Barak, Oren (2021). "Paradigm Lost: From Two-State Solution to One-State Reality. By Ian S. Lustick. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019. 232p. $27.50 cloth". Perspectives on Politics. 19 (1): 307–308. doi:10.1017/S1537592720003989. | |
| Brown, Nathan (2020). "Paradigm Lost: From Two-State Solution to One-State Reality by Ian S. Lustick (review)". The Middle East Journal. 74 (1): 137–138. ISSN 1940-3461. | |
| Davidson, Lawrence (2020). "Paradigm Lost: From Two‐State Solution to One‐State Reality". Middle East Policy. 27 (1): 158–163. doi:10.1111/mepo.12482. | |
| Waxman, Dov (2021). "Paradigm Lost: From Two‐State Solution to One‐State Reality by Ian S. Lustick. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019. 232 pp. $27.50". Political Science Quarterly. 136 (1): 174–176. doi:10.1002/polq.13162. | |
| Is the Two-State Paradigm Dead? Chazan, Naomi. Palestine - Israel Journal of Politics, Economics, and Culture; East Jerusalem Vol. 25, Iss. 3/4, (2020): 193-197. | |
| Further reading | |
| Lustick, Ian S. (2019). Paradigm Lost: From Two-State Solution to One-State Reality. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-9681-5. | |
| Sand, Shlomo (4 February 2022). "קריסתו הפתטית של שיח השלום" [The Pathetic Collapse of the Peace Discourse]. Haaretz (in Hebrew). Retrieved 7 April 2022. | |
| paradigmlostbook.com | |
| Categories: 2019 non-fiction booksIsraeli–Palestinian conflict booksUniversity of Pennsylvania Press booksVanita Jagdeo Borade | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
| Jump to navigationJump to search | |
| Vanita Jagdeo Borade | |
| Nari Shakti Puraskar to Vanita Jagdeo Borade (cropped).jpg | |
| Borade in 2022 | |
| Born 25 May 1975 (age 46) | |
| Known for Rescuing snakes | |
| Awards Nari Shakti Puraskar (2020) | |
| Vanita Jagdeo Borade (born 25 May 1975) is an Indian conservationist and the founder of the Soyre Vanchare Multipurpose Foundation, which works in wildlife protection. She specializes in rescuing snakes and has been recognized as "India's first woman snake friend". Borade received the Nari Shakti Puraskar from the Indian government in recognition of her conservation efforts. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Personal life | |
| 2 Career | |
| 3 Awards and recognition | |
| 4 References | |
| Personal life | |
| Vanita Jagdeo Borade was born on 25 May 1975.[1] She lives with her husband in Buldhana in the Indian state of Maharashtra.[2][3] | |
| Career | |
| Borade learned to be at ease with wildlife as she was brought up on a farm, with friends who shared her interest in the local environment.[4] She began catching poisonous snakes at the age of twelve without ever being bitten.[3] She founded the Soyre Vanchare Multipurpose Foundation, an environmental organization focusing on preventing pollution and protecting wildlife.[5] Having rescued more than 50,000 snakes,[2] Borade has been included in Guinness World Records.[4] She is particularly compassionate towards snakes, but also has experience with honeybees.[4] | |
| Borade has taught others how to treat snake bites,[2] and aimed to reduce ophidiophobia (a fear of snakes) by providing realistic information about snakes: only ten percent of snakes in India are venomous, and every hospital has freely available antivenom drugs.[4] | |
| Awards and recognition | |
| India Post recognized Borade's achievements by issuing a stamp with her portrait.[6] On International Women's Day 2022, she received the 2020 Nari Shakti Puraskar, the highest civilian honour for women in India, from President Ram Nath Kovind.[5][7] Locally known as the "snake woman", Borade has been recognized as "India's first woman snake friend".[8][7] | |
| References | |
| Pandey, Bhavna (8 March 2022). "राष्ट्रपति ने सांप को रेसक्यू करने वाली देश की पहली महिला बचावकर्ता वनिता जगदेव को दिया नारी शक्ति सम्मान" [President gave Nari Shakti Samman to Vanita Jagdev, the country's first woman snake rescuer]. Oneindia (in Hindi). Retrieved 30 April 2022. | |
| "3 Maharashtra women honoured with Nari Shakti Puraskar including 'First woman snake-rescuer of India'". Free Press Journal. 8 March 2022. Archived from the original on 10 March 2022. Retrieved 10 March 2022. | |
| "वश में किए 51 हजार नाग... ये हैं 'नाग मोहिनी'". News18 हिंदी (in Hindi). 14 October 2017. Archived from the original on 10 March 2022. Retrieved 10 March 2022. | |
| "Nari Shakti Puraskars honour Nari Shakti's triumph over social, economic and physical challenges". Press Information Bureau. Retrieved 12 March 2022. | |
| "Leaders cut across political lines to hail Indian women achievers". Orissa Post. 8 March 2022. Retrieved 30 April 2022. | |
| "Snake rescuer, organic farmer, entrepreneur - 29 women conferred Nari Shakti award". The New Indian Express. 8 March 2022. Archived from the original on 8 March 2022. Retrieved 10 March 2022. | |
| Kainthola, Deepanshu (8 March 2022). "President Presents Nari Shakti Puraskar for the Years 2020, 2021". Tatsat Chronicle. Archived from the original on 9 March 2022. Retrieved 10 March 2022. | |
| Deshpande, Chaitanya. "'Saanpwali bai' from Buldhana gets prestigious 'Nari Shakti' award". The Times of India. Retrieved 19 April 2022. | |
| vte | |
| Nari Shakti Puraskar recipients | |
| 1999 | |
| K. V. RabiyaChinna PillaiKinkri Devi | |
| 2013 | |
| Manasi PradhanM. VenkaiahBina Sheth LashkariT. Radha K. PrashantiVartika NandaSeema Sakhare | |
| 2014 | |
| Rashmi AnandNanditha KrishnaLaxmi GautamNeha KirpalLatika ThukralSai BalijepallyP. KausalyaSwaraj Vidwan | |
| 2015 | |
| Lucy KurienSaurabh SumanBasanti DeviSuparna Baksi GangulyMeena SharmaPriti PatkarUttara PadwarPolumati Vijaya NirmalaVasu PrimlaniSujata SahuJyoti MhapsekarSumita GhoshAnjali SharmaKrishna YadavShakuntala Majumdar | |
| 2016 | |
| State of RajasthanChhanv Foundation (Sheroes Café)Mizo Hmeichhe Insuihkhawm Pawl (M.H.I.P)Sadhana Mahila SanghaShikshit Rojgar Kendra Prabandhak SamitiTripunithura Kathakali Kendram Ladies TroupeAmruta PatilAmala AkkineniAnatta SonneyAnoyara KhatunB. CodanayaguyBano HaraluDeepa MathurDivya RawatIlse Köhler RollefsonJanki VasantKalpana ShankarKalyani Pramod BalakrishnanMumtaz M. KaziNandita ShahPallavi FauzdarPamela MalhotraQamar DagarReema SatheRingyuichon VashumSangita IyerSmita TandiSumitra HazarikaSunita Singh ChokenSubha VarierTiasa AdhyaV. NanammalZuboni Hümtsoe | |
| 2017 | |
| Gargi GuptaSindhutai SapkalGauri MaulekhiNavika Sagar ParikramaMalvika IyerR Umadevi NagarajThinlas ChorolS. Siva SathyaBharti KashyapBeti Zindabad BakeryMittal PatelSabarmateeJayamma BandariK. SyamalakumariVanastreeLizymol Philipose PamadykandathilChirom IndiraUrmila Balawant ApteDeepika KundajiPurnima Devi BarmanAnita BharadwajAmbica BeriPushpa GirimajiAvani (organization)ShrujanC.K. DurgaRekha MishraMehvish MushtaqKaruna Society for Animals and NatureOne Stop Centre, RaipurMillet Network of IndiaState of PunjabMadhu JainJetsun PemaM.S. SunilSheela BalajiAnuradha Krishnamoorthy and Namrata SundaresanGita Mittal | |
| 2018 | |
| A. SeemaAnshu KhannaAnu MalhotraAnuradha N. NaikChetna Gala SinhaDarshana GuptaDevaki AmmaDidi ContractorGowri KamakashiHekani JakhaluIpsita BiswasIti TyagiKagganapalli Radha DeviKalpana SarojLalita VakilMadhuri BarthwalManju ManikuttanMeenakshi PahujaMini VasudevanMunuswamy ShanthiNeelum SharmaNomita KamdarPamela ChatterjeePragya PrasunPriyamvada SinghPushpa N. M.Rahibai Soma PopereRajani RajakReshma Nilofer NahaRhea Mazumdar SinghalRuma DeviSeema MehtaSeema RaoSister ShivaniSmriti MorarkaSnehlata NathSonia JabbarSujatha MohanSunita DeviTwinkle KaliaUrmi BasuOne Stop Centre, LucknowQasab-Kutch Craftswomen Producer Co. Ltd.Social Welfare & Nutritional Meal Programme Dept, Tamil Nadu | |
| 2019 | |
| Arifa JanAvani ChaturvediBhageerathi AmmaBhawana KanthBina DeviChami MurmuKalavati DeviKarthyayani AmmaKaushiki ChakrobortyMohana SinghNilza WangmoPadala BhudeviRashmi UrdhwaresheSardarni Mann KaurTashi and Nungshi Malik | |
| 2020 | |
| Anita GuptaUshaben Dineshbhai VasavaNasira AkhterSandhya DharNivruti RaiTiffany BrarPadma YangchanJodhaiya Bai BaigaSaylee Nandkishor AgavaneVanita Jagdeo BoradeMeera ThakurJaya Muthu, Tejamma (joint)Ela LodhArti Rana | |
| 2021 | |
| Sathupati Prasanna SreeTage Rita TakheMadhulika RamtekeNiranjanaben Mukulbhai KalarthiPooja Sharma (entrepreneur)Anshul MalhotraShobha GastiRadhika MenonKamal KumbharSruti MohapatraBatool BegamThara RangaswamyNeerja MadhavNeena Gupta | |
| Categories: Indian womenPeople from BuldhanaNari Shakti Puraskar winnersLiving people1975 birthsSnow removal in Montreal | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
| Jump to navigationJump to search | |
| A horse-drawn snowplow which appears to be clearing a hockey rink in Montreal. | |
| Each year, the Canadian city Montreal clears snow off roads, sidewalks, and other parts of the city to make it easier and safer to travel.[1] The city is the snowiest major city in North America and the snow removal process in Montreal is among the largest in the world,[2] with the budget for the 2019–2020 season reported at C$166.4 million and the 2020–2021 season's budget reported at C$179.7 million.[2][3][4] Montreal sees about 423 centimetres of snowfall annually with nearly a third of the year having at least a centimetre of snow on the ground.[5] | |
| In a given year, the city removes 300,000 truckloads of snow, representing 10,000 kilometres of city streets. Some three thousand workers are employed as part of the effort.[6][7] | |
| Contents | |
| 1 History | |
| 2 Infrastructure and design | |
| 2.1 Removal and displacement | |
| 2.2 Budget | |
| 2.3 Comparison with other systems | |
| 3 See also | |
| 4 References | |
| History | |
| An early example of a tractor-driven snow-plow in Montreal, likely from the 1920s. Similar vehicles were in use to clear highways around the city until 1935. | |
| A Sicard snowblower, invented for use clearing snow in Montreal. | |
| Snow in Montreal was originally cleared by hand, using shovels and pickaxes.[8] By the mid-19th century, horse-drawn plows were used to assist snow clearing efforts. With the introduction of the automobile in the early 20th century, public streets were cleared with automobile-attached plows, and by the 1920s track-driven vehicles were used for plowing.[citation needed] | |
| The population of Montreal tripled between 1880 and 1927, leading to increased demand for improved snow removal techniques.[8] Arthur Sicard [fr], a Montreal-based inventor, introduced the snowblower in 1925 to assist the effort.[9] Named the "Sicard Snow Remover Snowblower", the machine sold for C$13,000 (equivalent to $195,714 in 2020) each; the city purchased several to assist clearing the city, primarily Outremont.[8] | |
| Over the following decades, additional snow-clearing machines were introduced to the city to improve snow removal techniques, including several which originated in France. The cost of snow removal has grown significantly over time: Between 1953 and 1963, the budget for snow removal was grew from C$4 million (equivalent to $39.14 million in 2020) to C$8.95 million (equivalent to $76.16 million in 2020). By 1963, the city was hauling 1,200,000 truckloads of snow annually. Several measures were in effect by then which remain in use in the modern program, including vehicle towing: A two-tone horn was used to alert motorists that snow removal was imminent, and C$5 (equivalent to $75 in 2020) tickets were issued to cars which failed to move and were eventually towed.[10] By 1978, the budget for snow removal in Montreal had reached C$31 million (equivalent to $116.04 million in 2020).[11] More than 30,000 cars were being towed annually by the 1970s to accommodate snow removal efforts.[11] The city was divided into 83 districts, each with a different captain helming removal efforts, with decrees from Montreal city council mandating passable roads within 8 hours and fully cleared roads within 72 hours.[11][10] | |
| Several ideas beyond snow removal were also proposed (but never implemented) in the 1960s with the aim of reducing costs, including heated roads, cloud insemination to prevent precipitation from incoming storms over the city, and mobile or stationary snow melters.[10] Until the 1980s, most snow was dumped at wharfs into the St. Lawrence river, causing salt and gravel pollution.[2][10] Landscape dumps and sewer chutes were later implemented as a solution for snow displacement.[1] | |
| Modern infrastructure, including improved communication with walkie-talkies, drones, GPS, and camera systems, have been implemented to streamline the process.[12] Citizens can report and view the status of snow clearing efforts using several mobile applications introduced by the city.[13][14] | |
| Infrastructure and design | |
| 0:14 | |
| A motor grader and a wheel loader clear snow during a snowfall in the Mile End neighbourhood. | |
| 0:19 | |
| Dump trucks and snow blowers are used for snow removal after a snowfall Plateau-Mont-Royal neighbourhood. | |
| Snow removal was later handled in a completely decentralized manner, on a borough-to-borough basis.[15] After criticism for disparities in effectiveness between neighbourhoods, the city implemented centralized mandates for each borough in 2016 requiring snow removal to commence within 12 hours of a snowfall and for major roads to be cleared within 36 hours.[15] | |
| Generally, the snow removal process is completed in stages.[16] Roads and sidewalks are salted continuously, consuming 140,000 tons of salt annually. Streets and sidewalks are then plowed, with the city deploying a fleet of 1,000 vehicles to complete the task. Unlike other cities, Montreal employs a loading stage, where trucks pick up and transport snow that has been plowed to the side of the road. Snow machines shoot the snow into dump trucks, which carry the snow from downtown.[2] | |
| Narrow streets are cleared first, followed by main roads, collector roads, and finally residential streets. Bike paths are often completed first due to the unique machines required to clear them and the reduced area they represent, with 75 per cent of the bike lane system remaining cleared in winter months.[17][18][19] | |
| Removal and displacement | |
| Once collected, snow is cleared to either sewer chutes or directly to landscape dumps. Fifteen sewer chutes and eleven snow depots are spread across the city to accommodate snow displacement.[1] | |
| Snow chutes process 25 per cent of the city's snow, and hot water from residential showers melts and flows the snow to a treatment plant in Montreal East, where it is filtered and eventually released into the St. Lawrence River.[20] | |
| Dump sites are used to contain the remaining snow.[1] The Francon snow depot, formerly a quarry, receives the most of the displacement, representing 40 per cent of the city's snow. Snow slowly melts from the quarry in the summertime and is processed by the wastewater system, although a man-made glacier produced by the remaining snow will often remain throughout warmer months.[20][21] | |
| Budget | |
| The annual budget for snow removal can exceed C$160 million, with more than C$8 million allocated for independent contracts.[22][23] Several snow removal companies have been blacklisted by the city for overcharging for their services.[24][25] In 2012, Maisonneuve reported that the city of Montreal spends about 37 per cent more on snowplowing than other municipalities in Quebec, leading them to raise questions about collusion and bid-rigging.[7] Equipment destruction, specifically "firebombing", the use of Molotov cocktail-like devices on snow removal equipment, is employed by private snow removal firms to dissuade competition.[7] Upon arrival at dumps, volumes of snow carried by trucks are verified by GPS and cameras to ensure contractors fulfill their obligations.[1][2] | |
| Comparison with other systems | |
| Other cities, including Chicago and Boston, have had their snow removal mechanisms criticized as inferior to that of Montreal.[16][26] | |
| See also | |
| Snow removal | |
| Snow blower | |
| Geography of Montreal | |
| References | |
| Lindeman, Tracey (2021-01-22). "Defeating winter". Canadian Geographic. The Royal Canadian Geographical Society. Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| Desson, Craig (2019-02-18). "How Montreal takes 300,000 truckloads of snow off the street every winter". CBC News. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| "Déneigement : Montréal souhaite éviter les bévues du passé". Radio‑Canada (in French). Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 2021-12-08. Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| "Montreal goes over its snow-removal budget, again". CBC News. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 2019-04-24. Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| "Montréal Snowfall Totals & Accumulation Averages". Archived from the original on October 6, 2014. Retrieved July 28, 2014. | |
| "Where does all of Montreal's snow go?". Global News (Video). Global Television Network. 2018-01-19. Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| Ross, Selena (2012-04-18). "Getting Plowed". Maisonneuve. No. 42. Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-24. | |
| "Snow Clearing, Yesterday and Today". Musée McCord. Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| "History Of The Snowblower". The Gilson Snowblower Shop. 2007-01-27. Archived from the original on 2021-01-17. Retrieved 2022-02-28. | |
| Gold, L.W.; Williams, G.P. (1964). "Snow Removal and Ice Control. Proceedings of a Conference" (PDF). National Research Council Canada. Retrieved 2022-05-02. | |
| Lichtenstein, Grace (1978-01-28). "Unlike New York, Some Cities Shrug Off the Snow". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2022-02-28. Retrieved 2022-02-28. | |
| "From apps to drones, Montreal better equipped to handle winter storms, officials say". CBC News. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 2018-11-01. Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| Marchal, Mathias (2020-11-09). "Montréal déneigera différemment à cause de la COVID-19". Radio-Canada. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| Olson, Isaac (2020-11-09). "Montreal snow-removal operations will face new challenges during pandemic, mayor says". CBC News. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| "Montreal snow-clearing sees disparity between boroughs". CBC. 2016-01-04. Archived from the original on 2022-02-28. Retrieved 2022-02-28. | |
| "Could Chicago Learn From Montreal's Snow Removal System?". NBC 5 Chicago. NBC. 2015-02-05. Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| Bernstien, Jaela (2020-02-15). "Why are bike paths plowed before sidewalks? We grilled the City of Montreal on snow removal". CBC News. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| "Déneigement des trottoirs et des rues". Montréal (in French). Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| "7 mythes sur le déneigement". Montréal (in French). Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| Predko, Hillary (2022-02-17). "Déneigement Montreal". The Prepared. Archived from the original on 2022-02-28. Retrieved 2022-02-28. | |
| Desson, Craig (2019-10-12). "Montreal's glacier: Where the snow survived summer". CBC News. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| "Rapport sur les divers contrats octroyés à l'entreprise 11073192 Canada inc. et à l'implication dans la passation et l'exécution de ceux-ci d'une personne inadmissible aux contrats publics" (PDF) (in French). Bureau de l’inspecteur général de Montréal. 2021-06-14. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| Labbé, Jérôme (2021-12-10). "Déneigement : Montréal ajoute à sa « liste noire » une société et ses dirigeants". Radio-Canada. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| "Snow-removal company blacklisted by Montreal for charging for service it wasn't providing". CBC News. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 2019-10-23. Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| Olson, Isaac (2019-06-18). "Snow-removal company caught charging Montreal full price for half-full trucks". CBC News. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| Sargent, Hilary (2015-02-03). "Montreal Is Really Good at Snow Removal, Eh?". Boston.com. Boston Globe Media Partners. Archived from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2022-02-23. | |
| Categories: MontrealSnow removalThomas A. Spragens | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
| Jump to navigationJump to search | |
| Thomas A. Spragens | |
| Tomspragens.jpg | |
| 17th President of Centre College | |
| In office | |
| November 11, 1957 – November 16, 1981 | |
| Preceded by Walter A. Groves | |
| Succeeded by Richard L. Morrill | |
| Personal details | |
| Born Thomas Arthur Spragens | |
| April 25, 1917 | |
| Lebanon, Kentucky, US | |
| Died February 11, 2006 (aged 88) | |
| Columbia, South Carolina, US | |
| Resting place Bellevue Cemetery (Danville, Kentucky) | |
| Spouse(s) Catharine Smallwood (m. 1941) | |
| Children 3 | |
| Education University of Kentucky (1938) | |
| Thomas Arthur Spragens (/ˈspreɪ.ɡɪnz/ SPRAY-ginz; April 25, 1917 – February 11, 2006) was an American administrator and a figure in higher education. He served as the 17th president of Centre College in Danville, Kentucky, from 1957 to 1981. A graduate of the University of Kentucky, Spragens worked for the state and federal government early in his career, before joining the staff at Stanford University as a presidential advisor. He served a five-year term as the president of Stephens College in Columbia, Missouri, and left Stephens to come to Centre. | |
| The first Centre president who was not a part of the clergy, Spragens worked to lessen the ties between the college and the Presbyterian Church, which led to a significant rise in students reporting that they were non-denominational and which led to chapel becoming optional for students. Spragens was also an effective fundraiser for the school, as he made it one of his top priorities upon taking office, and his Fund for the Future Campaign ultimately raised $34 million for the college. He was also instrumental in the integration of the school, and admitted Centre's first black student in 1962. The same year, he led an effort to consolidate the school's women's department, formerly the Kentucky College for Women, onto Centre's campus. | |
| During his time at Centre, Spragens was also involved in several other organizations and pursuits, many of which pertained to higher education. He was selected by two governors to serve on commissions which studied higher education within the commonwealth, and was a part of the American Association of Colleges and Universities, the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, and the American Council on Education at different times. He was active in Democratic Party politics, and was a delegate to the 1968 Democratic National Convention in support of Senator Eugene McCarthy. Additionally, was a part of an effort which culminated in the 1962 founding of what is now the Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference, of which Centre remained a charter member until 2011. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Early life and education | |
| 2 Career | |
| 3 Personal life and death | |
| 4 Legacy | |
| 5 References | |
| 5.1 Citations | |
| 5.2 Bibliography | |
| Early life and education | |
| Spragens was born on April 25, 1917, in Lebanon, Kentucky.[1] He was the third of seven children in his family.[1] His father, William Henry Spragens,[1] was a lawyer and circuit court judge from Casey County, Kentucky, and his mother, Lillian Brewer Spragens,[1] was from Lancaster, Kentucky.[2] Spragens attended Lebanon High School and was recruited by then-president Charles J. Turck to attend Centre, alongside several of his classmates, but attended the University of Kentucky instead.[2] He enrolled in, and attended, the University's College of Commerce (now the Gatton College of Business and Economics) for a year and a half, but afterwards transferred to the College of Arts and Sciences and majored in economics.[2] After a summer employed by the Kentucky state government, Spragens began graduate work at the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs at Syracuse University.[2] He completed only one year of his graduate program; after spending the summer following the first year working for the Bureau of the Budget (now the Office of Management and Budget), he decided to forgo the second year in favor of a permanent position with the Bureau.[2] | |
| Career | |
| Spragens worked for the federal government from 1940 to 1945 in multiple positions, including in his new permanent job as a senior analyst at the Bureau of the Budget, and in a job with the Foreign Economic Administration, which operated during World War II.[1] After the war's conclusion, Spragens left his government positions in favor of a role at Stanford University. Beginning at Stanford in summer 1946, he worked as an assistant to the president and as Stanford's representative in Washington, D.C.[1] In this position, he assisted two presidents: Donald Tresidder, who originally hired him,[3] and Wallace Sterling, who took over after Tresidder's death. He helped the college to manage its increasing enrollment numbers, which spiked from 4,500 in June 1946 to 7,200 in November of the same year.[2] Spragens intended to remain in this position for only one to two years, and afterwards return to government work, but ended up working there for five years.[2] | |
| In 1951, Spragens left Stanford to accept a position as the secretary and treasurer of the Fund for the Advancement of Education, which was a newly-formed subsidiary of the Ford Foundation. He served in this position for just more than one year before he was offered the presidency of Stephens College, a women's college in Columbia, Missouri.[4] He began in this role in 1952, and spent five years at Stephens until his departure in 1957. During this time, he was selected to be a part of a commission that produced a report, "The Church and Higher Education", to the Synod of North Carolina, which was completed in July 1955.[5] | |
| On November 11, 1957, Spragens began his term as the 17th president of Centre College. In doing so, he became the fourth president in the college's history who was not an ordained minister[1] and the first who was not a member of the clergy at all.[6] He spent his first full day on campus the following day, when he presided over his first faculty meeting.[7] Early into his term, Spragens introduced a ten-year plan with the goals of increasing the college's enrollment (with the specific goal of 750 students), adding to the faculty, and increasing the number of majors offered by the college.[8] The following year, the college announced a $6.5 million fundraising campaign in celebration of Centre's 150-year anniversary, a marked increase from the $20,000 to $25,000 typically raised every year.[8] After beginning his term, Spragens immediately declared that the school would move towards full integration and not discriminate by race when determining admissions, and the college admitted its first black student when Timothy Kusi, a Ghanaian student who transferred from Kentucky State College (now Kentucky State University), enrolled in 1962.[9] This change was received well by much of the campus community.[10] The campus of the former Kentucky College for Women, at the time operating as Centre's women's department, closed that same year, at which point it was consolidated onto Centre's campus, with Spragens presiding over the merger.[11] Spragens also hired Shirley Walker, a French professor who was Centre's first black faculty member.[12] | |
| As football grew more popular at Centre during the mid-1960s, Spragens sought to keep the college's priorities on academics rather than athletics. In order to achieve this, he advocated for the creation of a new athletic association which would prevent payment to players and eliminate gate receipts.[13] Centre was joined in this association by Washington and Lee University, Southwestern University at Memphis (now Rhodes College), and the University of the South, with Washington University in St. Louis added later the same year as the league's fifth charter member.[13] This association ultimately became the College Athletic Conference (now the Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference) and was formally founded on September 1, 1962.[14] This plan was met with widespread praise, including from The New York Times.[15] Centre remained a member of the conference until 2011, when they left, along with six other SCAC schools and one independent school, to form the Southern Athletic Association.[16] | |
| Many of the changes that took place on Centre's campus during Spragens's presidency can still be seen on campus. Numerous buildings were constructed or upgraded during his time in office, including the Grace Doherty Library (which took the place of Old Main, which was demolished),[17] the new Young Hall, Sutcliffe Hall, the Regional Arts Center (now the Norton Center for the Arts), Alumni Memorial Gymnasium, and multiple dormitory buildings.[1] Also an effective fundraiser, Spragens also led the Fund for the Future campaign, which ultimately raised nearly $34 million for the college.[1] In addition, Centre was selected to obtain a chapter of the Phi Beta Kappa honor society, of which Spragens himself was a member.[1] Spragens ended his presidency when he asked to be relieved of his duties on November 16, 1981.[1] | |
| During his time at Centre, Spragens was a member of a number of other institutions related to higher education, including the Kentucky Independent College Foundation, Independent College Funds of America, the Association of American Colleges and Universities, and the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools.[1] He also served as the director of the American Council on Education for three years, and as the director of the Southern University Union for a time.[1] On two occasions, Spragens was asked to interview with the search committee for the presidency of the University of Kentucky, but never received a formal offer, and he was contacted by Kentucky State University to potentially serve as their interim president after he retired from Centre, and ended up as a consultant for one year to the newly-hired president, Raymond Burse, a Centre alumnus himself.[18] | |
| Personal life and death | |
| The headstone at the grave of Thomas and Catharine, in Danville's Bellevue Cemetery | |
| Spragens married Catharine Smallwood, a native of Oxford, Mississippi, and an alumna of the University of Mississippi, on May 24, 1941.[19] The couple had two sons, Thomas Jr. and David, and one daughter, Barbara.[2] David, who was their youngest child, graduated from Centre in 1973, during his father's presidency.[2] Catharine survived Thomas for over a decade before her death on March 26, 2016, at the age of 96.[20] | |
| In an interview shortly following his resignation, Spragens stated that his personal hobbies included playing tennis and golf, as well as water skiing.[2] He also involved himself in public and community affairs, and was selected as part of commissions appointed by both Governors Bert Combs and Ned Breathitt to study higher education in Kentucky.[21][2] Spragens was a member of the Phi Beta Kappa and Omicron Delta Kappa honor societies.[1] In 1990, Thomas and Catharine received the Honorary Alumni Award from Centre.[22] | |
| Spragens died on February 11, 2006,[1] in Columbia, South Carolina, at the age of 88.[23] His funeral was held at the First Presbyterian Church in Danville, on March 4, 2006.[24] He is buried in Danville's Bellevue Cemetery.[25] | |
| Legacy | |
| During his 24-year tenure as president,[6] the college's enrollment nearly doubled, from 380 students to 700, and the size of its faculty followed the same trend.[26] Centre's endowment also grew, from $2.8 million to $18 million.[26] After his retirement from the presidency, he continued his public service, and served on the Kentucky Council for Higher Education, the board of numerous organizations including Shaker Village, Leadership Kentucky, Presbyterian Homes and Services, and Pikeville College (now the University of Pikeville).[1] He also served as a city commissioner in Danville and on committees in Danville's First Presbyterian Church.[1] However, Spragens's tenure saw the college become more distanced from the church than in the past, as the portion of the college's budget obtained from the church decreased and chapel became voluntary for students beginning in 1965.[27] Two years later, Spragens was elected moderator of the Northern Synod of Kentucky and recommended that Centre remove many of its remaining ties to the Presbyterian Church.[28] This came to fruition in 1969, when the college removed its policies which required the president and most board members be Presbyterian.[28] The effects of this were seen on the student body in the following years, with the percentage of students reporting themselves as Presbyterian falling from 32% in 1967 to 17% in 1971, and the percentage of students reporting themselves as non-denominational rising from 0.5% to 27% in the same time period.[29] | |
| Spragens is also largely credited for his successful fundraising efforts and for the numerous buildings that were constructed during his presidency, and the Thomas A. Spragens Rare Book Room and Archives, located in the Grace Doherty Library at Centre, is named in his honor.[30] During his lifetime he was also very active in the community of Danville and the commonwealth, as well as in civil rights issues, the Presbyterian Church, and Democratic Party politics. He was selected as a delegate to the 1968 Democratic National Convention, held in Chicago,[31] after serving as the chair of the Boyle County Democratic Convention and attending the state convention, both in support of Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota,[32] though McCarthy would eventually lose the nomination to Vice President Hubert Humphrey, also of Minnesota.[32] Following the Kent State shootings on May 4, 1970, Spragens declared all classes suspended on May 8, and addressed much of the student body and faculty on the lawn of the campus.[33] Many of the students formed committees and teaching groups among themselves,[33] and one such committee drafted a "statement of concern" intended to be sent to President Richard Nixon.[10] | |
| References | |
| Citations | |
| "Thomas A. Spragens, Centre College President (1957–1981)". CentreCyclopedia. Centre College. Retrieved March 24, 2022. | |
| Spragens, Thomas (November 4, 1982). "Thomas A. Spragens Interview: Oral History of Centre College, Part 1" (PDF) (Interview). Interviewed by LeDoux, John; Glass, Bob. Danville, Kentucky. Retrieved March 24, 2022. | |
| Gillmor, C. Stewart (2004). Fred Terman at Stanford: Building a Discipline, a University, and Silicon Valley. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 566. ISBN 0-8047-4914-0. OCLC 1294425167. Retrieved April 21, 2022. | |
| Hill 2009, p. 222. | |
| Nelson, Michael, ed. (1996). Celebrating the Humanities: A Half-Century of the Search Course at Rhodes College. Nashville, Tennessee: Vanderbilt University Press. p. 251. ISBN 0-8265-1333-6. OCLC 833035750. Retrieved March 24, 2022. | |
| Brown 2019, p. 135. | |
| Weston 2019, p. 93. | |
| Hill 2009, p. 224. | |
| Weston 2019, p. 94. | |
| Spragens, Thomas (November 4, 1982). "Thomas A. Spragens Interview: Oral History of Centre College, Part 5" (PDF) (Interview). Interviewed by LeDoux, John; Glass, Bob. Danville, Kentucky. Retrieved April 21, 2022. | |
| Hill 2009, p. 225. | |
| Weston 2019, p. 95. | |
| Craig 1967, p. 104. | |
| "History of the SCAC". Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference. Archived from the original on June 17, 2017. Retrieved March 29, 2022. | |
| Craig 1967, p. 105. | |
| "Eight Division III Southeastern Colleges Form Southern Athletic Association". Rhodes College Athletics. August 19, 2011. Archived from the original on December 1, 2017. Retrieved April 21, 2022. | |
| Weston 2019, p. 96. | |
| Spragens, Thomas (November 10, 1982). "Thomas A. Spragens Interview: Oral History of Centre College, Part 7" (PDF) (Interview). Interviewed by LeDoux, John; Glass, Bob. Danville, Kentucky. Retrieved April 21, 2022. | |
| Johnson, Diane (April 1, 2016). "Catharine Spragens: Centre's longest-serving First Lady". Centre College. Retrieved March 23, 2022. | |
| "Catharine Smallwood Spragens". The State. March 30, 2016. Retrieved March 24, 2022. | |
| Ellis, William E. (2011). A History of Higher Education in Kentucky. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. p. 376. ISBN 978-0-8131-2977-8. OCLC 671386386. Retrieved April 21, 2022. | |
| "Honorary Alumni Award". Centre College. Retrieved April 21, 2022. | |
| Davis, John T. (February 13, 2006). "Thomas Spragens, Centre 'giant,' dies". The Advocate-Messenger. Archived from the original on September 19, 2008. Retrieved March 24, 2022. | |
| "Centre remembers Thomas A. Spragens". Centre College. February 16, 2006. Archived from the original on February 22, 2006. Retrieved March 24, 2022. | |
| "Kentucky Obituaries, 1 Jan 2006 through 31 Dec 2006" (PDF). Danville Advocate-Messenger. p. 165. Retrieved April 21, 2022. | |
| Kleber 1992, p. 178. | |
| Weston 2019, p. 103. | |
| Weston 2019, p. 102. | |
| Weston 2019, p. 104. | |
| "Grace Doherty Library – The Collection". Faculty Handbook, 2019–2020. Centre College. Retrieved April 21, 2022. | |
| Waxman, Olivia B. (August 28, 2018). "'Violence Was Inevitable': How 7 Key Players Remember the Chaos of 1968's Democratic National Convention Protests". Time. Retrieved April 21, 2022. | |
| Smith, Stephen; Ellis, Kate. "Eugene McCarthy: "Get Clean for Gene"". Campaign '68. Retrieved April 21, 2022. | |
| Weston 2019, p. 108. | |
| Bibliography | |
| Brown, Alice Lee Williams (2019). How Boards Lead Small Colleges. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9781421428628. OCLC 1048659318. | |
| Craig, Hardin (October 1967). Centre College of Kentucky: A Tradition and an Opportunity. Danville, Kentucky: Centre College. OCLC 856258. | |
| Hill, Bob (2009). Hardin, C. Thomas (ed.). Our Standard Sure: Centre College since 1819. Danville, Kentucky: Centre College. pp. 222–242. ISBN 978-0-615-21121-3. OCLC 457778960. | |
| Kleber, John E., ed. (1992). The Kentucky Encyclopedia. Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky. p. 178. ISBN 0-8131-1772-0. OCLC 1051065538. | |
| Weston, William J. (2019). Centre College: a Bicentennial History. Danville, Kentucky: Centre College. ISBN 978-1-6943-5863-9. OCLC 1142930784. | |
| vte | |
| Presidents of Centre College | |
| Categories: 1917 births2006 deathsBurials in Bellevue Cemetery (Danville, Kentucky)Franklin D. Roosevelt administration personnelKentucky DemocratsPeople from Lebanon, KentuckyPresidents of Centre CollegeStephens College peopleStanford University staffUniversity of Kentucky alumniBeReal | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
| Jump to navigationJump to search | |
| BeReal | |
| BeReal logo.png | |
| Original author(s) Alexis Barreyat | |
| Initial release 2020 | |
| Platform iOS, Android[1] | |
| Website https://bereal.com | |
| BeReal is a French social media app released in 2020.[2] It was developed by Alexis Barreyat and gained popularity with Gen Z in early 2022. | |
| It functions by asking users to share a photo from whatever they are doing during a randomly selected two-minute window each day. Critics noted its emphasis on authenticity, which some felt crossed the line into mundanity. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 History | |
| 2 Features | |
| 3 Reception | |
| 4 References | |
| History | |
| The app was developed by Alexis Barreyat,[2] a former employee of GoPro,[3] and gained popularity with Gen Z in early 2022.[2][4] It spread widely first on college campuses, partially due to a paid ambassador program.[3][5] By April, it had been downloaded over 6.8 million times, with the majority of the downloads coming in 2022.[1] BeReal received a $30 million funding round from Andreessen Horowitz.[3] | |
| Features | |
| Once per day, BeReal notifies all users that a two-minute window to post a photo is open, and asks users to share an image from whatever they are doing at that moment. The given window varies from day to day. If a user posts their daily image later than the two-minute window, other users are notified of the fact. Users may not post more than one photo per day.[6][7] Because of its daily cycle of engagement, it has been compared to Wordle, which gained popularity earlier in 2022.[1][8] | |
| BeReal has been described as designed to compete with Instagram, while simultaneously de-emphasizing social media addiction and overuse.[2][7] The app does not allow any photo filters or other editing, and has no advertising or follower counts.[1] | |
| Reception | |
| Jason Koebler, a writer for Vice, wrote that in contrast to Instagram, which presents an unattainable view of people's lives, BeReal instead "makes everyone look extremely boring."[9] Niklas Myhr, a professor of social media at Chapman University, argued that depth of engagement may determine whether the app is a passing trend or has "staying power."[1] Kelsey Weekman, a reporter for Buzzfeed News, noted that the app's unwillingness to "glamorize the banality of life" made it feel "humbling", despite its emphasis on authenticity.[8] | |
| References | |
| Brown, Dalvin; James, Cordilla (2022-04-20). "Why BeReal, a Social-Media App With No Photo Filters, Is Attracting Gen Z". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 2022-04-20. Retrieved 2022-04-21. | |
| Davis, Wynne (2022-04-16). "BeReal is Gen Z's new favorite social media app. Here's how it works". NPR. Archived from the original on 2022-04-16. Retrieved 2022-04-16. | |
| Goggin, Ben (21 April 2022). "What is BeReal? The new 'authentic' app taking hold across college campuses". NBC News. Archived from the original on 2022-04-21. Retrieved 2022-04-21. | |
| Fischer, Sara (2022-04-11). "Gen Z's new favorite app is growing like crazy". Axios. Archived from the original on 2022-04-12. Retrieved 2022-04-16. | |
| Karimi, Faith (21 April 2022). "This social app prohibits edited photos to encourage users to be more authentic. It's growing fast". CNN. Archived from the original on 2022-04-21. Retrieved 2022-04-21. | |
| Rogers, Reece. "BeReal Basics: How to Use the 'Unfiltered' Social Media App". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Archived from the original on 2022-04-16. Retrieved 2022-04-16. | |
| Mamona, Sheilla (2022-04-14). "The BeReal App Could End Your Obsession With Social Media Perfection". Teen Vogue. Condé Nast. Archived from the original on 2022-04-13. Retrieved 2022-04-16. | |
| Weekman, Kelsey. "BeReal Made Me Realize All My Friends Are Hanging Out Without Me". BuzzFeed News. Archived from the original on 2022-04-21. Retrieved 2022-04-21. | |
| Koebler, Jason (11 April 2022). "BeReal Isn't Real and Makes Everyone Look Extremely Boring". www.vice.com. Archived from the original on 2022-04-16. Retrieved 2022-04-16. | |
| Categories: Computer-related introductions in 2020Image sharing websitesInternet properties established in 2020Mobile applicationsProprietary cross-platform softwareHalf dollar (United States coin) | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
| Jump to navigationJump to search | |
| Half dollar | |
| United States | |
| Value 0.50 U.S. dollar | |
| Mass 11.340 g (0.365 troy oz) | |
| Diameter 30.61 mm (1.205 in) | |
| Thickness 2.15 mm (0.085 in) | |
| Edge 150 reeds | |
| Composition 1964: 90% Ag 10% Cu; 1965-1970: 60% Cu 40% Ag 1971-Present: 91.67% Cu 8.33% Ni | |
| Years of minting 1794–1797, 1801–1803, 1805–1815, 1817–1921, 1923, 1927–1929, 1933–present | |
| Catalog number – | |
| Obverse | |
| US Half Dollar Obverse 2015.png | |
| Design John F. Kennedy | |
| Designer Gilroy Roberts | |
| Design date 1964 | |
| Reverse | |
| US 50 Cent Rev.png | |
| Design Presidential Seal | |
| Designer Frank Gasparro | |
| Design date 1964 | |
| The half dollar, sometimes referred to as the half for short or 50-cent piece, is a United States coin worth 50 cents, or one half of a dollar. It is the largest United States circulating coin currently produced[1] in both size and weight, being 1.205 inches (30.61 millimeters) in diameter and 0.085 in (2.16 mm) in thickness, and is twice the weight of the quarter. The coin's design has undergone a number of changes throughout its history. Since 1964, the half dollar depicts the profile of President John F. Kennedy on the obverse and the Seal of the President of the United States on the reverse.[2] | |
| Though not commonly used today, half-dollar coins have a long history of heavy use alongside other denominations of coinage, but have faded out of general circulation for many reasons. They were produced in fairly large quantities until the year 2002, when the U.S. Mint ceased production of the coin for general circulation. As a result of its decreasing usage, many pre-2002 half dollars remain in Federal Reserve vaults, prompting the change in production. Presently, collector half dollars can be ordered directly from the U.S. Mint,[2] and pre-2002 circulation half dollars may be ordered through most American banks and credit unions. In 2021, half dollars began to be produced for general circulation again.[3] | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Circulation | |
| 2 Aspects of early history | |
| 3 List of designs | |
| 4 List of early commemorative issues | |
| 5 See also | |
| 6 References | |
| Circulation | |
| Half-dollar coins once saw heavy use, particularly in the first half of the 20th century. For many years, they were (and in many areas still are) commonly used by gamblers at casinos and other venues with slot machines. Rolls of half dollars may still be kept on hand in cardrooms for games requiring 50-cent antes or bring-in bets, for dealers to pay winning naturals in blackjack, or where the house collects a rake in increments. Additionally, some concession vendors at sporting events distribute half-dollar coins as change for convenience. | |
| By the early 1960s, the rising price of silver neared the point where the bullion value of U.S. silver coins would exceed face value. In 1965, the U.S. introduced layered-composition coins made of a pure copper core sandwiched between two cupronickel outer faces. The silver content of dimes and quarters was eliminated, but the Kennedy half-dollar composition contained silver (reduced from 90% to 40%) from 1965 to 1970. Even with its reduced silver content, the half dollar attracted widespread interest from speculators and collectors, and that interest led to widespread hoarding of half dollars dated 1970 and earlier. In 1971, the half's composition was changed to match that of the clad dimes and quarters, and with an increase in production, the coin saw a moderate increase in usage; by this time however, many businesses and the public had begun to lose interest in the coin and it gradually became uncommon in circulation by the end of the 1970s. Merchants stopped ordering half dollars from their banks, and many banks stopped ordering half dollars from the Federal Reserve, and the U.S. mints sharply reduced production of the coins. | |
| Since 2002, half dollars have been minted only for collectors, due to large Federal Reserve and government inventories on hand of pre-2001 pieces; this is mostly due to lack of demand and large quantity returns from casino slot machines that now operate "coinless". Eventually, when the reserve supply runs low, the mint will again fill orders for circulation half dollars.[4] It took about 18 years (1981–1999) for the large inventory stockpile of a similar low-demand circulation coin, the $1 coin, to reach reserve levels low enough to again produce circulation pieces.[citation needed] Modern-date half dollars can be purchased in proof sets, mint sets, rolls, and bags from the U.S. Mint, and existing inventory circulation pieces can be ordered through most U.S. banks and credit unions. All collector issues since 2001 have had much lower mintages than in previous years. Although intended only for collectors, these post-2001 half dollars often find their way into circulation, with examples occurring in change or as payment for small transactions.[5] | |
| Aspects of early history | |
| On December 1, 1794, the first half dollars, approximately 5,300 pieces, were delivered. Another 18,000 were produced in January 1795 using dies of 1794, to save the expense of making new ones.[6] Another 30,000 pieces were struck by the end of 1801. The coin had the Heraldic Eagle, based on the Great Seal of the United States on the reverse.[6] 150,000 were minted in 1804 but struck with dies from 1803, so no 1804 specimens exist, though there were some pieces dated 1805 that carried a "5 over 4" overdate.[6] | |
| In 1838, half-dollar dies were produced in the Philadelphia Mint for the newly established New Orleans Mint, and ten test samples of the 1838 half dollars were made at the main Philadelphia mint. These samples were put into the mint safe along with other rarities like the 1804 silver dollar. The dies were then shipped to New Orleans for the regular production of 1838 half dollars. However, New Orleans production of the half dollars was delayed due to the priority of producing half dimes and dimes. The large press for half-dollar production was not used in New Orleans until January 1839 to produce 1838 half dollars, but the reverse die could not be properly secured, and only ten samples were produced before the dies failed. Rufus Tyler, chief coiner of the New Orleans mint, wrote to Mint Director Patterson of the problem on February 25, 1839.[7] The Orleans mint samples all had a double stamped reverse as a result of this production problem and they also showed dramatic signs of die rust, neither of which are present on the Philadelphia produced test samples. While eight Philadelphia minted samples survive to this day, there is only one known New Orleans minted specimen with the tell-tale double stamped reverse and die rust. This is the famous coin that Rufus Tyler presented to Alexander Dallas Bache (great grandson of Benjamin Franklin) in the summer of 1839 and was later purchased in June 1894 by A. G. Heaton, the father of mint mark coin collecting.[8] The 1838 Philadelphia-produced half dollars are extremely rare, with two separate specimens having sold for $632,500 in Heritage auctions in 2005 and 2008[9] respectively. The sole surviving Orleans minted 1838 is one of the rarest of all American coins.[10][11] In 1840 this mint produced nearly 180,000 half dollars.[6] | |
| In 1861, the New Orleans mint produced coins for three different governments. A total of 330,000 were struck under the United States government, 1,240,000 for the State of Louisiana after it seceded from the Union, and 962,633 after it joined the Confederacy. Since the same die was used for all strikings, the output looks identical. However the Confederate States of America actually minted four half dollars with a CSA (rather than USA) reverse and the obverse die they used had a small die crack. Thus "regular" 1861 half dollars with this crack probably were used by the Confederates for some of the mass striking.[12] | |
| There are two varieties of Kennedy half dollars in the proof set issues of 1964. Initially, the die was used with accented hair, showing deeper lines than the president's widow, Jacqueline Kennedy, preferred. New dies were prepared to smooth out some of the details. It is estimated that about 1 to 3% (40,000 to 100,000) of the proof halves are of the earlier type, making them somewhat more expensive for collectors.[13] | |
| List of designs | |
| Silver half dollars | |
| Flowing Hair 1794–1795[14] | |
| Draped Bust 1796–1807 | |
| Draped Bust, Small Eagle 1796–1797[15] | |
| Draped Bust, Heraldic Eagle 1801–1807[16] | |
| Capped Bust 1807–1839 | |
| Capped Bust (Large Size), With Motto 1807–1836[17] | |
| Capped Bust (Small Size), No Motto 1836–1839[18] | |
| Seated Liberty 1839–1891 | |
| Seated Liberty, No Motto 1839–1866[19] | |
| Seated Liberty, With Motto 1866–1891[20] | |
| Barber 1892–1915[21] | |
| Walking Liberty 1916–1947[22] | |
| Franklin 1948–1963[23] | |
| Kennedy 1964 (General circulation issue)[24] (the last 90% silver half dollar for circulation, contains 0.36169 oz. net silver per coin, or 7.234 oz. silver per roll) | |
| Kennedy 1992–present (silver proof sets available) | |
| 40% silver half dollars | |
| Kennedy 1965–1970 | |
| Kennedy 1976 (only collectors sets produced with 40% silver) | |
| Copper-nickel clad half dollars | |
| Kennedy 1971–1974, 1977–present | |
| Kennedy Bicentennial 1975–1976 (all dated 1776-1976) | |
| Various half dollar designs. From left to right: Bicentennial, Kennedy, Franklin, Walking Liberty | |
| List of early commemorative issues | |
| See also: Early United States commemorative coins | |
| Columbian half dollar (1892–1893) | |
| Panama–Pacific half dollar (1915) | |
| Illinois Centennial half dollar (1918) | |
| Maine Centennial half dollar (1920) | |
| Pilgrim Tercentenary half dollar (1920–1921) | |
| Missouri Centennial half dollar (1921) | |
| Alabama Centennial half dollar (1921) | |
| Grant Memorial half dollar (1922) | |
| Monroe Doctrine Centennial half dollar (1923) | |
| Huguenot-Walloon half dollar (1924) | |
| Lexington-Concord Sesquicentennial half dollar (1925) | |
| Stone Mountain Memorial half dollar (1925) | |
| California Diamond Jubilee half dollar (1925) | |
| Fort Vancouver Centennial half dollar (1925) | |
| United States Sesquicentennial half dollar (1926) | |
| Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar (1926–1939) | |
| Vermont Sesquicentennial half dollar (1927) | |
| Hawaii Sesquicentennial half dollar (1928) | |
| Maryland Tercentenary half dollar (1934) | |
| Texas Centennial half dollar (1934–1938) | |
| Daniel Boone Bicentennial half dollar (1934–1938) | |
| Connecticut Tercentenary half dollar (1935) | |
| Arkansas Centennial half dollar (1935–1939) | |
| Arkansas-Robinson half dollar (1936) | |
| Hudson Sesquicentennial half dollar (1935) | |
| California Pacific International Exposition half dollar (1935–1936) | |
| Old Spanish Trail half dollar (1935) | |
| Rhode Island Tercentenary half dollar (1936) | |
| Cleveland Centennial half dollar (1936) | |
| Wisconsin Territorial Centennial half dollar (1936) | |
| Cincinnati Musical Center half dollar (1936) | |
| Long Island Tercentenary half dollar (1936) | |
| York County, Maine Tercentenary half dollar (1936) | |
| Bridgeport, Connecticut Centennial half dollar (1936) | |
| Lynchburg Sesquicentennial half dollar (1936) | |
| Elgin, Illinois, Centennial half dollar (1936) | |
| Albany Charter half dollar (1936) | |
| San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge half dollar (1936) | |
| Columbia, South Carolina Sesquicentennial half dollar (1936) | |
| Delaware Tercentenary half dollar (1936) | |
| Battle of Gettysburg half dollar (1936) | |
| Norfolk, Virginia, Bicentennial half dollar (1936) | |
| Roanoke Island half dollar (1937) | |
| Battle of Antietam half dollar (1937) | |
| New Rochelle 250th Anniversary half dollar (1938) | |
| Iowa Centennial half dollar (1946) | |
| Booker T. Washington Memorial half dollar (1946–1954) | |
| See also | |
| icon Money portal | |
| Numismatics portal | |
| flag United States portal | |
| United States Mint coin production | |
| References | |
| U.S. MINT Catalog | |
| "kennedy-half-dollars". United States Mint. Retrieved 2016-03-08. | |
| Gilkes, Paul. "2021-P Kennedy half dollars now being found in circulation". Coin World. Amos Media Company. Retrieved 21 July 2021. | |
| "Half Dollar". US Mint. Retrieved 1 March 2022. | |
| United States Half Dollars Denver Coin Store. Web. Retrieved 13 March 2016. | |
| Julian, R.W. (December 2006). "All About the Half Dollar". The Numismatist. 119 (12): 38. | |
| U.S. Archives, general correspondence of the Philadelphia Mint box 39 | |
| "Treatise on coinage of The United States Branch Mints " published 1893/ author Augustus Heaton | |
| [1] Proof-63 | |
| "The Surprising History Of The 1838-O Half Dollar " published Jan 2012 by Ivy Press/ David Stone and Mark Van Winkle authors Heritage | |
| [2] Proof-64 | |
| "The SS Republic Shipwreck Project: the Coin Collection, p.23" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-11-29. Retrieved 2009-12-26. | |
| "What exactly is an Accented Hair Kennedy?". Archived from the original on 2010-01-13. Retrieved 2009-12-23. | |
| NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1794–95 Half Dollar Flowing Hair". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Retrieved 2009-03-13. | |
| NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1796–97 Half Dollar Draped Bust Small Eagle". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Archived from the original on 2009-03-21. Retrieved 2009-03-13. | |
| NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1801–07 Half Dollar Draped Bust Heraldic Eagle". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Archived from the original on 2009-03-21. Retrieved 2009-03-13. | |
| NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1807–36 Half Dollar Capped Bust Lettered Edge". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Archived from the original on 2009-03-21. Retrieved 2009-03-13. | |
| NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1836–39 Half Dollar Capped Bust Reeded Edge". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Archived from the original on 2009-03-21. Retrieved 2009-03-13. | |
| NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1839–66 Half Dollar Seated Liberty No Motto". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Archived from the original on 2009-03-21. Retrieved 2009-03-13. | |
| NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1866–91 Half Dollar Seated Liberty With Motto". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Archived from the original on 2009-04-04. Retrieved 2009-03-13. | |
| NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1892–1915 Half Dollar Barber". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Retrieved 2009-03-13. | |
| NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1916–47 Half Dollar Walking Liberty". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Retrieved 2009-03-13. | |
| NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1948–63 Half Dollar Franklin". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Retrieved 2009-03-13. | |
| NGC Photo Proof (1994). "1964 – Half Dollar Kennedy". CoinSite. ROKO Design Group, Inc. Retrieved 2009-03-13. | |
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| United States currency and coinage | |
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| Coinage of the United States | |
| Categories: Fifty-cent coins of the United StatesLewis and Clark Exposition gold dollar | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
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| Lewis and Clark Exposition dollar[1] | |
| United States | |
| Value 1 US dollar | |
| Mass 1.672 g | |
| Diameter 15 mm | |
| Edge Reeded | |
| Composition | |
| 90% gold | |
| 10% copper | |
| Years of minting 1904–1905 | |
| Mintage 1904: 25,000 pieces plus 28 for the Assay Commission, less 15,003 melted | |
| 1905: 35,000 plus 41 for the Assay Commission, less 25,000 melted.[2] | |
| Mint marks None. All pieces struck at Philadelphia Mint without mint mark. | |
| Obverse | |
| 1904 Lewis and Clark dollar obverse.jpg | |
| Design Meriwether Lewis | |
| Designer Charles E. Barber | |
| Design date 1904 | |
| Reverse | |
| 1904 Lewis and Clark dollar reverse.jpg | |
| Design William Clark | |
| Designer Charles E. Barber | |
| Design date 1904 | |
| The Lewis and Clark Exposition Gold dollar is a commemorative coin that was struck in 1904 and 1905 as part of the United States government's participation in the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition, held in the latter year in Portland, Oregon. Designed by United States Bureau of the Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber, the coin did not sell well and less than a tenth of the authorized mintage of 250,000 was issued. | |
| The Lewis and Clark Expedition, the first European-American overland exploring party to reach the Pacific Coast, was led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, following the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Between 1804 and 1806, its members journeyed from St. Louis to the Oregon coast and back, providing information and dispelling myths about the large area acquired by the United States in the Purchase. The Portland fair commemorated the centennial of that trip. | |
| The coins were, for the most part, sold to the public by numismatic promoter Farran Zerbe, who had also vended the Louisiana Purchase Exposition dollar. As he was unable to sell much of the issue, surplus coins were melted by the Mint. The coins have continued to increase in value, and today are worth between hundreds and thousands of dollars, depending on condition. The Lewis and Clark Exposition dollar is the only American coin to be "two-headed", with a portrait of one of the expedition leaders on each side. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Background | |
| 2 Inception | |
| 3 Design | |
| 4 Production | |
| 5 Aftermath and collecting | |
| 6 References and bibliography | |
| 6.1 Citations | |
| 6.2 Bibliography | |
| 6.2.1 Books | |
| 6.2.2 Other sources | |
| Background | |
| Main article: Lewis and Clark Expedition | |
| The Louisiana Purchase in 1803 more than doubled the area of the American nation. Seeking to gain knowledge of the new possession, President Thomas Jefferson obtained an appropriation from Congress for an exploratory expedition, and appointed his private secretary, Meriwether Lewis, to lead it. A captain in the United States Army, Lewis selected William Clark, a former Army lieutenant and younger brother of American Revolutionary War hero George Rogers Clark, as co-leader of the expedition. Lewis and William Clark had served together, and chose about thirty men, dubbed the Corps of Discovery, to accompany them. Many of these were frontiersmen from Kentucky who were in the Army, as well as boatmen and others with necessary skills. The expedition set forth from the St. Louis area on May 14, 1804.[3] | |
| Journeying up the Missouri River, Lewis and Clark met Sacagawea, a woman of the Lemhi Shoshone tribe. Sacagawea had been captured by another tribe and sold as a slave to Toussaint Charbonneau, a French-Canadian trapper, who made her one of his wives. Both Charbonneau and Sacagawea served as interpreters for the expedition and the presence of the Native American woman (and her infant son, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau) helped convince hostile tribes that the Lewis and Clark Expedition was not a war party. A great service Sacagawea rendered the expedition was to aid in the purchase of horses, needed so the group could cross the mountains after they had to abandon the Missouri approaching the Continental Divide. One reason for her success was that the Indian chief whose aid they sought proved to be Sacagawea's brother.[4][5] | |
| The expedition spent the winter of 1804–1805 encamped near the site of Bismarck, North Dakota. They left there on April 7, 1805, and came within view of the Pacific Ocean, near Astoria, Oregon, on November 7. After overwintering and exploring the area, they departed eastward on March 23, 1806, and arrived in St. Louis six months to the day later. Only one of the expedition members died en route, most likely of appendicitis. While they did not find the mammoths or salt mountains reputed to be in the American West, "these were a small loss compared to the things that were gained".[4] In addition to knowledge of the territories purchased by the US, these included the establishment of relations with Native Americans and increased public interest in the West once their diaries were published. Further, the exploration of the Oregon Country later aided American claims to that area.[6] In gratitude for their service to the nation, Congress gave Lewis and Clark land grants and they were appointed to government offices in the West.[7] | |
| Inception | |
| Beginning in 1895, Oregonians proposed honoring the centennial of the Lewis and Clark Expedition with a fair to be held in Portland, a city located along the party's route. In 1900, a committee of Portland businessmen began to plan for the event, an issue of stock was successful in late 1901, and construction began in 1903. A long drive to gain federal government support succeeded when President Theodore Roosevelt signed an appropriations bill on April 13, 1904. This bill allocated $500,000 to exposition authorities,[8] and also authorized a gold dollar to commemorate the fair, with the design and inscriptions left to the discretion of the Secretary of the Treasury. The organizing committee was the only entity allowed to purchase these from the government, and could do so at face value, up to a mintage limit of 250,000.[9] | |
| Numismatist Farran Zerbe had advocated for the passage of the authorization. Zerbe was not only a coin collector and dealer, but he promoted the hobby through his traveling exhibition, "Money of the World". Zerbe, president of the American Numismatic Association from 1908 to 1910, was involved in the sale of commemorative coins for over 20 years, beginning in 1892.[10][11] The Portland exposition's authorities placed him in charge of the sale of the gold dollar.[5] | |
| Details of the preparation of the commemorative dollar are lost; the Mint destroyed many records in the 1960s.[12] Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber was responsible for the designs.[1] | |
| Design | |
| Portraits of Lewis (left) and Clark, by Charles Willson Peale | |
| Numismatic historians Don Taxay and Q. David Bowers both suggest that Barber most likely based his designs on portraits of Lewis and of Clark by American painter Charles Willson Peale found in Philadelphia's Independence Hall.[7][12] Taxay deemed Barber's efforts, "commonplace".[12] The piece is the only American coin to be "two-headed", bearing a single portrait on each side.[13] | |
| Art historian Cornelius Vermeule, in his volume on American coinage, pointed out that some people liked the Lewis and Clark Exposition dollar as it depicted historic figures who affected the course of American history, rather than a bust intended to be Liberty, and that Barber's coin presaged the 1909 Lincoln cent and the 1932 Washington quarter. Nevertheless, Vermeule deprecated the piece, as well as the earlier American gold commemorative, the Louisiana Purchase Exposition dollar. "The lack of spark in these coins, as in so many designs by Barber or Assistant Engraver (later Chief Engraver) Morgan, stems from the fact that the faces, hair and drapery are flat and the lettering is small, crowded, and even."[14] According to Vermeule, when the two engravers collaborated on a design, such as the 1916 McKinley Birthplace Memorial dollar, "the results were almost oppressive".[14] | |
| Production | |
| Numismatist Farran Zerbe | |
| The Philadelphia Mint produced 25,000 Lewis and Clark Exposition dollars in September 1904, plus 28 more, reserved for inspection and testing at the 1905 meeting of the United States Assay Commission. These bore the date 1904.[15] Zerbe ordered 10,000 more in March 1905, dated 1905. The Mint struck 35,000 plus assay pieces in March and June in case Zerbe wanted to buy more, doing so in advance as the Philadelphia Mint shut down in the summer, but as he did not order more, the additional 25,000 were melted.[16] | |
| The Lewis and Clark Exposition dollar was the first commemorative gold coin to be struck and dated in multiple years.[15] A total of 60,069 pieces were struck, from both years, of which 40,003 were melted.[17] According to numismatists Jim Hunt and Jim Wells in their 2004 article on the coin, "the poor reception afforded the coin at the time of issue virtually guaranteed their rarity for future generation".[18] | |
| Aftermath and collecting | |
| D.M. Averill's misleading advertisement for Lewis and Clark Exposition dollars, which were not "nearly exhausted". From the April 1905 The Numismatist. | |
| Main article: Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition | |
| The Lewis and Clark Centennial and American Pacific Exposition and Oriental Fair opened in Portland on June 1, 1905. It was not designated as an international exposition, and did not draw much publicity even within the United States. Nevertheless, two and a half million people visited the fair between Opening Day and the close on October 14. Sixteen foreign nations accepted invitations from organizers to mount exhibits at the exposition. There was the usual broad array of concessions and midway attractions to entertain visitors.[7] Among Americans who displayed exhibits at the fair were prominent cartoonist and animal fancier Homer Davenport[19] and long-lived pioneer Ezra Meeker. The exposition was one of the few of its kind to make a profit, and likely contributed to a major increase in Portland's population and economy between 1905 and 1912.[8] | |
| Zerbe's exhibit at the fair | |
| Funds from the sale of the coin were designated for the completion of a statue to Sacagawea in a Portland park.[16] There was little mention of the dollar in the numismatic press. Q. David Bowers speculates that Dr. George F. Heath, editor of The Numismatist, who opposed such commemoratives, declined to run any press releases Zerbe might have sent.[17] Nevertheless, an article appeared in the August 1905 issue, promoting the exhibit and dollar. As it quotes Zerbe and praises his efforts, it was likely written by him.[20] Zerbe concentrated on bulk sales to dealers, as well as casual ones at the fair at a price of $2; he enlisted Portland coin dealer D.M. Averill & Company to make retail sales by mail. There were also some banks and other businesses that sold coins directly to the public. Averill ran advertisements in the numismatic press, and in early 1905, raised prices on the 1904 pieces, claiming that they were near exhaustion. This was a lie: in fact, the 1904-dated coins sold so badly that some 15,000 were melted at the San Francisco Mint.[17] Zerbe had Averill sell the 1905 issue at a discounted price of ten dollars for six pieces.[15] As he had for the Louisiana Purchase dollar, Zerbe made the coins available mounted in spoons or in jewelry. Little else is known regarding the distribution of the gold dollars.[17] | |
| 1905 statue, Sacajawea and Jean-Baptiste by Alice Cooper, funded using coin proceeds, in Portland's Washington Park | |
| The coins were highly unpopular in the collecting community, which had seen the Louisiana Purchase coin decrease in value since its issuance.[17] Nevertheless, the value of the Lewis and Clark issue did not drop below issue price, but steadily increased. Despite a slightly higher number of coins recorded as extant, the 1905 issue is rarer and more valuable than the 1904; Bowers speculates that Zerbe may have held some pieces only to cash them in, or surrender them in 1933 when President Franklin Roosevelt called in most gold coins.[21] The 1905 for many years traded for less than the 1904, but by 1960 had matched the earlier version's price and in the 1980s surpassed it.[22] The 2014 edition of A Guide Book of United States Coins (the Red Book) lists the 1904 at between $900 and $10,000, depending on condition, and the 1905 at between $1,200 and $15,000.[1] One 1904, in near pristine MS-68 condition, sold in 2006 at auction for $57,500.[13] | |
| Despite the relative failure of the coin issue, the statue of Sacagawea was duly erected in a Portland park, financed by coin sales.[1] In 2000, Sacagawea joined Lewis and Clark in appearing on a gold-colored dollar coin, with the issuance of a circulating coin depicting her and her son.[23] | |
| References and bibliography | |
| Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lewis and Clark Exposition gold dollar. | |
| Citations | |
| Yeoman, p. 286. | |
| Swiatek, p. 77. | |
| Slabaugh, pp. 25–26. | |
| Slabaugh, p. 26. | |
| Flynn, p. 206. | |
| Flynn, p. 207. | |
| Bowers, p. 610. | |
| "Guide to the Lewis and Clark Centennial and American Pacific Exposition and Oriental Fair Records, 1894–1933". Northwest Digital Archive. Retrieved March 28, 2014. | |
| Flynn, p. 348. | |
| Hunt & Wells, pp. 41–42. | |
| American Numismatic Association. | |
| Taxay, p. 22. | |
| Flynn, p. 208. | |
| Vermeule, p. 105. | |
| Swiatek, p. 78. | |
| Swiatek & Breen, p. 134. | |
| Bowers, p. 611. | |
| Hunt & Wells, p. 42. | |
| Huot & Powers, pp. 123, 132, 159. | |
| ANA, pp. 239–241. | |
| Bowers, p. 612. | |
| Bowers, pp. 612–614. | |
| Yeoman, p. 234. | |
| Bibliography | |
| Books | |
| Bowers, Q. David (1992). Commemorative Coins of the United States: A Complete Encyclopedia. Wolfeboro, NH: Bowers and Merena Galleries, Inc. | |
| Flynn, Kevin (2008). The Authoritative Reference on Commemorative Coins 1892–1954. Roswell, GA: Kyle Vick. OCLC 711779330. | |
| Huot, Leland & Powers, Alfred (1973). Homer Davenport of Silverton: Life of a great cartoonist. Bingen, WA: West Shore Press. ISBN 978-1-111-08852-1. | |
| Slabaugh, Arlie R. (1975). United States Commemorative Coinage (second ed.). Racine, WI: Whitman Publishing (then a division of Western Publishing Company, Inc.). ISBN 978-0-307-09377-6. | |
| Swiatek, Anthony (2012). Encyclopedia of the Commemorative Coins of the United States. Chicago: KWS Publishers. ISBN 978-0-9817736-7-4. | |
| Swiatek, Anthony & Breen, Walter (1981). The Encyclopedia of United States Silver & Gold Commemorative Coins, 1892 to 1954. New York: Arco Publishing. ISBN 978-0-668-04765-4. | |
| Taxay, Don (1967). An Illustrated History of U.S. Commemorative Coinage. New York: Arco Publishing. ISBN 978-0-668-01536-3. | |
| Vermeule, Cornelius (1971). Numismatic Art in America. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-62840-3. | |
| Yeoman, R.S. (2013). A Guide Book of United States Coins 2014 (67th ed.). Atlanta, GA: Whitman Publishing LLC. ISBN 978-0-7948-4180-5. | |
| Other sources | |
| "ANA Presidents". American Numismatic Association. Archived from the original on July 2, 2013. Retrieved June 27, 2013. | |
| Hunt, Jim; Wells, Jim (March 2004). "Numismatics of the Lewis and Clark Exposition". The Numismatist. Colorado Springs, CO: American Numismatic Association: 40–44. | |
| Zerbe, Farran (unsigned) (August 1905). "Where one dollar is worth two". The Numismatist. Colorado Springs, CO: American Numismatic Association: 239–241. | |
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| Categories: Cultural depictions of Meriwether Lewis and William ClarkCurrencies introduced in 1904Early United States commemorative coinsUnited States gold coinsWorld's fair commemorative coinsTryon Creek | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
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| Tryon Creek | |
| Tryon in marshall park.jpg | |
| Upper Tryon Creek in Marshall Park | |
| TryonCreek watershed.png | |
| Tryon Creek watershed | |
| Tryon Creek is located in OregonTryon Creek | |
| Location of the mouth of Tryon Creek in Oregon | |
| Etymology Socrates Hotchkiss Tryon, Sr., who settled nearby in 1850[2] | |
| Location | |
| Country United States | |
| State Oregon | |
| County Multnomah and Clackamas | |
| Physical characteristics | |
| Source Tualatin Mountains (West Hills) | |
| • location Portland, Multnomah County, Oregon | |
| • coordinates 45°26′49″N 122°43′18″W[1] | |
| • elevation 641 ft (195 m)[3] | |
| Mouth Willamette River | |
| • location Lake Oswego, Clackamas County, Oregon | |
| • coordinates 45°25′22″N 122°39′24″WCoordinates: 45°25′22″N 122°39′24″W[1] | |
| • elevation 10 ft (3.0 m)[1] | |
| Length 4.85 mi (7.81 km)[4] | |
| Basin size 6.5 sq mi (17 km2)[5] | |
| Discharge | |
| • location below the confluence with Nettle Creek, 1 mile (1.6 km) from the Tryon Creek mouth[6] | |
| • average 8.72 cu ft/s (0.247 m3/s)[6] | |
| • minimum 0.09 cu ft/s (0.0025 m3/s) | |
| • maximum 1,210 cu ft/s (34 m3/s) | |
| Tryon Creek is a 4.85-mile (7.81 km) tributary of the Willamette River in the U.S. state of Oregon. Part of the drainage basin of the Columbia River, its watershed covers about 6.5 square miles (16.8 km2) in Multnomah and Clackamas counties. The stream flows southeast from the Tualatin Mountains (West Hills) through the Multnomah Village neighborhood of Portland and the Tryon Creek State Natural Area to the Willamette in the city of Lake Oswego. Parks and open spaces cover about 21 percent of the watershed, while single-family homes dominate most of the remainder. The largest of the parks is the state natural area, which straddles the border between the two cities and counties. | |
| The bedrock under the watershed includes part of the last exotic terrane, a chain of seamounts, acquired by the North American Plate as it moved west during the Eocene. Known as the Waverly Hills Formation, it lies buried under ash and lava from later volcanic eruptions, sediments from flooding and erosion, and layers of wind-blown silt. Two dormant volcanoes from the Boring Lava Field are in the Tryon Creek watershed. | |
| Named for mid-19th century settler, Socrates Hotchkiss Tryon, Sr., the creek ran through forests of cedar and fir that were later logged by the Oregon Iron Company and others through the mid-20th century. Efforts to establish a large park in the watershed began in the 1950s and succeeded in 1975 when the state park was formally established. As of 2005, about 37 percent of the watershed was wooded and supported more than 60 species of birds as well as small mammals, amphibians, and fish. At the same time, the human population was about 18,000. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Course | |
| 1.1 Discharge | |
| 2 Geology | |
| 3 Watershed | |
| 3.1 Tributaries | |
| 3.2 Water quality | |
| 3.3 Annual report card | |
| 4 History | |
| 5 Vegetation and wildlife | |
| 6 Parks | |
| 7 See also | |
| 8 References | |
| 9 Sources | |
| 10 External links | |
| Course | |
| Tryon Creek begins slightly north of Interstate 5 (I-5) and Oregon Route 99W near Multnomah Village and flows southeast for 4.85 miles (7.81 km)[7] through Portland residential neighborhoods as well as Marshall Park and the Tryon Creek State Natural Area to its confluence with the Willamette River in the city of Lake Oswego.[8] Not far from its source, the main stem runs through three closely spaced culverts with a combined length of 260 feet (79 m) then flows on the surface before entering another culvert, 160 feet (49 m) long under Southwest 30th Avenue at river mile (RM) 4.56 or river kilometer (RK) 7.34. Shortly thereafter, the stream passes under Route 99W (Barbur Boulevard) and I-5 through another culvert, 560 feet (170 m) long.[4][9][10][11] | |
| Tryon Creek receives Falling Creek from the right at 4.16 miles (6.69 km) from the mouth. Quail and Burlingame creeks enter from the right shortly thereafter. At Marshall Park, the stream passes through a series of rock pools and steps known as the Marshall Cascade from RM 3.48 (RK 5.60) to RM 3.28 (RK 5.28). Arnold Creek, which is Tryon Creek's largest tributary, enters from the right 2.68 miles (4.31 km) from the mouth. Almost immediately, the creek enters a culvert, about 150 feet (46 m) long, that passes under Southwest Boones Ferry Road.[4][9][10][11] | |
| Shortly thereafter, Tryon Creek enters the Tryon Creek State Natural Area. To the stream's right is the North Creek Trail. Soon the creek receives Fourth Avenue Creek from the left. At this point, the Fourth Avenue Trail runs parallel to the creek along the left bank. This trail soon merges with the Lewis and Clark Trail, which also runs parallel to the creek along the left bank. Then Tryon Creek passes under the High Bridge, the uppermost of five footbridges that span the main stem within the park. High Bridge carries the Middle Creek Trail as well as a linear horse trail connecting the park's North and South horse loops. Below this bridge, the creek flows for about 0.20 miles (0.32 km) before passing under the Beaver Bridge. In this stretch, the Middle Creek Trail parallels the stream along the right bank but crosses to the left bank at the bridge. Shortly thereafter, the creek passes under Obie's Bridge, which carries the Old Man Trail.[4][9][10][11] | |
| A stream no more than 10 feet (3.0 m) wide meanders through a second-growth forest. | |
| Tryon Creek at Obie's Bridge | |
| Park Creek enters from the right at RM 1.80 (RK 2.90). Slightly below the confluence, the creek passes under the Red Fox Bridge, which carries the Red Fox Trail. Thereafter, the creek runs roughly parallel to the South Creek Trail, which is on the right for about 0.40 miles (0.64 km). The creek receives Red Fox Creek from the right and Palatine Hill Creek from the left, then flows out of Portland and Multnomah County and into the city of Lake Oswego and Clackamas County. The stream then passes under the Iron Mountain Bridge, which carries the Iron Mountain Trail. Just below the bridge, Nettle Creek enters from the right at 1.06 miles (1.71 km) from the mouth, and shortly thereafter the creek passes a United States Geological Survey (USGS) stream gauge, which is on the right. The creek leaves the Tryon Creek State Natural Area just before entering a 200-foot (61 m) culvert under Oregon Route 43 at RM 0.24 (RK 0.39) and soon thereafter a set of Union Pacific Railroad tracks. Below this, Tryon Creek forms the boundary between the city of Lake Oswego and Briarwood, an unincorporated Clackamas County community, which is to the left. The Tryon Creek Wastewater Treatment Plant is on the right during this last stretch before the creek enters the Willamette River about 20 miles (32 km) upstream from its confluence with the Columbia River.[4][9][10][11] | |
| Discharge | |
| Since 2002, the USGS has monitored the flow of Tryon Creek at a station 1 mile (1.6 km) from the mouth. The average flow between 2002 and 2011 was 8.72 cubic feet per second (0.25 m3/s). This is from a drainage area of 6.28 square miles (16.27 km2), about 97 percent of the total Tryon Creek watershed. The maximum flow recorded during this period was 1,210 cubic feet per second (34 m3/s) on December 9, 2010. The minimum was 0.09 cubic feet per second (0.0025 m3/s) on September 4, 5, and 12, 2002.[6] | |
| Geology | |
| A rounded hill rises in the distance above a dark evergreen forest. The hill is forested too, but buildings are visible through the trees. | |
| Mount Sylvania as seen from Tualatin, southwest of the Tryon Creek watershed | |
| One hundred and fifty million years ago, Oregon did not exist.[12] Not until plate tectonics separated North America from Europe and North Africa and pushed it westward did the continent acquire, bit by bit, what became the Pacific Northwest. Over many millions of years, the continent collided with and incorporated islands, reefs, and other exotic terranes.[12] Part of the last major exotic terrane acquired by the North American Plate during the Eocene lies under the Tryon Creek watershed. The terrane consisted of a chain of seamounts that by 34 million years ago was being uplifted to become the Oregon Coast Range and the Tualatin Mountains (West Hills).[13] The easternmost exposure of the basalts of this terrane is in Waverly Heights, near Milwaukie, across the Willamette River from Tryon Creek, and this formation underlies most of Tryon Creek State Park.[13] | |
| Between 15 and 16 million years ago, in the Middle Miocene, eruptions of Columbia River basalts from volcanic vents in eastern Oregon and Washington flowed across much of northern Oregon, sometimes reaching the Pacific Ocean.[14] Although these basalts have been mapped in the West Hills under Marquam Hill, Hoyt Arboretum, and the steepest slopes of Forest Park,[14] they flowed around but did not completely cover the Waverly Hills Formation in the Tryon Creek watershed.[15] | |
| Starting about 3 million years ago and continuing at least through the late Pleistocene, extensional faulting of the Earth's crust led to eruption of small volcanoes in the Boring volcanic field. This field extended roughly from Portland and Tualatin on the west to Battle Ground, Washington, on the north to Sandy and Boring on the east.[16] Two of these volcanoes, Mount Sylvania and Cook's Butte, are in the Tryon Creek watershed. The Mount Sylvania eruptions included ash plumes and lava flows that covered some of the Waverly Heights Formation and Columbia River basalts.[15] | |
| About 15,000 years ago, cataclysmic ice age events known as the Missoula Floods or Bretz Floods originating in the Clark Fork region of northern Idaho inundated the Columbia River basin many times.[17] These floods deposited huge amounts of debris and sediment and created new floodplains in the Willamette Valley. Over long stretches of time between the great floods, dry winds deposited silt.[15] At elevations above 300 feet (90 m) in the Tryon Creek watershed, wind-blown silt covers the lava, while at lower elevations sand and gravel cover the bedrock.[18] | |
| Watershed | |
| An unpaved path runs through a sun-dappled forest. Ferns and other understory plants grow thickly on both sides of the path, beneath trees. Along the right edge of the path are three trees, separated from one another by about 30 feet (9.1 m), with trunks of about 2 feet (0.6 m) in diameter. Only the bottom few feet of the trunks are visible. | |
| A path runs through the forest near Tryon Creek in Marshall Park. | |
| The Tryon Creek watershed covers about 4,100 acres (1,700 ha) or 6.5 square miles (17 km2). Of this, about 80 percent is within the Portland city limits, and the remaining 20 percent is split among the jurisdictions of the city of Lake Oswego, and the counties of Multnomah and Clackamas. These four overlap with the jurisdiction of the State of Oregon, which owns the natural area. Watersheds that border the Tryon Creek watershed are Fanno Creek to the west and northwest, Stephens Creek to the north, the Willamette River to the east and Oswego Lake to the south. More than 70 miles (110 km) of surface streets, including parts of Interstate 5, Oregon Route 99W, Oregon Route 43, Boones Ferry Road, Taylors Ferry Road, and Terwilliger Boulevard, run through the watershed.[8] | |
| About 35 inches (890 mm) of precipitation, almost entirely rain, fall on the watershed each year. Summers are dry, and most of the precipitation occurs between October and May.[19] Elevations within the drainage basin vary from Mount Sylvania, which rises to 970 feet (300 m) above sea level in the West Hills, to 10 feet (3.0 m) where the creek enters the Willamette River.[19] Between 60 and 75 percent of the slopes in the watershed exceed a 30-percent grade and are especially steep near the headwaters.[19] Impervious surfaces cover about 24 percent of the basin.[19] These surfaces and the relatively impermeable silt and clay soils that underlie the area contribute to rapid runoff and low baseflows in the creek and its tributaries. The total length of surface streams in the drainage basin is about 27 miles (43 km), while another 3 miles (5 km) run through culverts or pipes.[19] Although major flooding in 1996 caused landslides and severe damage to stream beds and banks along Tryon Creek and its tributaries, it caused no significant property damage in the watershed.[20] | |
| In 2000, the population of the Tryon Creek watershed within Portland was about 18,000. In 2005, Portland's Bureau of Environmental Services (BES) described land-use zoning in the watershed as follows: single-family residential, 55 percent; parks and open space, 14 percent; multi-family residential, 5 percent; commercial, 3 percent, and insufficient data, 2 percent. To reach 100 percent, BES listed but did not differentiate by zoning type the roughly 20 percent of the watershed that lies beyond the Portland city limits. Metro, the regional government for the Portland metropolitan area, says that parks and natural areas cover about 21 percent of the total watershed, while single-family housing dominates most of the rest.[21] | |
| Tributaries | |
| The major smaller streams in the Tryon Creek watershed are Arnold Creek and Falling Creek. The larger of the two, Arnold Creek, has a watershed of roughly 1.2 square miles (3.1 km2) or 18 percent of the 6.5-square-mile (17 km2) total, while Falling Creek's watershed covers 0.4 square miles (1.0 km2) or 6 percent of the total.[8] The seven named tributaries from mouth to source are Nettle, Palatine Hill, Red Fox, Park, Fourth Avenue, Arnold, and Falling creeks.[4][9][10][11] | |
| Water quality | |
| A wooden footbridge about 3 feet (1 m) wide and 30 feet (9.1 m) long spans a small stream flowing through a forest. | |
| High Bridge over Tryon Creek in Tryon Creek State Natural Area | |
| Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) developed the Oregon Water Quality Index (OWQI) in the 1970s to rate general water quality at different locations. Scores can vary from 10 (worst) to 100 (ideal). Portland's Bureau of Environmental Services (BES) incorporated the OWQI into its monitoring of Tryon Creek in 1997. As of 2004, the overall OWQI score for Tryon Creek was 74 or "poor"; this was slightly better than nearby Fanno Creek at 67.[22] The State of Oregon listed Tryon Creek as "water-quality limited" in 1998 because water temperatures on the lower 5 miles (8 km) of the main stem as well as on Nettle, Arnold, and Falling creeks exceeded the upper limit for protecting salmonid fish rearing and migratory fish passage during the summer.[23] | |
| BES monitors water quality at three Tryon Creek sites. Two are near I-5 and Barbur Boulevard in the upper watershed, and the third is at Southwest Boones Ferry Road, about 2.7 miles (4.3 km) from the mouth. BES looks at several indicators such as dissolved oxygen, nutrients, and total suspended solids. Diffuse pollution from nonpoint sources enters the creek from its urban surroundings. Point sources of pollution in the creek include two major upper-watershed stormwater outfalls draining 368 acres (149 ha) of the upper watershed and contributing about half of the creek's total suspended solids. As of 2004, the only water-quality indicator in the watershed that failed to meet minimal standards was the water temperature.[24] | |
| Annual report card | |
| In 2015, BES began issuing annual "report cards" for watersheds or fractions thereof that lie within the city.[25][26] BES assigns grades for each of four categories: hydrology, water quality, habitat, and fish and wildlife. Hydrology grades depend on the amount of pavement and other impervious surfaces in the watershed and the degree to which its streams flow freely, not dammed or diverted. Water-quality grades are based on measurements of dissolved oxygen, E-coli bacteria, temperature, suspended solids, and substances such as mercury and phosphorus. Habitat ranking depends on the condition of stream banks and floodplains, riparian zones, tree canopies, and other variables. The fish and wildlife assessment includes birds, fish, and macroinvertebrates.[27] In 2015, the BES grades for Tryon Creek are hydrology, B; water quality, B; habitat, B, and fish and wildlife, C−.[28] | |
| History | |
| A modest two-story farmhouse with a peaked roof and four chimneys sits under a large tree at the top of a sloping lawn. Bushes and shrubs grow near the house on its two visible sides. A small part of a neighboring house, perhaps only 15 feet (4.6 m) away, can be seen in the background. | |
| The Tryon house, built in 1850 and demolished in the 1990s[29] | |
| Multnomah and Clackamas counties were named after groups of Native Americans who lived in the area before settlement by European Americans in the 19th century.[30] Evidence suggests that people lived in the northern Oregon Cascades as early as 10,000 years ago.[31] By 2,000 to 3,000 years ago, the Clackamas River basin, about 5 miles (8 km) upriver from the mouth of Tryon Creek and on the east side of the Willamette, was home to the Clackamas tribe.[31] They were a subgroup of the Chinookan speakers who lived near the Columbia River from Celilo Falls to the Pacific Ocean. The Clackamas lands included the lower Willamette River from Willamette Falls at what became Oregon City to its confluence with the Columbia River. When Lewis and Clark visited the area in 1806, the Clackamas tribe consisted of about 1,800 people living in 11 villages.[31] Epidemics of smallpox, malaria, and measles reduced this population to 88 by 1851, and in 1855 the tribe signed a treaty surrendering its lands.[31] Another group of Chinookans, the Multnomahs, lived on Sauvie Island,[32] about 17 miles (27 km) downriver from the mouth of Tryon Creek. Lewis and Clark estimated that 800 Multnomahs inhabited 5 villages on the island in 1806, but disease reduced them later in the century to near extinction.[32] | |
| In 1850, Socrates Hotchkiss Tryon, Sr., a pioneer settler of European descent, established a donation land claim at the south end of Tryon Creek canyon. Five years later, he died, leaving the land to his wife, Frances. The land then passed to other relatives, including Socrates Tryon, Jr., who sold the 645 acres (261 ha) in 1874 to the Oregon Iron Company. For nearly 25 years, the company cut virgin cedar and fir to use in its foundry in Lake Oswego. Its logging road later became Old Iron Mountain Trail in the Tryon Creek State Natural Area. In 1900, fire in the upper canyon left charred snags still visible along the natural area's Center and Big Fir trails.[33] | |
| Logging resumed in 1912 in the north part of the canyon, where The Boone's Ferry Wood and Tie Company had a site near what became Alfred Street. A sawmill and steam donkey engine operated near the future sites of Beaver Bridge and Obie's Bridge. The lumber was used chiefly for railroad ties, cordwood and flagpoles, and left huge cedar stumps that remain in the park. Intermittent logging continued through 1961, and a 1962 windstorm known as the Columbus Day Storm blew down many remaining trees.[33] | |
| Local efforts began in the 1950s to establish a park along the creek, In 1969, the government of Multnomah County bought 45 acres (18 ha) to start a large regional park and sought citizen assistance with the project. This led to formation of Friends of Tryon Creek Park, which raised funds, helped arrange land deals, worked on problems of jurisdiction in a two-county, two-city park, and sought help from the state. In 1970, Oregon Governor Tom McCall announced the formation of Tryon Creek State Park.[33] | |
| Over the next few years, the state bought more than 600 acres (240 ha) of land for nearly $3 million, including federal matching funds. The Friends and the state collaborated in park planning and further fund-raising. In 1973, more than 300 volunteers built trails, and the nature center and shelter were finished by 1975. The park was officially dedicated on July 1, 1975[33] and later renamed Tryon Creek State Natural Area. | |
| Vegetation and wildlife | |
| A three-petaled white flower with orange stamens rises above dark green leaves. | |
| Western trilliums flourish in the Tryon Creek State Natural Area. | |
| About 37 percent of the watershed is wooded.[34] Dominant trees are red alder, bigleaf maple, Douglas-fir, western redcedar, and western hemlock. The forest understory in the Tryon Creek State Natural Area includes many trilliums; they are celebrated each spring during the park's Trillium Festival. More than 90 species of wildflower such as fringecup are found in the park as well as plants such as sword fern.[35] Invasive species found in many parts of the watershed include English ivy, Himalayan blackberry, English holly, garlic mustard, and western clematis.[36] | |
| Riparian zones and floodplains are relatively intact along the lower reaches of the main stem in the state natural area, fairly intact in Marshall Park, and marginal in the upper reaches surrounded by homes. Arnold Creek has riparian corridors wider than 100 feet (30 m) in good condition, while Falling Creek's riparian zones, surrounded by homes, are in poor condition. Damaged zones from which native vegetation has been removed lead to erosion, stream bank failure, sedimentation, lack of shading, and higher stream temperatures.[34] | |
| Tryon Creek is among the few streams in the Portland metropolitan area with a run of steelhead Trout,[37] and coho salmon have been recorded spawning in the creek.[35] Surveys by the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife in 2002 found coho, chinook salmon, steelhead, and coastal cutthroat trout in different parts of the creek at different times of the year. None was present in large number. Cutthroat trout had the biggest population, estimated at 53 individual fish during the spring of 2002.[34] Water striders, which are invertebrates that can walk on water, are common in the pools of Tryon Creek.[35] More than 60 species of birds, including Cooper's hawks, great blue herons, kingfishers, towhees, waxwings, and wrens frequent the area. Some of the resident mammals are bats, coyotes, moles, rabbits, skunks, and squirrels, while frogs, salamanders, snakes, and turtles also do well in the watershed.[34] | |
| Parks | |
| A large polygonal wooden building sits in a sunny second-growth forest. A woman is kneeling in front of a wooden bench along a path. A baby stroller is parked next to the bench. A few feet away from her, three small children and another woman stand on the path. | |
| Nature Center at Tryon Creek State Natural Area | |
| Parks in the Tryon Creek watershed include Tryon Creek State Natural Area, Oregon's only metropolitan state park.[37] At about 630 acres (250 ha), the natural area is much larger than the watershed's other parks.[8] | |
| The state park includes a 3-mile (5 km) bicycle path that runs along Terwilliger Boulevard on the east edge of the park as part of the Portland metropolitan area's system of greenway trails known as the 40-Mile Loop. Equestrians can ride through the woods on horse trails totaling about 5 miles (8 km). Hikers can use the bike path, horse trails, and about 8 miles (13 km) of hiking trails. A paved loop trail of about 0.35-mile (0.56 km), furnished with drinking fountains and interpretive signs, can accommodate wheelchairs. A park building called the Nature Center houses a gift shop, a large classroom, space for educational exhibits, and a play area for small children.[38] | |
| Tryon Creek, which flows through the middle of the state park, also runs through Marshall Park, a modified natural area of about 26 acres (11 ha) in a canyon in the hills northwest of Mount Sylvania. It features hiking trails, a playground, picnic tables, a waterfall, and a stone bridge over the creek.[39] Other parks in the watershed include West Portland Park, a natural area of about 15 acres (6 ha),[40] and Maricara Park, a natural area of about 17 acres (7 ha).[41] Metro plans to acquire additional land along the creek to add to the parks.[21] | |
| See also | |
| flag Oregon portal | |
| List of rivers of Oregon | |
| References | |
| "Tryon Creek". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey. November 28, 1980. Retrieved May 3, 2009. | |
| McArthur & McArthur 2003, pp. 970–71. | |
| Source elevation derived from Google Earth search using GNIS source coordinates. | |
| Portland Bureau of Environmental Services 2005, pp. 1–7, Chapter 10. | |
| Portland Bureau of Environmental Services 2005, p. 1, Chapter 2. | |
| United States Geological Survey. "Water-Data Report 2011: USGS 14211315 Tryon Creek Near Lake Oswego, OR" (PDF). Retrieved November 23, 2012. | |
| Although other sources give the creek's length as 7 miles (11 km), Chapter 10 of Fanno and Tryon Creeks Watershed Management Plan by the Portland Bureau of Environmental Services gives a precise length of 4.85 miles (7.81 km). The plan describes inflow above that point as a "headwaters complex" that "includes all small upper tributaries above RM 4.85." By convention, stream lengths do not include tributary lengths. | |
| Portland Bureau of Environmental Services 2005, pp. 1–5, Chapter 2. | |
| City Street Map: Portland, Gresham (Map) (2007 ed.). G.M. Johnson and Associates. ISBN 978-1-897152-94-2. | |
| United States Geological Survey. "United States Geological Survey Topographic Map: Lake Oswego, Oregon, quadrant". TopoQuest. Retrieved May 10, 2009. | |
| Tryon Creek Trail Map (Map) (April 2008 ed.). Oregon Parks and Recreation Department. | |
| Bishop 2003, pp. 13–14. | |
| Bishop 2003, pp. 101–02. | |
| Bishop 2003, pp. 144–48. | |
| "Tryon Creek Watershed Atlas, Part Two: A Profile of the Tryon Creek Watershed". Portland State University. 1994–95. Archived from the original on July 20, 2006. Retrieved June 8, 2009. | |
| Bishop 2003, pp. 192–93. | |
| Bishop 2003, pp. 226–29. | |
| "Lake Oswego Surface Water Management Plan, Chapter 3: Study Area Characteristics" (PDF). City of Lake Oswego. 1992. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 26, 2012. Retrieved June 8, 2009. | |
| Portland Bureau of Environmental Services 2005, pp. 5–9, Chapter 2. | |
| Portland Bureau of Environmental Services 2005, pp. 16–17, Chapter 2. | |
| "Tryon Creek Linkages". Metro Regional Government. 2009. Archived from the original on April 7, 2014. Retrieved September 23, 2009. | |
| Portland Bureau of Environmental Services 2005, pp. 11–13, Chapter 6. | |
| Portland Bureau of Environmental Services 2005, pp. 15–16, Chapter 6. | |
| Portland Bureau of Environmental Services 2005, pp. 2–7, Chapter 6. | |
| Portland Bureau of Environmental Services (2015). "About Watershed Report Cards". City of Portland. Retrieved May 10, 2015. | |
| Portland Bureau of Environmental Services (2015). "Report Cards". City of Portland. Retrieved May 10, 2015. | |
| Portland Bureau of Environmental Services (2015). "What We Measure". City of Portland. Retrieved May 10, 2015. | |
| Portland Bureau of Environmental Services (2015). "Tryon Creek Report Card". City of Portland. Retrieved May 11, 2015. | |
| "Lost Landmarks: Other Neighborhoods: Tryon House" (PDF). Oswego Heritage Council. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 20, 2009. Retrieved September 22, 2009. | |
| McArthur & McArthur 2003, pp. 203–04, 684. | |
| Taylor, Barbara (1999). "Indian Use" (PDF). Salmon and Steelhead Runs and Related Events of the Clackamas River Basin: A Historical Perspective. Portland General Electric. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 12, 2006. Retrieved July 4, 2009. | |
| "Multnomah Indians". Lewis and Clark Interactive Journey Log. National Geographic. 2008. Archived from the original on February 17, 2015. Retrieved July 4, 2009. | |
| "History of the Park". Friends of Tryon Creek State Park. Archived from the original on August 17, 2007. Retrieved April 6, 2009. | |
| Portland Bureau of Environmental Services 2005, pp. 13–16, Chapter 2. | |
| Houck & Cody 2000, pp. 48–50. | |
| Portland Bureau of Environmental Services 2005, pp. 13–16, Chapter2. | |
| "Tryon Creek State Natural Area". Oregon Parks and Recreation Department. Retrieved April 6, 2009. | |
| Weist, Ellison G. (October 23, 2007). "Tryon Creek Trails Welcome Hooves, Wheels". Portland Tribune. Pamplin Media Group. | |
| "Marshall Park". Portland Parks and Recreation. 2009. Retrieved September 15, 2009. | |
| "West Portland Park Natural Area". Portland Parks and Recreation. 2009. Retrieved September 15, 2009. | |
| "Maricara Natural Area". Portland Parks and Recreation. 2009. Retrieved September 15, 2009. | |
| Sources | |
| Bishop, Ellen Morris (2003). In Search of Ancient Oregon: A Geological and Natural History. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. ISBN 978-0-88192-789-4. | |
| Houck, Mike; Cody, M. J., eds. (2000). Wild in the City: A Guide to Portland's Natural Areas. Portland: Oregon Historical Society Press. ISBN 0-87595-273-9. | |
| McArthur, Lewis A.; McArthur, Lewis L. (2003). Oregon Geographic Names (7th ed.). Portland: Oregon Historical Society Press. ISBN 0-87595-277-1. | |
| Portland Bureau of Environmental Services (2005). "Fanno and Tryon Creeks Watershed Management Plan" (PDF). City of Portland. Archived from the original on May 6, 2015. Retrieved May 8, 2009. | |
| External links | |
| Friends of Arnold Creek | |
| Friends of Marshall and Maricara Parks | |
| Friends of Tryon Creek State Park | |
| Tryon Creek Watershed Council | |
| vte | |
| Rivers and streams of Portland, Oregon | |
| Major | |
| Columbia RiverWillamette River | |
| Two stream channels join below land covered with trees and shrubs and protected by a stone wall. The wall, about six feet (two meters) high, extends across the right-hand stream channel, which plunges over the wall. Downstream, the combined channels are about 30 feet (9 meters) wide and turbulent. | |
| Minor | |
| Balch CreekColumbia SloughCrystal Springs CreekFanno CreekJohnson CreekMultnomah ChannelNorth Portland HarborStephens CreekTanner CreekTryon Creek | |
| Drinking water | |
| Bull Run River | |
| Categories: Geography of Portland, OregonRivers of Multnomah County, OregonRivers of OregonTributaries of the Willamette RiverLimalok | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
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| Limalok | |
| Micronesia and Marshall islands bathymetry, Limalok (Harrie) Guyot.png | |
| Bathymetry of Limalok and surroundings; Limalok is lower centre left | |
| Summit depth 1,255 metres (4,117 ft) | |
| Summit area 636-square-kilometre (246 sq mi) | |
| Location | |
| Group Ratak Chain | |
| Coordinates 5.6°N 172.3°E[1]Coordinates: 5.6°N 172.3°E[1] | |
| Country Marshall Islands | |
| Geology | |
| Type Guyot | |
| Age of rock Cretaceous | |
| Limalok is located in Marshall IslandsLimalokLimalok | |
| Location in the Marshall Islands | |
| Limalok (formerly known as Harrie or Harriet) is a Cretaceous[a]-Paleocene[b] guyot/tablemount in the southeastern Marshall Islands, one of a number of seamounts (a type of underwater volcanic mountain) in the Pacific Ocean. It was probably formed by a volcanic hotspot in present-day French Polynesia. Limalok lies southeast of Mili Atoll and Knox Atoll, which rise above sea level, and is joined to each of them through a volcanic ridge. It is located at a depth of 1,255 metres (4,117 ft) and has a summit platform with an area of 636 square kilometres (246 sq mi). | |
| Limalok is formed by basaltic rocks and was probably a shield volcano at first; the Macdonald, Rarotonga, Rurutu and Society hotspots may have been involved in its formation. After volcanic activity ceased, the volcano was eroded and thereby flattened, and a carbonate platform formed on it during the Paleocene and Eocene. These carbonates were chiefly produced by red algae, forming an atoll or atoll-like structure with reefs. | |
| The platform sank below sea level 48 ± 2 million years ago during the Eocene, perhaps because it moved through the equatorial area, which was too hot or nutrient-rich to support the growth of a coral reef. Thermal subsidence lowered the drowned seamount to its present depth. After a hiatus lasting into the Miocene,[c] sedimentation commenced on the seamount leading to the deposition of manganese crusts and pelagic sediments; phosphate accumulated in some sediments over time. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Name and research history | |
| 2 Geography and geology | |
| 2.1 Local setting | |
| 2.2 Regional setting | |
| 2.3 Composition | |
| 3 Geologic history | |
| 3.1 Volcanism and first biotic phenomena | |
| 3.2 Platform carbonates and reefs | |
| 3.3 Drowning and post-drowning evolution | |
| 4 Notes | |
| 5 References | |
| 5.1 Sources | |
| Name and research history | |
| Limalok was formerly known as Harrie Guyot[3] and is also known as Harriet Guyot;[4] Limalok refers to a traditional chieftess of Mile Atoll.[5] Limalok is one of the seamounts targeted during the Ocean Drilling Program,[6] which was a research program that aimed at elucidating the geological history of the sea by obtaining drill cores from the oceans.[6][7] The proportion of material recovered during the drilling[8] was low, making it difficult to reconstruct the geologic history of Limalok.[9] | |
| Geography and geology | |
| Local setting | |
| Limalok lies at the southernmost[10] end of the Ratak Chain[11] in the southeastern Marshall Islands[12] in the western Pacific Ocean.[6] Mili Atoll is located 53.7 kilometres (33.4 mi) from Limalok,[3] with Knox Atoll in between the two.[13] | |
| The relatively small[14] seamount rises from a depth of 4,500 metres (14,800 ft)[15] to a minimum depth of 1,255 metres (4,117 ft) below sea level.[16] The top of Limalok is 47.5 kilometres (29.5 mi) long[3] and broadens southeastward from less than 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) to more than 24 kilometres (15 mi),[13] forming a 636-square-kilometre (246 sq mi) summit platform.[17] The carbonate platform of Limalok crops out at the edges of the summit plateau.[10] Wide terraces[10] and numerous fault blocks surround the summit plateau;[18] some of the latter may have formed after the carbonate platform ceased growing.[19] | |
| Mili Atoll and Limalok emerge from a common pedestal[9] and are connected by a ridge at 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) depth.[15] The seafloor is 152[20]–158 million years old,[21] but it is possible that Limalok rises from Cretaceous flood basalts[d] rather than the seafloor itself.[23] Volcanic sediments in the Eastern Mariana Basin may come from this seamount.[24] | |
| Regional setting | |
| Diagram of how an active volcano is accompanied by decaying inactive volcanoes that were formerly located on the hotspot but have been moved away | |
| Illustration of how hotspot volcanoes work | |
| The Pacific Ocean seafloor, especially the parts that are of Mesozoic age, contains most of the world's guyots (also known as tablemounts[25]). These are submarine mountains[26] which are characterized by steep slopes, a flat top and usually the presence of corals and carbonate platforms.[1] These structures originally formed as volcanoes in the Mesozoic Ocean. Fringing reefs may have developed on the volcanoes, which then were replaced by barrier reefs as the volcanoes subsided and turned into atolls. Continued subsidence balanced by upward growth of the reefs led to the formation of thick carbonate platforms.[27] Volcanic activity can occur even after the formation of the atoll or atoll-like[e] landforms, and during episodes where the platforms were lifted above sea level, erosional features such as channels and blue holes[f] developed.[30] The crust underneath these seamounts tends to subside as it cools and thus the islands and seamounts sink.[31] | |
| The formation of many seamounts[32] including Limalok[33] has been explained with the hotspot theory, in which a "hot spot" rising from the mantle leads to the formation of chains of volcanoes which get progressively older along the length of the chain, with an active volcano at only one end of the system, as the plate moves over the hotspot.[34] Seamounts and islands in the Marshall Islands do not appear to have originated from simple age-progressive hotspot volcanism as the age progressions in the individual island and seamount chains are often inconsistent with this explanation.[35] One solution to this dilemma may be that more than one hotspot passed through the Marshall Islands,[36] and it is also possible that hotspot volcanism was affected by extensional deformation of the lithosphere.[37] For Limalok, geochemical evidence shows affinities to the Rarotonga hotspot[38] which is unlike the geochemical trends in the other volcanoes of the Ratak Chain.[39] Reconstructions of the area's geological history suggest that the first hotspot to pass by Limalok was the Macdonald hotspot 95–85 million years ago, followed by the Rurutu hotspot and the Society hotspot 75–65 million years ago.[40] The Rarotonga and especially the Rurutu hotspots are considered to be the most likely candidates for the hotspot that formed Limalok.[41] However, some paleogeographical inconsistencies indicate that lithospheric fractures secondary to hotspot activity were also involved.[42] | |
| From plate motion reconstructions, it has been established that the Marshall Islands were located in the era now occupied by present-day French Polynesia during the time of active volcanism. Both regions display numerous island chains, anomalously shallow ocean floors and the presence of volcanoes.[43] About eight hotspots have formed a large number of islands and seamounts in that region, with disparate geochemistries;[44] the geological province has been called "South Pacific Isotopic and Thermal Anomaly" or DUPAL anomaly.[45] | |
| Composition | |
| Limalok has erupted basaltic rocks,[13] which have been classified as alkali basalts,[46] basanite[39] and nephelinite.[47] Minerals contained in the rocks are apatite,[48] augite,[49] biotite, clinopyroxene, olivine, nepheline and plagioclase,[48] and there are ultramafic xenoliths.[50] Shallow crystal fractionation processes appear to have been involved in the genesis of the magmas erupted by Limalok.[51] | |
| Alteration of the original material has formed calcite, chlorite, clay, iddingsite, montmorillonite, zeolite, and a mineral that could be celadonite.[41][48] Volcanogenic sandstones[52] and traces of hydrothermal alteration also exist on Limalok.[48] | |
| Carbonate, clay,[13] manganese phosphate crust materials[g][54] and mudstones have been found in boreholes[28] or have been dredged from the seamount.[54] The carbonates take various forms, such as grainstone, packstone,[28] limestone,[55] rudstone and wackestone.[28] Porosity is usually low owing to cementation of the deposits,[55] a process in which grains in rock are solidified and pores filled by the deposition of minerals such as calcium carbonate.[56] The carbonate rocks show widespread evidence of diagenetic alteration,[57] meaning the carbonates have been chemically or physically modified after they were buried.[56] For example, aragonite, pyrite[58] and organic material were formed by alteration of living beings within the clays and limestones.[59] | |
| Geologic history | |
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| Subdivision of the Paleogene according to the ICS, as of 2021.[61] | |
| Vertical axis scale: millions of years ago | |
| Limalok is the youngest guyot in the Marshall Islands.[4] Argon-argon dating has yielded ages of 69.2[62] and 68.2 ± 0.5 million years ago on volcanic rocks dredged from Limalok.[63] Mili Atoll volcano is probably not much younger than Limalok.[64] During the Cretaceous Limalok was probably located in French Polynesia;[33] paleomagnetism indicates that Limalok formed at 15[65]–10 degrees southern latitude. Early limestones dredged from Limalok were considered to be of Eocene age (56–33.9 million years ago[2]) before earlier Paleocene deposits were discovered as well.[9] | |
| Volcanism and first biotic phenomena | |
| Limalok first formed as a shield volcano.[33] The volcanic rocks were emplaced as lava flows[41] with thicknesses reaching 1–7 metres (3 ft 3 in – 23 ft 0 in).[66] In addition, breccia[h][16] and pebbles encased within sediments occur.[52] | |
| Soils formed on the volcano[13] through the weathering of volcanic rocks,[46] reaching a thickness of 28.6 metres (94 ft);[47] claystones[46] and laterites were also generated through weathering.[47] These deposits formed over a long time on an island that rose at least several metres above sea level[52] – the estimated time it took to generate the soil profiles obtained in drill cores is about 1–3 million years.[20] Thermal subsidence of the crust[33] and erosion flattened the seamount before carbonate deposition commenced on Limalok,[54] and it is possible that the growth of another volcano south of Limalok 1–2 million years after Limalok developed may be responsible for a southward tilt of the seamount.[64] | |
| The soils on Limalok were colonized by vegetation[33] that left plant cuticle and woody tissues; angiosperms including palms, ferns and fungi with an overall low diversity developed on the volcano.[47] Organisms burrowed into the soils, leaving cavities.[59] The climate was probably tropical to subtropical,[47] with an annual precipitation of less than 1,000 millimetres per year (39 in/year).[68] | |
| Platform carbonates and reefs | |
| The erosion of the volcanic island was followed after some time by the beginning of carbonate platform growth.[69] Sedimentation began in the Paleocene with one or two events in which the seamount was submerged;[13] the start of sedimentation has been dated to about 57.5 ± 2.5 million years ago.[70] After a Paleocene phase with open sea or back-reef conditions, lagoonal environments developed on the seamount during the Eocene.[71] It is possible that the platform periodically emerged above sea level, leading to its erosion.[54][72] It is not clear if the platform took the form of an atoll, or of a shallow platform shielded on one side by islands or shoals, similar to the present-day Bahama Banks.[28][73] Sea level rise at the Paleocene-Eocene transition may have triggered a transformation from a partially shielded platform to a true ring-shaped atoll.[74] | |
| The carbonate platform reaches an overall thickness of 290 metres (950 ft) in one drill core.[16] Drill cores in the platform show variations between individual carbonate layers that imply that parts of the platform were submerged and emerged over time while the platform was still active,[46] possibly because of eustatic sea level variations.[75] Furthermore, the platform was affected by storms which redeposited the carbonatic material.[74] The deposition of the platform lasted about 10 million years,[76] spanning the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM).[i] Drill core evidence[77] shows that the PETM had little impact on carbonate deposition at Limalok despite a decrease in the δ13C isotope ratio recorded in the carbonates, implying there was little change to ocean pH at that time.[78] | |
| The dominant living beings on Limalok were red algae that occupied many ecological niches and formed rhodoliths.[j] Other lifeforms were[13] bivalves,[80] bryozoans,[15] corals, echinoderms, echinoids, foraminifera,[k] gastropods, molluscs and ostracods.[80] Species and general composition varied over time, leading to different species being found in different parts of the platform.[13] Red algae were important early colonizers,[69] and algal mats and oncoids[l] were contributed by algae and/or cyanobacteria.[82] | |
| Drowning and post-drowning evolution | |
| A carbonate platform is said to 'drown' when sedimentation can no longer keep up with relative rises in sea level, and carbonate deposition stops.[83][84] Limalok drowned during the early-middle Eocene, soon after the start of the Lutetian,[54] 48 ± 2 million years ago.[70] It is the most recent carbonate platform in the region to submerge:[9] the similar platform at neighbouring Mili Atoll is still depositing carbonate.[85][86] | |
| The drownings of carbonate platforms such as Limalok, MIT, Takuyo-Daisan and Wōdejebato appear to have many causes. One is a sea level drop resulting in the emergence of much of the platform; this reduces the space that carbonate-forming organisms have to grow upward when sea levels again rise. A second factor is that these platforms were not true reefs but rather piles of carbonate sediment formed by organisms; these constructs cannot easily out-grow sea level rises when growing on a constrained area.[87] Two final key factors are the passage of the platforms through nutrient-rich equatorial waters which cause the overgrowth of algae that hampered the growth of reef-forming organisms, and global temperature extremes that may overheat the platforms especially when close to the equator; present-day coral bleaching events are often triggered by overheating and Limalok and the other seamounts were all approaching the equator when they drowned.[88][89] In the case of Limalok and some other guyots, paleolatitude data support the notion that approaching the equator led to the demise of the platforms.[90] | |
| After the platform ceased growing, subsidence quickly lowered the tablemount below the photic zone,[m] where sunlight can still penetrate.[69] Hardgrounds[n][93] and iron-manganese crusts formed on the drowned platform[6] which contain Oligocene (33.9–23.02 million years ago[2]) sediments and planktonic fossils.[71] Some of the rocks underwent phosphatization[93] during three separate episodes in the Eocene and Eocene–Oligocene which may have been triggered by ocean upwelling events at that time.[94] | |
| Until the Miocene, sedimentation on Limalok was probably hindered by strong currents.[95] Renewed significant sedimentation began at that point[71] after the drowning of Limalok, with sediments consisting mainly of foraminifera and other nanofossils. Some of the sediments were reworked after deposition. At least two layers formed during the Miocene (23.3–5.333 million years ago[2]) and Pliocene–Pleistocene (5.333–0.0117 million years ago[2]),[6] reaching a cumulative thickness of 100–140 metres (330–460 ft).[96][71] Chemically, most of the sediments are calcite[97] and they often occur in rudstone or wackestone form.[98] Bivalves, echinoderms, foraminifera[98] and ostracods[o] are fossilized in the sediments,[96] which sometimes contain borings and other traces of biological activity.[98] | |
| Notes | |
| Between ca. 145 and 66 million years ago.[2] | |
| Between 66 and 56 million years ago.[2] | |
| 23.3–5.333 million years ago[2] | |
| Flood basalts are very large accumulations of basaltic lava flows.[22] | |
| Whether the Cretaceous guyots were all atolls in the present-day sense is often unclear.[28] | |
| Pit-like depressions within carbonate rocks that are filled with water.[29] | |
| Asbolane, birnessite and buserite are found in the crusts.[53] | |
| Volcanic rocks that appear as fragments.[67] | |
| The Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum was a short period about 55.8 million years ago where atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and temperatures dramatically increased.[77] | |
| Nodule-like assemblies of algae which deposit carbonates.[79] | |
| Among the foraminifera genera found on Limalok are Alveolina, Asterocyclina, Coleiconus, Discocyclina, Glomalveolina, Guembelitroides and Nummulites.[13] | |
| Pebble-like growths formed by cyanobacteria.[81] | |
| The uppermost layers of water in the sea, through which sunlight can penetrate.[91] | |
| In stratigraphy, hardgrounds are solidified layers of sediments.[92] | |
| Ostracod taxa include Bradleya, various cytherurids, Eucythere, Krythe and Tongacythere.[96] | |
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| Bergersen, D.D. (December 1995). "Physiography and Architecture of Marshall Islands Guyots Drilled during Leg 144: Geophysical Constraints on Platform Development" (PDF). Northwest Pacific Atolls and Guyots: Sites 871–880 and Site 801. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.144.019.1995. Retrieved 2018-07-06. | |
| Buchardt, B.; Holmes, M.A. (December 1995). "Initial Transgressive Phase of Leg 144 Guyots: Evidence of Extreme Sulfate Reduction" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.144.060.1995. Retrieved 2018-07-14. | |
| Camoin, G.F.; Arnaud-Vanneau, A.; Bergersen, D.D.; Enos, P.; Ebren, Ph. (27 May 2009). Development and Demise of Mid-Oceanic Carbonate Platforms, Wodejebato Guyot (NW Pacific). Reefs and Carbonate Platforms in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. 39–67. doi:10.1002/9781444304879.ch3. ISBN 9781444304879. | |
| Castillo, P.R. (1 January 2004). "Geochemistry of Cretaceous volcaniclastic sediments in the Nauru and East Mariana basins provides insights into the mantle sources of giant oceanic plateaus". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 229 (1): 353–368. Bibcode:2004GSLSP.229..353C. doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.2004.229.01.20. ISSN 0305-8719. S2CID 129158371. | |
| Christie, D.M.; Dieu, J.J.; Gee, J.S. (December 1995). "Petrologic Studies of Basement Lavas from Northwest Pacific Guyots" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.144.028.1995. Retrieved 2018-07-14. | |
| Dieu, J.J. (December 1995). "Mineral Compositions in Leg 144 Lavas and Ultramafic Xenoliths: The Roles of Cumulates and Carbonatite Metasomatism in Magma Petrogenesis" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.144.029.1995. Retrieved 2018-07-14. | |
| Erba, E.; Premoli Silva, I.; Wilson, P.A.; Pringle, Malcolm S.; Sliter, W.V.; Watkins, D.K.; Arnaud-Vanneau, A.; Bralower, T.J.; Budd, A.F. (December 1995). "Synthesis of Stratigraphies from Shallow-Water Sequences at Sites 871 through 879 in the Western Pacific Ocean" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.144.076.1995. Retrieved 2018-07-14. | |
| Haggerty, J.A.; Premoli Silva, I. (December 1995). "Comparison of the Origin and Evolution of Northwest Pacific Guyots Drilled during Leg 144" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.144.074.1995. Retrieved 2018-07-13. | |
| Israelson, C.; Buchardt, B.; Haggerty, J.A.; Pearson, P.N. (December 1995). "Carbonate and Pore-Water Geochemistry of Pelagic Caps at Limalok and Lo-En Guyots, Western Pacific" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.144.050.1995. Retrieved 2018-07-10. | |
| Jenkyns, H.C.; Wilson, P.A. (1 May 1999). "Stratigraphy, paleoceanography, and evolution of Cretaceous Pacific guyots; relics from a greenhouse Earth". American Journal of Science. 299 (5): 341–392. Bibcode:1999AmJS..299..341J. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.507.1760. doi:10.2475/ajs.299.5.341. ISSN 0002-9599. | |
| Koppers, A. A. P.; Staudigel, H.; Christie, D.M.; Dieu, J.J.; Pringle, M.S. (December 1995). "Sr-Nd-Pb Isotope Geochemistry of Leg 144 West Pacific Guyots: Implications for the Geochemical Evolution of the "SOPITA" Mantle Anomaly" (PDF). Northwest Pacific Atolls and Guyots: Sites 871–880 and Site 801. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.144.031.1995. Retrieved 2018-07-06. | |
| Koppers, A. A. P.; Staudigel, H.; Phipps Morgan, J.; Duncan, R.A. (June 2007). "Nonlinear Ar/Ar age systematics along the Gilbert Ridge and Tokelau Seamount Trail and the timing of the Hawaii-Emperor Bend". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 8 (6): n/a. Bibcode:2007GGG.....8.6L13K. doi:10.1029/2006GC001489. | |
| Koppers, A. A. P.; Staudigel, H.; Pringle, M.S.; Wijbrans, J.R. (October 2003). "Short-lived and discontinuous intraplate volcanism in the South Pacific: Hot spots or extensional volcanism?". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 4 (10): 1089. Bibcode:2003GGG.....4.1089K. doi:10.1029/2003GC000533. | |
| Larson, R.L.; Erba, E.; Nakanishi, M.; Bergersen, D.D.; Lincoln, J.M. (December 1995). "Stratigraphic, Vertical Subsidence, and Paleolatitude Histories of Leg 144 Guyots" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.144.063.1995. Retrieved 2018-07-14. | |
| Nicora, A.; Premoli Silva, I.; Arnaud-Vanneau, A. (December 1995). "Paleogene Larger Foraminifer Biostratigraphy from Limalok Guyot, Site 871" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.144.012.1995. Retrieved 2018-07-10. | |
| Ogg, J.G.; Camoin, G.F.; Arnaud-Vanneau, A. (December 1995). "Limalok Guyot: Depositional History of the Carbonate Platform from Downhole Logs at Site 871 (Lagoon)" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.144.042.1995. Retrieved 2018-07-10. | |
| Pringle, Malcolm S.; Sager, William W.; Sliter, William V.; Stein, Seth (1993). Pringle, M.S.; Sager, W.W.; Sliter, W.V.; Stein, S. (eds.). The Mesozoic Pacific: Geology, Tectonics, and Volcanism: A Volume in Memory of Sy Schlanger. Washington DC American Geophysical Union Geophysical Monograph Series. Geophysical Monograph Series. Vol. 77. Bibcode:1993GMS....77.....P. doi:10.1029/gm077. ISBN 978-0-87590-036-0. | |
| Robinson, S.A. (3 December 2010). "Shallow-water carbonate record of the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum from a Pacific Ocean guyot". Geology. 39 (1): 51–54. Bibcode:2011Geo....39...51R. doi:10.1130/G31422.1. ISSN 0091-7613. | |
| Schlanger, S. O.; Campbell, J. F.; Jackson, M. W. (2013-03-18). "Post-Eocene Subsidence of the Marshall Islands Recorded by Drowned Atolls on Harrie and Sylvania Guyots". Seamounts, Islands, and Atolls. American Geophysical Union. Vol. 43. pp. 165–174. Bibcode:1987GMS....43..165S. doi:10.1029/gm043p0165. ISBN 9781118664209. | |
| Watkins, D.K.; Pearson, P.N.; Erba, E.; Rack, F.R.; Premoli Silva, I.; Bohrmann, H.W.; Fenner, J.; Hobbs, P.R.N. (December 1995). "Stratigraphy and Sediment Accumulation Patterns of the Upper Cenozoic Pelagic Carbonate Caps of Guyots in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.144.066.1995. Retrieved 2018-07-13. | |
| Watkins, D.K.; Premoli Silva, I.; Erba, E. (December 1995). "Cretaceous and Paleogene Manganese-Encrusted Hardgrounds from Central Pacific Guyots" (PDF). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 144 Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.144.017.1995. Retrieved 2018-07-14. | |
| Wilson, P.A.; Jenkyns, H.C.; Elderfield, H.; Larson, R.L. (April 1998). "The paradox of drowned carbonate platforms and the origin of Cretaceous Pacific guyots". Nature. 392 (6679): 889–894. Bibcode:1998Natur.392..889W. doi:10.1038/31865. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4423865. | |
| Wyatt, J.L.; Quinn, T.M.; Davies, G.R. (December 1995). "Preliminary Investigation of the Petregraphy and Geochemistry of Limestones at Limalok and Wodejebato Guyots (Sites 871 and 874), Republic of the Marshall Islands" (PDF). Scientific Results. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Vol. 144. Ocean Drilling Program. doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.144.056.1995. Retrieved 2018-07-10. | |
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| Spanish conquest of Petén | |
| Part of the Spanish conquest of Guatemala and the Spanish conquest of Yucatán | |
| Northern Guatemala is a flat lowland plain dropping off from the Cuchumatanes mountain range sweeping across in an arc to the south. To the east of the mountains is the large lowland Lake Izabal, with an outlet into the Amatique Bay to the east, which itself opens onto the Gulf of Honduras. Immediately north of the mountains is the Lacandon forest, with Petén to the northeast. Ystapalapán was a settlement in the western Cuchumatanes. Cobán was in the foothills half way between Ystapalapán in the west and Lake Izabal in the east. Xocolo was at the northeastern extreme of Lake Izabal, where it flows out towards the sea. Nito, also known as Amatique, was on the coast where the river flowing out of the lake opened into the Amatique Bay. Lake Petén Itzá was in the centre of Petén, to the north. It was the location of Nojpetén. Tipu was situated to the east of Nojpetén, just to the east of the modern border with Belize. The "Tierra de Guerra" ("Land of War") covers a broad northern swathe of the mountains and the southern portion of the lowlands. The 1525 entry route crossed from the north, to the northwest of Lake Petén Itzá, passing the western tip of Nojpetén and close to the city. It then continued southeast to Xocolo, where it turned northeast to Nito, where it ended on the Caribbean coast. The 1618–1619 route entered from northeastern Belize and crossed southwest to Tipu, then headed westward to Nojpetén. A 1695 route left Cahabón and headed northeast before turning north to Mopán. From Mopán it curved northwest to Nojpetén. The 1695–1696 route entered from the north extreme and meandered southwards to Nojpetén. | |
| Spanish entry routes to Petén during the 17th century, overlaid with the route that Hernán Cortés took in 1525 | |
| Date c. 1618 – c. 1697 | |
| Location | |
| Petén, Guatemala | |
| Result Spanish victory | |
| Territorial | |
| changes Incorporation of the Petén Basin into the Captaincy General of Guatemala | |
| Belligerents | |
| Spanish Empire Spanish Empire | |
| Independent Maya, including: | |
| Itza people | |
| Kowoj people | |
| Kejache people | |
| Yalain people | |
| Lakandon Chʼol people | |
| Manche Chʼol people | |
| Commanders and leaders | |
| Martín de Ursúa Kan Ekʼ | |
| vte | |
| Spanish colonial campaigns | |
| vte | |
| Spanish conquest | |
| of the Maya | |
| The Spanish conquest of Petén was the last stage of the conquest of Guatemala, a prolonged conflict during the Spanish colonisation of the Americas. A wide lowland plain covered with dense rainforest, Petén contains a central drainage basin with a series of lakes and areas of savannah. It is crossed by several ranges of low karstic hills and rises to the south as it nears the Guatemalan Highlands. The conquest of Petén, a region now incorporated into the modern republic of Guatemala, climaxed in 1697 with the capture of Nojpetén, the island capital of the Itza kingdom, by Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi. With the defeat of the Itza, the last independent and unconquered native kingdom in the Americas fell to European colonisers. | |
| Sizeable Maya populations existed in Petén before the conquest, particularly around the central lakes and along the rivers. Petén was divided into different Maya polities engaged in a complex web of alliances and enmities. The most important groups around the central lakes were the Itza, the Yalain and the Kowoj. Other groups with territories in Petén included the Kejache, the Acala, the Lakandon Chʼol, the Xocmo, the Chinamita, the Icaiche and the Manche Chʼol. | |
| Petén was first penetrated by Hernán Cortés with a sizeable expedition that crossed the territory from north to south in 1525. In the first half of the 16th century, Spain established neighbouring colonies in Yucatán to the north and Guatemala to the south. Spanish missionaries laid the groundwork for the extension of colonial administration in the extreme south of Petén from 1596 onwards, but no further Spanish entry of central Petén took place until 1618 and 1619 when missionaries arrived at the Itza capital, having travelled from the Spanish town of Mérida in Yucatán. | |
| In 1622 a military expedition set out from Yucatán led by Captain Francisco de Mirones and accompanied by Franciscan friar Diego Delgado; this expedition was a disaster, and the Spanish were massacred by the Itza. In 1628 the Manche Chʼol of the south were placed under the administration of the colonial governor of Verapaz within the Captaincy General of Guatemala. The Manche Chʼol unsuccessfully rebelled against Spanish control in 1633. In 1695 a military expedition tried to reach Lake Petén Itzá from Guatemala; this was followed in 1696 by missionaries from Mérida and in 1697 by Martín de Ursúa's expedition from Yucatán that resulted in the final defeat of the independent kingdoms of central Petén and their incorporation into the Spanish Empire. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Geography | |
| 1.1 Climate | |
| 2 Petén before the conquest | |
| 3 Background to the conquest | |
| 4 Impact of Old World diseases | |
| 5 Weaponry and armour | |
| 5.1 Native weaponry | |
| 6 Strategies and tactics | |
| 7 Cortés in Petén | |
| 8 Prelude to conquest | |
| 8.1 Missions in southern Petén | |
| 9 Conquest of the central lakes | |
| 9.1 Early 17th century | |
| 9.1.1 Spanish setbacks in the 1620s | |
| 9.2 Late 17th century | |
| 9.2.1 Spanish–Itza diplomatic contacts, 1695 | |
| 9.2.2 García de Paredes' entry from Yucatán, March–April 1695 | |
| 9.2.3 Díaz de Velasco and Cano's entry from Verapaz, March–April 1695 | |
| 9.2.4 García de Paredes' entry from Yucatán, May 1695 | |
| 9.2.5 Avendaño's entry from Yucatán, June 1695 | |
| 9.2.6 San Buenaventura among the Kejache, September–November 1695 | |
| 9.2.7 Avendaño's entry from Yucatán, December 1695 – January 1696 | |
| 9.2.8 Battle at Chʼichʼ, 2 February 1696 | |
| 9.2.9 Amésqueta's entry from Verapaz, February–March 1696 | |
| 9.3 Fall of Nojpetén | |
| 9.3.1 Final preparations | |
| 9.3.2 Assault on Nojpetén | |
| 9.3.3 Aftermath | |
| 10 Final years of conquest | |
| 10.1 Reductions around Lake Petén Itzá | |
| 11 Legacy of the conquest | |
| 12 Historical sources | |
| 13 Archaeology | |
| 14 Notes | |
| 15 Citations | |
| 16 References | |
| 17 Further reading | |
| Geography | |
| Main article: Geography of Guatemala | |
| View across a flat grassy plain dotted with palm trees | |
| Petén savannah | |
| The modern department of Petén is located in northern Guatemala. It is bordered on the west by the Mexican state of Chiapas; this border largely follows the course of the Usumacinta River. On the north side Petén is bordered by the Mexican state of Campeche and on the northwest by the Mexican state of Tabasco; Petén is bordered on the east by Belize[1] and on the south side by the Guatemalan departments of Alta Verapaz and Izabal.[2] | |
| The Petén lowlands are formed by a densely forested low-lying limestone plain featuring karstic topography.[3] The area is crossed by low east–west oriented ridges of Cenozoic limestone and is characterised by a variety of forest and soil types; water sources include generally small rivers and low-lying seasonal swamps known as bajos.[4] A chain of fourteen lakes runs across the central drainage basin of Petén; during the rainy season some of these lakes become interconnected. This drainage area measures approximately 100 kilometres (62 mi) east–west by 30 kilometres (19 mi) north–south.[5] The largest lake is Lake Petén Itzá, near the centre of the drainage basin; it measures 32 by 5 kilometres (19.9 by 3.1 mi). A broad savannah extends south of the central lakes; it has an average altitude of 150 metres (490 ft) above mean sea level with karstic ridges reaching an average altitude of 300 metres (980 ft). The savannah features a compact red clay soil that is too poor to support heavy cultivation, which resulted in a relatively low level of pre-Columbian occupation. It is surrounded by hills with unusually steep southern slopes and gentler northern approaches; the hills are covered with dense tropical forest. To the north of the lakes region bajos become more frequent, interspersed with forest. In the far north of Petén the Mirador Basin forms another interior drainage region.[6] To the south Petén reaches an altitude of approximately 500 metres (1,600 ft) as it rises towards the Guatemalan Highlands and meets Paleozoic metamorphic rocks.[7] | |
| Climate | |
| The climate of Petén is divided into wet and dry seasons, with the rainy season lasting from June to December,[8] although these seasons are not clearly defined in the south.[9] The climate varies from tropical in the south to semitropical in the north; temperature varies between 12 and 40 °C (54 and 104 °F), although it does not usually drop beneath 18 °C (64 °F).[8] Mean temperature varies from 24.3 °C (75.7 °F) in the southeast around Poptún to 26.9 °C (80.4 °F) around Uaxactún in the northeast. Highest temperatures are reached from April to June, and January is the coldest month; all Petén experiences a hot dry period in late August. Annual precipitation is high, varying from a mean of 1,198 millimetres (47.2 in) in the northeast to 2,007 millimetres (79.0 in) in central Petén around Flores (Nojpetén). The extreme southeast of Petén experiences the largest variations in temperature and rainfall, with precipitation reaching as much as 3,000 millimetres (120 in) in a year.[9] | |
| Petén before the conquest | |
| The first large Maya cities developed in Petén as far back as the Middle Preclassic (c. 600–350 BC),[10] and Petén formed the heartland of the ancient Maya civilization during the Classic period (c. AD 250–900).[11] The great cities that dominated Petén had fallen into ruin by the beginning of the 10th century AD with the onset of the Classic Maya collapse.[12] A significant Maya presence remained into the Postclassic period after the abandonment of the major Classic period cities; the population was particularly concentrated near permanent water sources.[13] | |
| Northern Guatemala is a flat lowland plain dropping off from the Cuchumatanes mountain range sweeping across in an arc to the south. To the east of the mountains is the large lowland Lake Izabal, with an outlet into the Amatique Bay to the east, which itself opens onto the Gulf of Honduras. Immediately north of the mountains is the Lacandon forest, with Petén to the northeast. Ystapalapán was a settlement in the western Cuchumatanes, in the territory of the Chuj. Cobán was in Qʼeqchiʼ territory, in the foothills half way between Ystapalapán in the west and Lake Izabal in the east. Xocolo was at the northeastern extreme of Lake Izabal, where it flows out towards the sea. Nito, also known as Amatique, was on the coast where the river flowing out of the lake opened into the Amatique Bay. The area south of the lake was Toquegua territory. The Manche occupied the lands to the northwest of the lake, with the Acala to their west between the Manche and the Chuj. The Lacandon were northwest of the Acala, straddling the border with Mexico. Lake Petén Itzá was in the centre of Petén, to the north. It was the location of Nojpetén, with the Itza lands stretching southwards from the lake. To the east of the Itza and northeast of the Manche were the Mopan, on the border with Belize. North of the Mopan were the Yalain, east of Lake Petén Itzá. The Kowoj were to the northeast of the lake and the Kejache to the northwest. The "Tierra de Guerra" ("Land of War") covers a broad northern swathe of the mountains and the southern portion of the lowlands. | |
| Map of the northern lowlands of Guatemala at the time of Spanish contact | |
| Although there is insufficient data to accurately estimate population sizes at the time of contact with the Spanish, early Spanish reports suggest that sizeable Maya populations existed in Petén, particularly around the central lakes and along the rivers.[14] Before their defeat in 1697 the Itza controlled or influenced much of Petén and parts of Belize. The Itza were warlike, and their martial prowess impressed both neighbouring Maya kingdoms and their Spanish enemies. Their capital was Nojpetén, an island city upon Lake Petén Itzá; it has developed into the modern town of Flores, which is the capital of the Petén department of Guatemala.[15] The Itza spoke a variety of Yucatecan Maya.[16] | |
| The Kowoj were the second in importance, and they were hostile towards their Itza neighbours. The Kowoj were located to the east of the Itza, around the eastern lakes: Lake Salpetén, Lake Macanché, Lake Yaxhá and Lake Sacnab.[17] Other groups are less well known, and their precise territorial extent and political makeup remains obscure; among them were the Chinamita, the Kejache, the Icaiche, the Lakandon Chʼol, the Mopan, the Manche Chʼol and the Yalain.[18] | |
| The Yalain appear to have been one of the three dominant polities in Postclassic central Petén, alongside the Itza and the Kowoj. The Yalain territory had its maximum extension from the east shore of Lake Petén Itzá eastwards to Tipuj in Belize.[19] In the 17th century the Yalain capital was located at the site of that name on the north shore of Lake Macanché.[20] At the time of Spanish contact the Yalain were allied with the Itza, an alliance cemented by intermarriage between the elites of both groups.[19] In the late 17th century Spanish colonial records document hostilities between Maya groups in the lakes region, with the incursion of the Kowoj into former Yalain sites including Zacpeten on Lake Macanché and Ixlu on Lake Salpetén.[21] | |
| The Kejache occupied a territory to the north of the Itza, between the lakes and what is now Campeche. To the west of them was Acalan, inhabited by a Chontal Maya-speaking group with their capital in the south of what is now Campeche state. The Chʼolan Maya-speaking Lakandon (not to be confused with the modern inhabitants of Chiapas by that name) controlled territory along the tributaries of the Usumacinta River spanning southwestern Petén in Guatemala and eastern Chiapas.[15] The Lakandon had a fierce reputation among the Spanish.[22] The Xocmo were another Chʼolan-speaking group; they occupied the remote forest somewhere to the east of the Lakandon.[15] Never conquered, the Xocmo escaped repeated Spanish attempts to locate them and their eventual fate is unknown; they may be ancestors of the modern Lacandon people.[23] The Manche Chʼol held territory in the extreme south of what is now the Petén department.[15] The Mopan and the Chinamita had their polities in the southeastern Petén.[24] The Manche territory was to the southwest of the Mopan.[25] | |
| Background to the conquest | |
| Main article: Spanish colonization of the Americas | |
| Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas for the Kingdom of Castile and León in 1492. By 1580 this had unified with neighbouring kingdoms to form one Spanish kingdom. Private adventurers thereafter entered into contracts with the Spanish Crown to conquer the newly discovered lands in return for tax revenues and the power to rule.[26] In the first decades after the discovery, the Spanish colonised the Caribbean and established a centre of operations on the island of Cuba. They heard rumours of the rich empire of the Aztecs on the mainland to the west and, in 1519, Hernán Cortés set sail with eleven ships to explore the Mexican coast.[27] By August 1521 the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan had fallen to the Spanish.[28] Within three years of the fall of Tenochtitlan the Spanish had conquered a large part of Mexico, extending as far south as the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The newly conquered territory became New Spain, headed by a viceroy who answered to the Spanish Crown via the Council of the Indies.[29] Cortés despatched Pedro de Alvarado with an army to conquer the Mesoamerican kingdoms of the Guatemalan Sierra Madre and neighbouring Pacific plain; the military phase of the establishment of the Spanish colony of Guatemala lasted from 1524 to 1541.[30] The Captaincy General of Guatemala had its capital at Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala and covered a wide territory that also included the Mexican state of Chiapas as well as El Salvador, Honduras and Costa Rica.[31] The Spanish imposed colonial rule over Yucatán between 1527 and 1546, and over Verapaz from the 16th to the 17th centuries, leaving the area between – essentially Petén and much of Belize – independent long after surrounding peoples had been subjugated.[32] | |
| Impact of Old World diseases | |
| Illustration depicting smallpox victims in the 16th century Florentine Codex | |
| A single soldier arriving in Mexico in 1520 was carrying smallpox and thus initiated the devastating plagues that swept through the native populations of the Americas.[33] The European diseases that ravaged the indigenous inhabitants of the Americas also severely affected the various Maya groups of Petén. It is estimated that there were approximately 30,000 Chʼol and Chʼoltiʼ Maya in western Petén at the start of the 16th century. Between 1559 and 1721 they were devastated by a combination of disease, war and enforced relocations.[34] | |
| When Nojpetén fell in 1697 there were approximately 60,000 Maya living around Lake Petén Itzá, including a considerable number of refugees from other areas. It is estimated that 88% of the inhabitants died during the first decade of colonial rule because of disease and war.[35] Although disease was responsible for the majority of deaths, internecine warfare between rival Maya groups and Spanish expeditions also took their toll.[36] | |
| Weaponry and armour | |
| A metal cannon barrel mounted upon two brackets screwed into a brown tiled floor. The cannon barrel is mounted in front of a pale yellow wall supporting two picture frames. | |
| 17th-century Spanish cannon | |
| Well-polished stock, firing mechanism and lower barrel of a vertically-mounted musket. The musket is standing within a case, with an illegible white label at lower right. | |
| 17th-century French musket | |
| Conquistadors often wore steel armour that included chainmail and helmets.[37] The Spanish were sufficiently impressed by the quilted cotton armour of their Maya enemies that they adopted it in preference to their own steel armour.[38] Maya weaponry was not sufficiently powerful to justify the discomfort of wearing European armour. Quilted cotton armour, although still uncomfortably hot, was flexible and weighed much less. The Maya armour was adapted by the Spanish, who used knee-length quilted cotton tunics and Spanish-style caps. Horsemen wore long quilted cotton leg protectors; their horses were also protected with padded cotton armour.[39] After the final push to the Petén lakes in early 1697, the Spanish recorded that they left with their garrison over 50 Dutch- and French-made muskets, three 1-pound (0.45 kg) calibre light cannons (piezas) cast from iron and mounted on carriages, four iron and two bronze pedreros (2-chambered stone-launchers) and six of at least eight bronze light cannons (known as esmiriles).[40] | |
| Native weaponry | |
| ... The two [Itza] Captains bore their Lances with points of Flint, like ours, which differ from them only in being of Steel, and at the heads of them are many Plumes of divers and beautiful colors like the Ribbons our Standard-bearers use on their darts; and the points are as much as a quarter of a vara long and have two cutting-edges, and the point is like a very sharp Dagger. The other Itzaex Indians bore their Bows and Arrows with which they always march when they come forth from their Island ... in case they meet the Chinamitas, a Nation for whom they have always had enmity, and continual wars; for they hold themselves as brave warriors like the Itzas themselves.[41] | |
| — Juan de Villagutierre Soto-Mayor, 1701 | |
| Book II, Chapter II, p. 92. | |
| The Spanish described the weapons of war of the Petén Maya as bows and arrows, fire-sharpened poles, flint-headed spears and two-handed swords known as hadzab that were crafted from strong wood with the blade fashioned from inset obsidian;[42] these were similar to the Aztec macuahuitl. They had a thin, wide wooden shaft with obsidian or flint blades set into channels in the wood. The shaft was up to 80 centimetres (31 in) long and was crafted from the hard, dark wood of a flowering tree (Apoplanesia paniculata) called chulul by the Maya. The bows used by the Maya were described as almost as high as a man and were made from the same chulul wood as the hadzab, with the bowstring fashioned from henequen fibre; the bow was called a chuhul.[43] Arrows were made from reeds with flint, bone or fishtooth arrowheads and flights crafted from feathers.[44] In hand-to-hand combat the Maya used daggers with obsidian or flint blades set into a chulul-wood handle, they were about 20 centimetres (7.9 in) long. Maya spears were referred to as nabte; sometimes the tip was fire-hardened, sometimes they were set with a stone blade. Spears were mainly used to thrust and slash but they could also be thrown as a javelin. The Maya used several different sizes of spear with the smaller spears probably employed as a missile; the longer spears were a similar size as those used by the Spanish.[45] | |
| Distinguished Maya warriors entered battle wearing armour. The upper body was covered by a short jacket that was filled with rock salt, and the forearms and legs were protected with tight bindings of cloth or leather. The salt-packed cotton armour was tough enough that even arrows could not penetrate it. Armour could be decorated and was often adorned with feathers. Commoners did not wear armour in battle, usually only wearing a loincloth and warpaint. Warriors carried shields made from two right-angled wooden bars with deerskin stretched across them.[46] | |
| Strategies and tactics | |
| The Spanish were aware that the Itza Maya had become the centre of anti-Spanish resistance and engaged in a policy of encircling their kingdom and cutting their trade routes over the course of almost two hundred years. The Itza resisted this steady encroachment by recruiting their neighbours as allies against the Spanish advance.[47] The Spanish engaged in a strategy of concentrating native populations in newly founded colonial towns, or reducciones (also known as congregaciones).[48] Native resistance to the new nucleated settlements took the form of the flight of the indigenous inhabitants into inaccessible regions such as the forest or joining neighbouring Maya groups that had not yet submitted to the Spanish.[49] Those that remained behind in the reducciones often fell victim to contagious diseases.[50] | |
| In addition to military expeditions, a contract for conquest was issued to the Dominican Order, which engaged missionaries for the peaceful pacification of native populations so they would accept Roman Catholicism and submit to Spanish rule. This tactic worked in the neighbouring mountains of Verapaz to the south, although their success there was aided by the threat of Spanish garrisons stationed within striking distance. In the lowland Petén this approach was not so successful, since the Maya could disappear easily into the rainforest leaving the Spanish with deserted settlements.[26] Likewise, the Franciscan Order engaged in generally peaceful attempts to incorporate the Maya into the Spanish Empire via the attempted Christian conversion of native leaders.[51] The Franciscan Order routinely embraced the practice of missionary violence, including corporal punishment and the defence of the idea of "holy war" against non-Christians.[52] In many cases the Maya remained Christian only while the missionaries were present, and they would immediately become apostate as soon as the friars left.[50] In Guatemala in the late 17th century, the Franciscan friar Francisco de Asís Vázquez de Herrera argued that war against apostate Indians was obligatory.[52] Missionary penetration of Petén was not risk-free, and many missionaries were killed in the region.[50] | |
| Independent Maya frequently attacked Christianised Maya settlements and encouraged such settlements to abandon their new religion and resist the Spanish.[50] As Spanish military expeditions were launched against the Maya with increasing frequency, independent Maya communities began to request the presence of missionaries to avoid armed conflict.[53] The Itza attempted to use neighbouring Maya groups, such as the Yalain, as a buffer against Spanish encroachment;[19] they may also have instigated rebellions by neighbouring groups that were already undergoing incorporation into the Spanish Empire.[54] With Spanish attempts to penetrate the region divided between mutually independent colonial authorities in Yucatán and Guatemala, at times the Itza would be making peaceful overtures on one front while fighting on the other.[55] | |
| Cortés in Petén | |
| Old painting of a bearded young man facing slightly to the right. He is wearing a dark jacket with a high collar topped by a white ruff, with ornate buttons down the front. The painting is dark and set in an oval with the letters "HERNAN CORTES" in a rectangle underneath. | |
| Hernán Cortés, conqueror of the Aztecs, travelled across Petén in the early 16th century. | |
| In 1525, after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, Hernán Cortés led an expedition to Honduras over land, cutting across the Itza kingdom in what is now the northern Petén Department of Guatemala.[56] His aim was to subdue the rebellious Cristóbal de Olid, whom he had sent to conquer Honduras; Olid had set himself up independently on his arrival in that territory.[57] Cortés had 140 Spanish soldiers, 93 of them mounted, 3,000 Mexican warriors, 150 horses, a herd of pigs, artillery, munitions and other supplies. He also had with him 600 Chontal Maya carriers from Acalan. They arrived at the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá on 13 March 1525.[58] | |
| The Roman Catholic priests accompanying the expedition celebrated mass in the presence of Aj Kan Ekʼ, the king of the Itza, who was said to be so impressed that he pledged to worship the cross and to destroy his idols.[59] Cortés accepted an invitation from Kan Ekʼ to visit Nojpetén (also known as Tayasal), and crossed to the Maya city with 20 Spanish soldiers while the rest of his army continued around the lake to meet him on the south shore.[60] On his departure from Nojpetén, Cortés left behind a cross and a lame horse that the Itza treated as a deity, attempting to feed it poultry, meat and flowers, but the animal soon died.[61] The Spanish did not officially contact the Itza again until the arrival of Franciscan priests in 1618, when Cortés' cross was said to still be standing at Nojpetén.[56] | |
| From the lake, Cortés continued south along the western slopes of the Maya Mountains, a particularly arduous journey that took 12 days to cover 32 kilometres (20 mi), during which he lost more than two-thirds of his horses. When he came to a river swollen with the constant torrential rains that had been falling during the expedition, Cortés turned upstream to the Gracias a Dios rapids, which took two days to cross and cost him more horses.[59] | |
| On 15 April 1525 the expedition arrived at the Maya village of Tenciz. With local guides they headed into the hills north of Lake Izabal, where their guides abandoned them to their fate. The expedition became lost in the hills and came close to starvation before they captured a Maya boy who led them to safety.[59] Cortés found a village on the shore of Lake Izabal, perhaps Xocolo. He crossed the Dulce River to the settlement of Nito, somewhere on the Amatique Bay,[62] with about a dozen companions, and waited there for the rest of his army to regroup over the next week.[59] By this time the remnants of the expedition had been reduced to a few hundred; Cortés succeeded in contacting the Spaniards he was searching for, only to find that Cristóbal de Olid's own officers had already put down his rebellion. Cortés then returned to Mexico by sea.[63] | |
| Prelude to conquest | |
| From 1527 onwards the Spanish were increasingly active in the Yucatán Peninsula, establishing several colonies and towns by 1544, including Campeche and Valladolid in what is now Mexico.[64] The Spanish impact on the northern Maya, encompassing invasion, epidemic diseases and the export of up to 50,000 Maya slaves, caused many Maya to flee southwards to join the Itza around Lake Petén Itzá, within the modern borders of Guatemala.[65] | |
| Dominican missionaries were active in Verapaz and the southern Petén from the late 16th century through the 17th century, attempting non-violent conversion with limited success. In the 17th century, the Franciscans came to the conclusion that the pacification and Christian conversion of the Maya would not be possible as long as the Itza held out at Lake Petén Itzá. The constant flow of escapees fleeing the Spanish-held territories to find refuge with the Itza was a drain on the workforce managed by the encomienda system.[47] | |
| Missions in southern Petén | |
| See also: Spanish conquest of Chiapas | |
| This article is part of a series on the | |
| Maya civilization | |
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| The first Catholic missionaries entered southern Petén in 1596 to convert the Manche Chʼol and the Mopan.[54] The Qʼeqchiʼ of Verapaz long had close ties with the Manche Chʼol.[66] The colonial Maya towns of Cobán and Cahabón, in Alta Verapaz, traded quetzal feathers, copal, chile, cotton, salt and Spanish-produced iron tools with their lowland Lakandon and Manche Chʼol neighbours, receiving cacao and achiote in exchange.[67] Many Qʼeqchiʼ from Verapaz fled Spanish control to settle among the Lakandón and Manche Chʼol. These fugitives strengthened the existing ties between the independent Chʼol and the Spanish-controlled Maya of Verapaz;[68] the constant flow of Maya between colonial Verapaz and independent Petén led to religious syncretism that the Spanish religious authorities were unable to prevent.[69] This relationship did not hinder the Spanish from using the Qʼeqchiʼ to help conquer and reduce the Manche Chʼol.[66] | |
| From the middle of the 16th century the Dominican Order had been tasked with the peaceful conversion of the Chʼol of Verapaz and southern Petén, and their concentration into new colonial towns.[70] The Itza became fearful that the newly converted Manche Chʼol would lead the Spanish to Nojpetén.[54] In 1628 the towns of the Manche Chʼol were placed under the administration of the governor of Verapaz, with Dominican friar Francisco Morán as their ecclesiastical head.[71] Morán favoured a more robust approach to the conversion of the Manche and moved Spanish soldiers into the region to protect against raids from the Itza to the north.[72] The new Spanish garrison in an area that had not previously seen a heavy Spanish military presence provoked the Manche to revolt, which was followed by abandonment of the indigenous settlements.[72] The Itza, worried about the southern approaches to their territory, may have instigated a Manche rebellion that took place in Lent 1633.[54] | |
| Towards the end of the 17th century Spanish priorities changed, and the failure of the peaceful efforts of the Dominicans to convert the Chʼol combined with the increasing British presence in the Caribbean led the colonial authorities to end the Dominican monopoly and allow the Franciscans and other orders to enter the region;[73] military options were also viewed more favourably.[74] Between 1685 and 1689, the Qʼeqchiʼ of Cobán and Cahabón were forced to assist the Spanish in their armed expeditions against the Manche Chʼol and in forcibly relocating them to Verapaz. These actions depopulated the southern Petén and led to the breakdown of the trade routes linking colonial Guatemala with the independent Maya of Petén.[75] From 1692 to 1694, Franciscan friars Antonio Margil and Melchor López were active among the Manche and Lakandon Chʼol. They were eventually expelled by the Chʼol;[76] upon their return to Santiago de Guatemala they proposed three invasion routes into southern Petén and neighbouring Chiapas.[77] Throughout the 17th century, Spanish missionaries encountered considerable reticence among the Manche, until the Spanish finally decided to move them to an area where they could be more easily controlled. At the time of contact there were perhaps 10,000 Manche; these were devastated by war and disease, with the survivors relocated to Rabinal in the modern department of Baja Verapaz. After 1700 the Manche Chʼol ceased to play any part in the history of Petén.[54] | |
| The Mopan population has been estimated at between 10,000 and 20,000 people at the time of contact. In 1692 the Council of the Indies ordered that the Manche Chʼol and the Mopan be dealt with decisively. The population suffered the effects of war and disease, and the few survivors were moved into Spanish reducciones in southeastern Petén, before being moved to colonial settlements in other parts of Petén.[54] In 1695 the colonial authorities decided to act upon a plan to connect the province of Guatemala with Yucatán, and soldiers commanded by Jacinto de Barrios Leal, president of the Royal Audiencia of Guatemala,[78] conquered several Chʼol communities.[79] The most important of these was Sakbʼajlan on the Lacantún River in eastern Chiapas, now in Mexico, which was renamed as Nuestra Señora de Dolores, or Dolores del Lakandon, in April 1695.[80] This was one part of a three-pronged attack against the independent inhabitants of Petén and neighbouring Chiapas; a second group joined up with Barrios Leal having marched from Huehuetenango. The third group, under Juan Díaz de Velasco, marched from Verapaz against the Itza.[22] Barrios Leal was accompanied by Franciscan friar Antonio Margil who served as an advisor as well as his personal confessor and chaplain to his troops.[81] The Spanish built a fort and garrisoned it with 30 Spanish soldiers. Mercederian friar Diego de Rivas was based at Dolores del Lakandon, and he and his fellow Mercederians baptised several hundred Lakandon Chʼols in the following months and established contacts with neighbouring Chʼol communities.[82] | |
| Resistance against the Spanish continued, and hostile Chʼol killed several newly baptised Christian Indians.[81] In early March 1696 such was the success of the friars that captain Jacobo de Alzayaga and the Mercederians decided to try to reach Lake Petén Itzá. They headed eastwards towards the Pasión River with 150 heavily armed soldiers plus native guides, travelling in five large canoes. They got as far as the savannah to the southeast of the lake before turning back for unknown reasons.[83] Antonio Margil remained in Dolores del Lakandon until 1697.[81] The Chʼol of the Lacandon Jungle were resettled in Huehuetenango in the early 18th century.[84] | |
| Conquest of the central lakes | |
| View across forest towards a lake surrounded by low, forested hills. Two small islands are set close to the far shore. There is a small clearing in the immediate foreground. On the left side of the far shore is a wide grassy region set against the forested hills. | |
| Lake Yaxha is surrounded by dense forest. | |
| Nojpetén fell to a Spanish assault on 13 March 1697, more than 150 years after the conquest of the rest of the Yucatán Peninsula and more than 160 years after the conquest of the Guatemalan Highlands.[85] The lengthy delay in conquering the Petén region was due to a combination of its geographical remoteness and inhospitality and the fierce reputation of its Maya inhabitants.[86] During this time the Itza used the Yalain as an eastern buffer against Spanish approach from Belize.[19] The lengthy indirect contact between the Itza and the Spanish invaders allowed the Itza to develop an understanding of Spanish strategy and tactics that was honed over the period of almost two centuries that the Itza were surrounded by European-dominated territories. This understanding distinguished the conquest of Petén from the 16th-century conquests of the Aztecs, Maya and Incas. In contrast, the Spanish had a very poor understanding of the Itza and their neighbours and viewed them as ignorant savages whose kingdom was protected by Satan from the Christianising efforts of the Spanish Empire and the Roman Catholic Church.[87] From the time that Hernán Cortés crossed Petén in the early 16th century, the Spanish mistakenly believed the king of the Itza (the Aj Kan Ek') was the overlord of the entire central Petén region.[20] | |
| Early 17th century | |
| Line drawing of a Renaissance infantryman facing to the right, gripping a pike raised in his right hand, resting on his right shoulder. His left hand rests on the pommel of a sword attached to his mid-region. He wears a metal breast-plate and helmet decorated with a feathered plume. The soldier has a moustache and beard, and puffed out trousers. The legs are drawn slightly short. | |
| 17th-century European pikeman | |
| Following Cortés' visit, no Spanish attempted to visit the warlike Itza inhabitants of Nojpetén for almost a hundred years. In 1618 two Franciscan friars set out from Mérida in Yucatán on a mission to attempt the peaceful conversion of the still pagan Itza in central Petén. Bartolomé de Fuensalida and Juan de Orbita were accompanied by some Christianised Maya.[88] Andrés Carrillo de Pernía, a Criollo who was the alcalde of Bacalar (a colonial official),[nb 1] joined the party at Bacalar and escorted them upriver as far as Tipuj, returning to Bacalar once he was certain of the friars receiving a good welcome there.[90] After an arduous six-month journey the travellers were well received by the current Kan Ekʼ. They stayed at Nojpetén for some days in an attempt to evangelise the Itza, but the Aj Kan Ekʼ refused to renounce his Maya religion, although he showed interest in the masses held by the Catholic missionaries. Kan Ekʼ informed them that according to ancient Itza prophecy it was not yet time for them to convert. In the time since Cortés had visited Nojpetén, the Itza had made a statue of the deified horse. Juan de Orbita was outraged when he saw the idol and he immediately smashed it into pieces. Fuensalida was able to save the lives of the visitors from the infuriated natives by means of a particularly eloquent sermon that resulted in them being forgiven. Attempts to convert the Itza failed, and the friars left Nojpetén on friendly terms with Kan Ekʼ.[88] | |
| The friars returned in 1619, arriving in October and staying for eighteen days. Again Kan Ekʼ welcomed them in a friendly manner, but this time the Maya priesthood were hostile and jealous of the missionaries' influence upon the king. They persuaded Kan Ek's wife to convince him to expel the unwelcome visitors. The missionaries' lodgings were surrounded by armed warriors, and the friars and their accompanying servants were escorted to a waiting canoe and instructed to leave and never return.[88] Juan de Orbita attempted to resist and was rendered unconscious by an Itza warrior. The missionaries were expelled without food or water but survived the journey back to Mérida.[91] | |
| Before the early 17th century, the western Petén had been heavily populated by Chʼol and Chʼoltiʼ Maya and was an important trade route for the Itza. By the mid-17th century, these populations had been devastated by war, disease and the enforced movement of the inhabitants into colonial settlements, negating the economic importance of the region for the Itza.[34] At the same time the Kejache were becoming important intermediaries between the Itza and Yucatán. The Putun Acalan subgroup of the Kejache had previously traded directly with the Itza but had been relocated by the Spanish. The remaining Kejache, devastated by disease and subject to the intense attentions of Spanish missionaries, were no longer able to supply the Itza directly and became middlemen instead.[92] | |
| Spanish setbacks in the 1620s | |
| In March 1622, governor of Yucatán Diego de Cardenas ordered captain Francisco de Mirones Lezcano to launch an assault upon the Itza; he set out from Yucatán with 20 Spanish soldiers and 80 Mayas from Yucatán.[93] His expedition was later joined by Franciscan friar Diego Delgado.[91] The expedition first camped at IxPimienta;[nb 2] in May they moved to Sakalum, southwest of Bacalar, where there was a lengthy delay while they waited for reinforcements.[95] En route to Nojpetén, Delgado believed that the soldiers' treatment of the Maya was excessively cruel, and he left the expedition to make his own way to Nojpetén with eighty Christianised Maya from Tipuj in Belize.[91] In the meantime the Itza had learnt of the approaching military expedition and had become hardened against further Spanish missionary attempts.[96] When Mirones learnt of Delgado's departure, he sent 13 soldiers to persuade him to return or continue as his escort should he refuse. The soldiers caught up with him just before Tipuj, but he was determined to reach Nojpetén.[97] From Tipuj, Delgado sent a messenger to Kan Ekʼ, asking permission to travel to Nojpetén; the Itza king replied with a promise of safe passage for the missionary and his companions. The party was initially received in peace at the Itza capital,[98] but as soon as the Spanish soldiers let their guard down, the Itza seized and bound the new arrivals.[99] The soldiers were sacrificed to the Maya gods, with their hearts cut from their chests and their heads impaled on stakes around the town.[100] After the sacrifice of the Spanish soldiers, the Itza took Delgado, cut his heart out and dismembered him; they displayed his head on a stake with the others.[101] The fate of the leader of Delgado's Maya companions was no better. With no word from Delgado's escort, Mirones sent two Spanish soldiers with Bernardino Ek, a Maya scout, to learn their fate. When they arrived upon the shore of Lake Petén Itzá, the Itza took them across to their island capital and imprisoned them. They escaped to a canoe by the lakeshore but the two Spanish, slowed by their bonds, were soon recaptured. Ek escaped and returned to Mirones with the news.[99] | |
| Soon afterwards, on 27 January 1624, an Itza war party led by AjKʼin Pʼol caught Mirones and his soldiers off guard and unarmed in the church at Sakalum[102] and slaughtered them.[91] Spanish reinforcements led by Juan Bernardo Casanova arrived too late;[103] the Spanish soldiers had been sacrificed, hanged and beheaded, with their corpses burned and impaled on stakes at the entrance to the village; Mirones and the Franciscan priest had been bound to the church posts and then sacrificed with their hearts cut out.[104] A number of local Maya men and women had also been hanged but not decapitated, and the attackers had burned the town.[103] | |
| Following these massacres, Spanish garrisons were stationed in several towns in southern Yucatán, and rewards were offered for the whereabouts of AjKʼin Pʼol. The Maya governor of Oxkutzcab, Fernando Kamal, set out with 150 Maya archers to track the warleader down; they succeeded in capturing the Itza captain and his followers, together with silverware from the looted Sakalum church and items belonging to Mirones. The prisoners were taken back to the Spanish captain Antonio Méndez de Canzo, interrogated under torture, tried, and condemned to be hanged, drawn and quartered. They were decapitated, and the heads were displayed in the plazas of towns throughout the colonial Partido de la Sierra in what is now Mexico's Yucatán state.[105] These events ended all Spanish attempts to contact the Itza until 1695.[91] In the 1640s internal strife in Spain distracted the government from attempts to conquer unknown lands; the Spanish Crown lacked the time, money or interest in such colonial adventures for the next four decades.[106] | |
| Late 17th century | |
| What matters it that the time has come when we are to become Christians, if this slender point of my flint lance has not been worn out? | |
| — Words of Aj Kowoj to Andrés de Avendaño[107] | |
| In 1692 Basque nobleman Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi proposed to the Spanish king the construction of a road from Mérida southwards to link with the Guatemalan colony, in the process "reducing" any independent native populations into colonial congregaciones; this was part of a greater plan to subjugate the Lakandon and Manche Chʼol of southern Petén and the upper reaches of the Usumacinta River. The original plan was for the province of Yucatán to build the northern section and for Guatemala to build the southern portion, with both meeting somewhere in Chʼol territory; the plan was later modified to pass further east, through the kingdom of the Itza.[108] | |
| Spanish–Itza diplomatic contacts, 1695 | |
| In December 1695 the Spanish colonial authorities in Mérida received a diplomatic visit sent by the Aj Kan Ekʼ.[109] The diplomatic contact had been negotiated by Spanish captain Francisco Hariza y Arruyo, alcalde of Bacalar-at-Chunjujubʼ. Hariza had sent a Christian Maya ambassador to Nojpetén from Tipuj in April 1695,[110] who arrived around the same time that the Itza were preparing to defend themselves against a Spanish party entering from Guatemala; nonetheless the emissary was received in peace and despatched back to Hariza with promises of submission to Spain.[55] In August Hariza travelled to Mérida in the company of a group of seven Tipuj natives offering submission to Spain.[111] Four members of this party were not from Tipuj at all, but were Itza diplomats sent incognito from Yalain to discuss possible peaceful contacts with the colonial authorities.[112] The leader of the Itza delegation was AjChan,[113] a nephew of the Itza king.[114] When friar Avendaño was in Mérida in September 1695 between attempts to reach Nojpetén, he met with the Itza–Yalain delegation and was able to give an account of them when he travelled through Yalain after visiting Nojpetén in January 1696.[115] AjChan and his companions returned to Nojpetén in November but did not stay long before leaving for Mérida again.[116] | |
| A crude pen-and-ink map showing three islands in a lake. Handwritten text is scrawled in various places on the map. West is written at the top and east at the bottom.Laguna de Terminos is written at the bottom. One of the islands has text saying "great island or cayo". A road is drawn heading toward the right-hand of the page. It is labelled as the road from Verapaz. Small scattered circles drawn around the top end of the lake are marked as farms of the Itzas. One patch is named as Yolom. The words "Great Mountains" are written to the top left; a note is written that says "Here we lost ourselves and traversed all these mountains until we came to where they were seeking for us." A label at the left-hand edge says "Mountains of Yucathan". Towards the bottom left there is another note saying "From Merida in north to Itza in south there are 150 leagues." Usumacinta River is written along the right-hand edge. Beyond this is written "Great Mountains of Limestone." A note at the bottom explains "Road of this province of Guatem. I warn that all this is not correct, but I can only put down these villages and stations of the region according as they were shown and pointed out when I asked the Itzas about nations and places." | |
| English-language reproduction of Avendaño's 1696 map of Lake Petén Itzá[117] | |
| In December, Kan Ekʼ despatched AjChan to negotiate peace with Spain,[118] with three Itza companions. They were accompanied to Mérida by a small number of Mopans from the Tipuj region.[116] AjChan, through family ties and marriage, had a key role as a middleman between the Itza, Yalain and Kowoj; he also had family ties with the semi-Christianised Maya at Tipuj, and his mother was from Chichen Itza in the northern Yucatán. His marriage to a Kowoj woman had been an attempt, ultimately unsuccessful, to defuse Itza–Kowoj hostility. Kan Ekʼ sent AjChan to Mérida with a message of peaceful submission to the Spanish Empire in an attempt to solidify his own position as sole ruler of the Itza, even if this meant sacrificing Itza independence from Spain.[114] The Itza king's uncle and the Kowoj were fundamentally opposed to any negotiations with the Spanish and viewed AjChan's embassy as treachery.[118] The Spanish were unaware of the tensions between different Maya factions in central Petén, which by now had escalated into a state of inter-Maya warfare. AjChan was baptised as Martín Francisco on 31 December 1695, with Martín de Ursúa, governor of Yucatán, acting as his godfather.[109] | |
| The arrival of AjChan and his subsequent baptism was an important diplomatic coup for Ursúa, who used the visit for his own political advancement, promoting the embassy as the peaceful final submission of the Itza kingdom to the Spanish Crown.[109] This formal submission of the Itza kingdom to Spain was a critical turning point, since from a Spanish legal viewpoint the Itza were now subjects and the royal prohibition on military conquest could be sidestepped.[119] AjChan left Mérida with his companions and a Spanish escort in the middle of January 1696 and arrived back at Tipuj around the end of the month. After a few days at Tipuj he learnt of violent events unfolding around Lake Petén Itzá including the battle at Chʼichʼ and the subsequent killing of two Franciscans. Fearing the response of his Spanish escort, he abandoned them and fled back to Yalain.[120] | |
| García de Paredes' entry from Yucatán, March–April 1695 | |
| The governor of Yucatán, Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi, began to build the road from Campeche south towards Petén.[91] At the beginning of March 1695, Ursúa ordered captain Alonso García de Paredes to explore this road; García led a group of 50 Spanish soldiers, accompanied by native guides, muleteers and labourers. García had previous experience from military expeditions around Sajkabʼchen (near modern Xcabacab in southern Campeche state)[121] The expedition advanced some way south of Sajkabʼchen into Kejache territory, which began at Chunpich, about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) north of the modern border between Mexico and Guatemala.[121] He rounded up some natives to be moved into colonial settlements, but met with armed Kejache resistance. A skirmish ensued at a Kejache village, resulting in the deaths of eight Kejache warriors. Prisoners taken during the skirmish informed García that many independent Maya lived in the area, both Kejache and others. García decided to retreat around the middle of April, probably to escort captured Kejache back to Sajkabʼchen to be put to work on García's encomienda. Captain García reported back to Ursúa on 21 April 1695.[122] | |
| Díaz de Velasco and Cano's entry from Verapaz, March–April 1695 | |
| View across a wide, shallow valley with scattered buildings interspersed with dense patches of trees, and open, grassy spaces. The valley rises to a low, forested ridgeline. One of the hills supports a tall broadcasting mast. | |
| The modern town of San Luis, founded upon the Mopan capital | |
| In March 1695, captain Juan Díaz de Velasco set out from Cahabón in Alta Verapaz with 70 Spanish soldiers, accompanied by a large number of Maya archers from Verapaz, and native muleteers; four Dominican friars led by Criollo friar Agustín Cano accompanied the expedition.[123] Theoretically the Spanish soldiers were provided solely as an escort for the Dominicans.[124] The Guatemalan expedition, under orders of President Jacinto de Barrios Leal, were secretly trying to reach the Itzas before Martín de Ursúa could reach them from Yucatán; the existence of the expedition was carefully concealed during all communications between Guatemala and the governor of Yucatán.[125] It formed a part of a three-pronged attack against the independent inhabitants of Petén and neighbouring Chiapas; the other two expeditions were launched against the Lakandon.[22] | |
| The expedition proceeded northwards through Chʼol territory and into Mopan territory; there they camped at Mopan town (modern San Luis). Due to their fear of their warlike Itza neighbours, both the Chʼol and the Mopans claimed not to know of any paths to Lake Petén Itzá.[126] The Spanish were held up at Mopan for several days by supply problems and desertions among their native carriers. The Dominicans took advantage of the delay to proselytise the Mopans and Cano wrote that he had converted four caciques (native chiefs) there, although Taxim Chan, king of the Mopans, had fled with many of the local inhabitants. Cano believed that the Mopans were ruled by the king of the Itzas.[127] | |
| First skirmish | |
| The Spanish believed that by pressing ahead to Lake Petén Itzá they would link up with a simultaneous expedition headed by President Barrios himself, unaware that Barrios had not reached the region. Díaz de Velasco sent out a scouting party of 50 musketeers accompanied by native archers on 6 April. They soon found evidence of recent Itza camps in the area, estimated to be a month old. The scouts found a clear road heading north to the Itza kingdom, and the army set off along it. The main force camped about ten leagues[nb 3] (26 miles or 42 km) south of the lake, while a smaller scouting party was sent off ahead; this consisted of two Spanish soldiers, two archers and two muleteers from Verapaz, with two Chʼol-speaking native interpreters. The scouting party advanced to the savannah just to the south of Lake Petén Itzá, where they encountered about 30 Itza hunters armed with spears, shields and bows, accompanied by hunting dogs. The hunters drew their weapons and prepared to fight, but the Mopan interpreter was instructed to explain that the Spanish party were traders who came in peace, accompanied by missionaries.[127] The Spanish began to suspect that the interpreter was plotting against them with the Itza hunters, and one of the Verapaz archers dragged him out from among the hunters.[129] The encounter degenerated into a scuffle, and the Itzas once again drew weapons. The Spanish fired their muskets, fatally wounding two hunters, and a Verapaz Indian charged the Itzas with a machete. The hunters fled, leaving the scouting party in possession of the food and arrows at the hunting camp.[130] | |
| Second skirmish | |
| Five days after this skirmish,[130] Antonio Machuca led a party of 12 musketeers, 25 archers and 13 muleteers to try to find President Barrios, to scout a river route to the lake and to capture another interpreter, the previous one no longer being trusted. The main party arrived on the savannah near the lake. The following night one of the advance party came back into camp with an Itza prisoner, captured after a fierce struggle with the scouts. Interrogation of the prisoner revealed that he was from a high-ranking Itza lineage, and that he had been sent out to find the Spanish party and to see if they came as traders or invaders.[131] The rest of Machuca's scouting party soon returned to the main camp, reporting that they had camped four leagues (approximately 10.4 miles or 16.7 km) from the lake, where they encountered another hunting party of about "a dozen" Itzas. The Spanish tried to use their interpreter to talk to them but the Itzas responded with a volley of arrows. The Spanish musketeers tried to respond with musketfire, but found their gunpowder too wet to fire properly. The Itza warriors charged upon them with spears, axes and machetes, and the ensuing hand-to-hand battle lasted an hour, during which six of the Itzas were killed; the rest finally retreated. Thanks to their padded cotton armour, the Spanish party received no injuries from the skirmish. The Spanish pursued the fleeing Itzas and another fierce skirmish ensued, lasting another hour during which most of the remaining Itzas were killed.[132] Three Itzas escaped, and their leader was rendered unconscious with machete blows to the head; he was taken prisoner and later made a full recovery.[133] Machuca's party reached the lakeshore and could see Nojpetén across the water, but saw such a large force of Itzas that they retreated south, back to the main camp.[124] | |
| An Itza account of this encounter reached the colonial authorities in Yucatán via Tipuj. The Itza reported that the Guatemalan party approached on horseback to within sight of Nojpetén, and about thirty curious Itzas gathered to talk to the intruders, whereupon they were attacked by the Spanish, resulting in the deaths of thirty Itzas, the capture of one and yet more wounded. A Christian Maya emissary from Bacalar-at-Chunjujubʼ, Yucatán, was in Nojpetén around this time, and reported that the Itza gathered 3,000–4,000 warriors ready to repulse Díaz de Velasco's party.[55] | |
| Retreat to Guatemala | |
| On 24 April, the first prisoner escaped from the main camp; the same day that the injured second prisoner was taken in by Machuca and his men.[134] Interrogation of the new prisoner, who turned out to be an Itza nobleman, revealed that the Itza kingdom was in a state of high alert to repel the Spanish.[135] Friar Cano met with his fellow Dominicans to discuss what should be done, having had information from both Machuca and his prisoner that the Itza were ready for war. The Dominicans were highly critical of the Spanish soldiers' readiness to open fire on poorly armed natives who offered no real threat to them, and suspected that President Barrios was nowhere near the lake; furthermore the Spanish were beginning to succumb to sickness,[124] and the Verapaz Indian recruits were deserting daily. Díaz agreed with the Dominicans; two muleteers had already died from sickness, and he recognised that the size of his expedition was not sufficient for a full confrontation with the Itza nation. The expedition almost immediately withdrew back to Cahabón.[136] The new prisoner, AjKʼixaw was later taken back to Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala, where the Dominicans questioned him in detail.[135] In Guatemala AjKʼixaw learnt Spanish and returned to Petén in 1696 as a guide and interpreter for another expedition, before turning on his captors.[134] After the Spanish retreated to Guatemala, rumours ran rife among the Itza and Kowoj that they would return to engage in wholesale slaughter of the Maya population; large tracts of territory were abandoned in response, including many towns in an area stretching from Lake Petén Itzá eastwards to Tipuj and southwards to Mopán.[137] | |
| García de Paredes' entry from Yucatán, May 1695 | |
| Map of the Yucatán Peninsula, jutting northwards from an isthmus running northwest to southeast. The Captaincy General of Yucatán was located in the extreme north of the peninsula. Mérida is to the north, Campeche on the west coast, Bacalar to the east and Salamanca de Bacalar to the southeast, near the east coast. Routes from Mérida and Campeche joined to head southwards towards Petén, at the base of the peninsula. Another route left Mérida to curve towards the east coast and approach Petén from the northeast. The Captaincy General of Guatemala was to the south with its capital at Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala. Several colonial towns roughly followed a mountain range running east-west, including Ocosingo, Ciudad Real, Comitán, Ystapalapán, Huehuetenango, Cobán and Cahabón. A route left Cahabón eastwards and turned north to Petén. Petén and the surrounding area contained a number of native settlements. Nojpetén was situated on a lake near the centre; several settlements were scattered to the south and southwest, including Dolores del Lacandón, Yaxché, Mopán, Ixtanché, Xocolo and Nito. Tipuj was to the east. Chuntuki, Chunpich and Tzuktokʼ were to the north. Sakalum was to the northeast. Battles took place at Sakalum in 1624 and Nojpetén in 1697. | |
| 17th-century entry routes to Petén from Yucatán and Guatemala, with some of the placenames mentioned in the text | |
| When captain García de Paredes unexpectedly returned to Campeche in early May 1695, governor Martín de Ursúa was already preparing reinforcements for his expedition. With García's arrival, he was immediately allocated the extra soldiers.[136] On 11 May Ursúa ordered García to begin a second expedition southwards and was allotted 100 salaried Maya to accompany him. These workers were to be paid three pesos per month and received a suspension of their obligations to supply encomienda work and tribute.[138] García paid for additional Spanish soldiers from his own funds, as did José Fernández de Estenos, a Campeche resident who was to serve as second-in-command.[139] The final force numbered 115 Spanish soldiers and 150 Maya musketeers, plus Maya labourers and muleteers; the final tally was more than 400 people, which was regarded as a considerable army in the impoverished Yucatán province.[138] Ursúa also ordered two companies of Maya musketeers from Tekʼax and Oxkʼutzkabʼ to join the expedition at Bʼolonchʼen Kawich, some 60 kilometres (37 mi) southeast of the city of Campeche.[140] Bonifacio Us was captain of the Tekʼax company; Diego Uk was that of the Oxkʼutzkabʼ company. Marcos Pot was overall "cacique captain" of these two Maya companies; all three officers were Maya. A Maya company from Sajkabʼchen served as elite musketeers charged with rounding up forest Maya into the reducciones; this company was excused from heavy labour duties. Non-Maya soldiers were a mix of Spanish, mestizos (mixed race Spanish and native) and mulattos (mixed race Spanish and black).[141] | |
| On 18 May Ursúa requested three missionaries to support the expedition from the Franciscan provincial superior, friar Antonio de Silva; by 30 May three friars were ready to join the Spanish force, accompanied by a lay brother who had not yet taken vows. In addition, Silva sent another group of Franciscans led by friar Andrés de Avendaño, who was accompanied by another friar and a lay brother.[142] This second group was only to remain with García while convenient for them to do so, and were to continue onwards independently to Nojpetén to make contact with the Itzas, with the tacit approval of Ursúa.[143] In fact Avendaño and his party left Mérida on 2 June, a week before the party assigned to García.[144] On 23 June Ursúa received a message informing him of the occupation of Sakbʼajlan (Dolores del Lakandon) by Guatemalan troops.[141] By this time García was at Tzuktokʼ, near the Kejache border.[145] Although Ursúa's purported plan, as authorised by the Spanish crown, was to build a road uniting Yucatán with Guatemala, he now realised that he was in a race to conquer the Itza kingdom; President Barrios of Guatemala had reached Sakbʼajlan and was returning to Santiago to prepare another expedition, and Guatemalan soldiers had already reached the lakeshore of Petén Itzá. Any linking road to Dolores del Lakandon would have passed through sparsely inhabited territory; instead the Yucatecan surveyor plotted a route due south directly to the lake where it could connect with the south road via Cahabón in Verapaz. This route would leave Dolores del Lakandon and the Lakandon Chʼol isolated to the west.[146] Ursúa issued new orders to García dissimulating his desire to conquer the Itza. His letter ordered García to link up with President Barrios at Dolores del Lakandon, and gave him a precise route that would take him instead to the lake.[147] A short time after receiving these orders, García ordered the construction of a fort at Chuntuki, some 25 leagues (approximately 65 miles or 105 km) north of Lake Petén Itzá. This would serve as the main military base for the Camino Real ("Royal Road") project;[148] the supply base was at Kawich, under the command of Juan del Castillo y Arrué.[149] On 27 July Ursúa authorised the creation of three new militia companies of 25 men apiece to reinforce García. Two were Spanish companies and one was a mixed-race company consisting of mestizos and pardos.[150][nb 4] | |
| Skirmish at Chunpich | |
| The Sajkabʼchen company of native musketeers pushed ahead with the road builders from Tzuktzokʼ to the first Kejache town at Chunpich, which the Kejache had fled, leaving behind a substantial amount of food. The company's officers sent for reinforcements from García at Tzuktokʼ but before any could arrive some 25 Kejache returned to Chunpich with baskets to collect their abandoned food. The nervous Sajkabʼchen sentries feared that the residents were returning en masse and discharged their muskets at them, with both groups then retreating. The musketeer company then arrived to reinforce their sentries and charged into battle against approaching Kejache archers. Several musketeers were injured in the ensuing skirmish, and the Kejache retreated along a forest path without injury, mocking the invaders. The Sajkabʼchen company followed the path and found two more deserted settlements with large amounts of abandoned food. They seized the food and retreated back along the path.[152] | |
| Reinforcements | |
| Around 3 August García moved his entire army forward to Chunpich,[153] and by October Spanish soldiers had established themselves near the source of the San Pedro River.[154] By November Tzuktokʼ was garrisoned with 86 soldiers and more at Chuntuki; in that month García once again returned to Campeche. By December 1695 Ursúa was under pressure to complete the conquest of the Itza, and he approved the despatch of reinforcements along the Camino Real to join the main garrison. The reinforcements included 150 Spanish and pardo soldiers and 100 Maya soldiers, together with labourers and muleteers.[155] An advance group of 150 mixed Maya and non-Maya soldiers met up with García at Campeche and proceeded southwards along the Camino Real towards the San Pedro River. The rest of the reinforcements did not leave Campeche until March 1696.[156] | |
| Avendaño's entry from Yucatán, June 1695 | |
| In May 1695 Antonio de Silva had appointed two groups of Franciscans to head for Petén; the first group was to join up with García's military expedition. The second group was to head for Lake Petén Itza independently. This second group was headed by friar Andrés de Avendaño. Avendaño was accompanied by friar Antonio Pérez de San Román, lay brother Alonso de Vargas and six Maya Christians recruited from Mérida and towns en route to Campeche.[157] This latter group left Mérida on 2 June 1695 and made its way to Juan del Castillo y Arrué's supply base at Kawich, set up to support García's military expedition.[158] On 24 June Avendaño's party left Kawich and set off across sparsely inhabited territory.[159] On 29 June they arrived at an abandoned Maya temple, which he referred to by the name Nojku, meaning "Big Temple". The Spanish had already passed through and had broken many "idols" but the friars climbed the temple and managed to find about 50 additional ceremonial sculptures, which they destroyed; they also placed a cross inside. The other group of friars, on their way to join García, passed through Nojku a few days later and found that local Maya had already placed new offerings within.[160] Avendaño's group continued southwards and found increasing signs of habitation and arrived at the military camp of captain José Fernández de Estenos at the deserted Maya town of Nojtʼubʼ, which had been cleared by the Spanish under García some sixteen years previously.[161] | |
| Avendaño continued south along the course of the new road, finding increasing evidence of Spanish military activity, with the rounding up of local inhabitants and raiding of fields and orchards for provisions by Spanish troops. The Franciscans overtook García at Bʼukʼte, about 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) before Tzuktokʼ.[150] Avendaño's party arrived at Tzuktokʼ, near the Kejache border, by 10 July and left two weeks later, around the same time that García arrived there with his captives rounded up at Bʼukʼte for forced labour. Before leaving, the Franciscans protested to García and his officers about the poor treatment of the local inhabitants; the officers promised better treatment of the Maya in future.[162] On 3 August García advanced to Chunpich but tried to persuade Avendaño to stay behind to minister to the prisoners from Bʼukʼte. Avendaño instead split his group and left in secret with just four Christian Maya companions,[163] seeking the Chunpich Kejache that had attacked one of García's advance companies and had now retreated into the forest.[164] He was unable to find the Kejache but did manage to get information regarding a path that led southwards to the Itza kingdom. He met four exhausted Sajkabʼchen musketeers who were carrying a letter addressed to him from captain Fernández de Estenos. This letter explained that further south there were various deserted Maya towns with only rotten maize abandoned by their occupiers. Avendaño returned to Tzuktokʼ and reconsidered his plans; the Franciscans were short of supplies, and the forcefully congregated Maya that they were charged with converting were disappearing back into the forest daily. Additionally, the Spanish officers ignored the concerns of the friars and García was abducting local Maya women and children to be taken back to his encomienda for forced labour.[165] The Franciscans set upon a different, ultimately unsuccessful, plan; they would follow the road back north to Jopʼelchʼen near Campeche city and attempt to reach the Itza via Tipuj.[166] This route was blocked when the secular clergy prevented the Franciscans from attempting it. Antonio de Silva ordered Avendaño to return to Mérida, and he arrived there on 17 September 1695.[167] The other group of Franciscans, led by Juan de San Buenaventura Chávez, continued following the roadbuilders into Kejache territory, through IxBʼam, Bʼatkabʼ and Chuntuki (modern Chuntunqui near Carmelita, Petén).[168] | |
| San Buenaventura among the Kejache, September–November 1695 | |
| A view across dense jungle with trees framing the left and right sides. The forest extends to the horizon, where a jungle-covered hill breaks the plain. Broken clouds are scattered across a pale sky. | |
| View of the forest of the Kejache region from El Tintal, near the former Spanish mission at Chuntuki | |
| Juan de San Buenaventura's small group of Franciscans had arrived in Chuntuki on 30 August 1695, and found that the army had opened the road southwards for another seventeen leagues (approximately 44.2 miles or 71.1 km), almost half way to Lake Petén Itzá, but returned to Chuntuki due to the seasonal rains.[169] San Buenaventura was accompanied by friar Joseph de Jesús María, lay friar Tomás de Alcoser and lay brother Lucas de San Francisco.[142] With Avendaño's return to Mérida, provincial superior Antonio de Silva despatched two additional friars to join San Buenaventura's group: Diego de Echevarría and Diego de Salas. One of these was to convert the Kejache in Tzuktokʼ, and the other was to do the same at Chuntuki. Although initially reluctant to permit the group to continue into Itza territory, by late October García de Paredes had relented and acquiesced to de Silva's instructions for San Buenaventura and his original companions to continue to Nojpetén,[170] although it appears that this never happened.[155] On 24 October San Buenaventura wrote to the provincial superior reporting that the warlike Kejache were now pacified and that they had told him that the Itza were ready to receive the Spanish in friendship.[171] On that day 62 Kejache men had voluntarily come to Chuntuki from Pakʼekʼem, where another 300 Kejache resided. San Buenaventura sent lay brother Lucas de San Francisco to convince them to relocate to the Chuntuki mission. Lucas de San Francisco destroyed the idols in Pakʼekʼem but the inhabitants were not brought to the mission because of worries about feeding the new arrivals.[172] Instead, in early November 1695, friar Tomás de Alcoser and brother Lucas de San Francisco were sent to establish a mission at Pakʼekʼem, where they were well received by the cacique and his pagan priest. Pakʼekʼem was sufficiently far from the new Spanish road that it was free from military interference, and the friars oversaw the building of a church in what was the largest mission town in Kejache territory. A second church was built at Bʼatkabʼ to attend to over 100 Kʼejache refugees who had been gathered there under the stewardship of friar Diego de Echevarría;[173] a further church was established at Tzuktokʼ, overseen by Diego de Salas.[174] | |
| Avendaño's entry from Yucatán, December 1695 – January 1696 | |
| Franciscan Andrés de Avendaño left Mérida on 13 December 1695, and arrived in Nojpetén around 14 January 1696;[175] he followed the new road as far as possible then continued towards Nojpetén with local Maya guides.[176] He was accompanied by friars Antonio Pérez de San Román, Joseph de Jesús María and Diego de Echevarría, and by lay brother Lucas de San Francisco; some of these he collected on his journey south along the Camino Real. On 5 January they caught up with and passed the main contingent of the army at Bʼatkabʼ, continuing to Chuntuki.[177] From Chuntuki they followed an Indian trail that led them past the source of the San Pedro River and across steep karst hills to a watering hole by some ruins, which was recorded as Tanxulukmul by Avendaño.[178][nb 5] From Tanxulukmul they followed the small Acté River to a Chakʼan Itza town called Saklemakal.[180][nb 6] They arrived at the western end of Lake Petén Itzá to an enthusiastic welcome by the local Itza.[182] | |
| Unknown to the Franciscans, the northern Chakʼan Itza province of the Itza kingdom was allied with the Kowoj and was at war with the Itza king. The Chakʼan Itzas carried off most of the gifts that the Spanish party had brought for the Itza king, in an effort to hinder friendly relations developing.[180] The following day, the current Aj Kan Ekʼ travelled across the lake with eighty canoes to greet the visitors at the Chakʼan Itza port town of Nich, on the west shore of Lake Petén Itza.[183] The Franciscans returned to Nojpetén with Kan Ekʼ and baptised over 300 Itza children over the following four days. Avendaño tried to convince Kan Ekʼ to convert to Christianity and surrender to the Spanish crown, without success.[182] The Franciscan friar tried to convince the Itza king that the Kʼatun 8 Ajaw, a twenty-year Maya calendrical cycle beginning in 1696 or 1697, was the right time for the Itza to finally embrace Christianity and to accept the king of Spain as overlord.[184] The king of the Itza, like his forebear, cited Itza prophecy and said the time was not yet right. He asked the Spanish to return in four months, at which time the Itza would convert and swear fealty to the King of Spain.[182] | |
| On 19 January AjKowoj, the king of the Kowoj, arrived at Nojpetén and spoke with Avendaño,[185] arguing against the acceptance of Christianity and Spanish rule.[186] The discussions between Avendaño, Kan Ekʼ and AjKowoj exposed deep divisions among the Itza – and the apparent treachery of the Itza king in offering his kingdom to the Spanish undermined Kan Ek's power over his own people.[187] Kan Ekʼ learnt of a plot by the Kowoj and their Chakʼan Itza allies to ambush and kill the Franciscans, and the Itza king advised them to return to Mérida via Tipuj.[188] The Itza king's efforts to save his Spanish guests effectively ended his power to rule; from that point on anti-Spanish sentiment governed Itza responses to the Spanish.[189] The Franciscans were guided to Yalain where they were well received but while they were there the Yalain heard rumours of battle and a Spanish advance towards Lake Petén Itzá.[190] The Franciscans were shown a path that led to Tipuj but their Yalain guides soon abandoned them.[191] The Spanish friars became lost and suffered great hardships, including the death of one of Avendaño's companions,[192] but after a month wandering in the forest found their way back to Chuntuki and from there made their way back to Mérida.[193] | |
| Battle at Chʼichʼ, 2 February 1696 | |
| Kan Ekʼ had sent emissaries to Mérida in December 1695 to inform Martín de Ursúa that the Itza would peacefully submit to Spanish rule.[194] By mid-January captain García de Paredes had advanced from Bʼatkabʼ to the advance portion of the Camino Real at Chuntuki.[195] By now he only had 90 soldiers plus labourers and porters, with many of his soldiers deserting as the force advanced towards Lake Petén Itzá; they were further delayed by the necessity of building an oar-powered longboat (or piragua) to cross the San Pedro River.[196] Soon after Avendaño's flight eastward from Nojpetén, a group of 60 Maya warriors entered Chuntuki in full warpaint and bearing weapons; they claimed to have been sent by Avendaño to collect religious regalia and another friar. This was not the case, and they were almost certainly a scouting party sent by the Kowoj and their Chakʼan Itza allies to see what progress the Spanish army was making along the road.[197] They spoke with García and then rapidly departed without taking any of the items that they had supposedly been sent to collect.[196] García despatched two Kejache scouts to the lakeshore to discover Avendaño's whereabouts; at the same time Avendaño's Kejache guides were returning to Chuntuki from Nojpetén with news of Avendaño's flight.[198] The Itzas at the lake handed over an open letter written by Avendaño before his departure from Nojpetén as a token of friendship between the Itza and the Spanish.[199] Friar Juan de San Buenaventura was enthused by the letter and wished to travel on to Nojpetén himself.[198] | |
| García sent captain Pedro de Zubiaur, his senior officer, on towards the lake. He arrived at Lake Petén Itza with 60 musketeers, friar San Buenaventura and another Franciscan and allied Yucatec Maya warriors.[200] They were also accompanied by about 40 Maya porters. On 2 February the expedition was approached by two Itza warriors who told them of a recent battle between a Guatemalan expedition and the Itza;[198] these two Itzas guided the party to a nearby Itza settlement, and the letter from Avendaño was shown to captain Zubiaur, convincing him that he could advance safely.[201] The port town of Chʼichʼ was abandoned but a large number of canoes approached, judged to be as many as 300 by the Spanish captain, bearing perhaps 2,000 Itza warriors.[202] The warriors began to mingle freely with the Spanish party and began to load the Spanish supplies into the canoes with a promise of transporting the expedition across to Nojpetén, with one soldier in each canoe. The Franciscans readily boarded the canoes, with two soldiers as an escort. A scuffle then broke out; a dozen more of the Spanish party were forced into canoes, and two porters were beaten to death. One of the captured Spanish soldiers was immediately decapitated. At this point the Spanish soldiers opened fire with their muskets, and the Itza retreated across the lake with their prisoners.[203] | |
| The Spanish party retreated from the lake shore and regrouped on open ground where they were surrounded by about 2,000 Itza warriors who attempted to disarm them; the Itzas managed to seize another Spaniard and immediately struck off his head. At this point about 10,000 Itza archers appeared from canoes concealed among the lakeside mangroves, and Zubiaur ordered his men to fire a volley that killed between 30 and 40 Itzas. Realising that they were hopelessly outnumbered, the Spanish retreated towards Chuntuki, abandoning their captured companions to their fate.[204] A Christian Maya musketeer and six other Indians fled at the start of the battle and took news to García that the entire expedition had been slaughtered;[205] Zubiaur and the survivors of his expedition marched back into the base camp at Chuntuki two days later.[204] Ursúa later reported that the Spanish prisoners were taken back to Nojpetén where they were all killed; this was also confirmed by AjChan at a later date. The bones of the dead were said to have been found by the Spanish after the final assault on Nojpetén in 1697;[206] AjKʼin Kan Ekʼ, the Itza high priest, later reported that he had bound San Buenaventura and his companion into cross shapes and cut out their hearts.[207] | |
| This turn of events convinced Martín de Ursúa that Kan Ekʼ would not surrender peacefully, and he began to organise an all-out assault on Nojpetén.[194] The enlistment of previously authorised reinforcements was now urgent, but was hindered when 70 of 100 soldiers mutinied and never reached García's camp.[208] Work on the road was redoubled and about a month after the battle at Chʼichʼ the Spanish arrived at the lakeshore, now supported by artillery. Again a large number of canoes gathered, and the nervous Spanish soldiers opened fire with cannons and muskets; no casualties were reported among the Itza, who retreated and raised a white flag from a safe distance.[204] | |
| Amésqueta's entry from Verapaz, February–March 1696 | |
| The Guatemalan authorities were unaware of ongoing contacts between the colonial authorities in Yucatán and the Itza. In the second half of 1695 President Barrios began planning another expedition against the Itza from Verapaz, following harsh criticism of Juan Díaz de Velasco's retreat from near Lake Petén Itzá in April of that year.[82] Barrios died in November, and oidor José de Escals became acting head of the Guatemalan colonial administration. He appointed oidor Bartolomé de Amésqueta to lead the next expedition against the Itza.[209] Amésqueta marched his men through torrential rain from Cahabón to Mopán, arriving on 25 February 1696; the Guatemalans were still unaware of the clashes between García's forces and the Itza. Amésqueta's expedition was suffering from shortages of native labour and supplies. Twenty-five of his 150 men were sick, and his advance stalled as the force rested up at Mopán.[210] Captain Díaz de Velasco volunteered to lead a party of 25 men ahead to the lake; he was accompanied by Dominican friars Cristóbal de Prada and Jacinto de Vargas. He was also accompanied by AjKʼixaw, the Itza nobleman who had been taken prisoner on Díaz's previous expedition, who served as a trusted guide, scout and translator. They set out from Mopán on 7 March and left some sick soldiers with some supplies after five days, they then caught up with an advance party of roadbuilders and their military escort at Río Chakal. The two forces combined, giving Díaz a force of 49 soldiers and 34 porters and archers from Verapaz.[209] Once they arrived at IxBʼol, near the shore of Lake Petén Itzá, AjKʼixaw was sent ahead as an emissary to Nojpetén.[211] | |
| Amésqueta's attempt to locate Díaz de Velasco | |
| Back in Mopán, Amésqueta had received additional supplies and decided to catch up with his advance party. He left Mopán on 10 March 1696 with friar Agustín Cano and about 10 soldiers. He arrived at Chakal a week later but there was still no word from Díaz or AjKʼixaw. On 20 March Amésqueta left Chakal with 36 men and four days' supplies to find Díaz's party, whom he assumed would be nearby. After two days travelling in intense heat they met up with some Verapaz porters that Díaz had left behind. They followed Díaz's trail to the shore of Lake Petén Itzá near to the Itza capital. As they scouted along the south shore they were shadowed by about 30 Itza canoes,[212] and more Itzas approached by land but kept a safe distance. There were plentiful signs that Díaz's party had passed that way, and Amésqueta assumed that they had crossed to Nojpetén. He wrote a letter to Díaz, which was passed to an Itza onlooker who indicated he would deliver it. Various Itzas now approached the party, including a nobleman who exchanged gifts with Amésqueta.[213] During various attempts at communication to verify Díaz's whereabouts the Itza became agitated and responded angrily, although no-one in the Spanish party could understand the Itza language. The Itzas indicated that the Spanish should proceed to the lakeshore along a narrow path and embark in the small canoes that were stationed nearby. One of Amésqueta's officers recognised an Indian among the Itzas as a Mopan who had served as a soldier in Díaz's first expedition and thought that the Mopan was trying to tell him not to trust the Itzas.[214] | |
| Amésqueta was extremely suspicious of the small canoes being supplied, knowing that the Itza had 30-man canoes; he was also aware that tricking enemies into small canoes was a favoured tactic among the lowland Maya to separate and kill Spanish intruders. He suspected that AjKʼixaw had betrayed them and that this was precisely what had happened to Díaz and his men.[215] As nightfall approached, low on rations, in a vulnerable location and with no sign of Díaz and his men, Amésqueta retreated from the lakeshore and his men took up positions on a small hill nearby.[216] In the early hours of the morning he ordered a retreat by moonlight, using just a few torches.[217] They arrived back at Chakal on 25 March and from there retreated to San Pedro Mártir on 9 April, beset by worsening conditions, a hurricane, sickness and rumours of enemies.[218] The battered expedition set up a base camp nine leagues (approximately 23.4 miles or 37.7 km) north of Mopan.[219] | |
| Fate of Díaz de Velasco's expedition | |
| Writing after the fall of Nojpetén, friar Cano described the ultimate fate of Díaz de Velasco and his companions; he claimed to have received the information from interviews with the soldiers from Yucatán who had stormed the Itza capital and from Chʼol witnesses, although there were no Chʼol at Nojpetén. Díaz's party arrived at the lakeshore and were told by local Itza that Franciscan friars were at Nojpetén. They were wary at first and asked for proof, upon which an Itza messenger brought them a rosary as a token. Looking across the lake they saw men dressed as friars calling to them to come across, these were Itza dressed in the habits of the two Franciscans who had recently been killed at the island. Díaz and his companions then boarded the Itza canoes, leaving thirty Maya porters with their mules and supplies.[220] | |
| Once on the lake the Itza overturned some of the canoes and killed some of Díaz's men; others were wounded and dragged ashore to be killed. Díaz, the Dominicans and two other men were in a large canoe that was not overturned and were taken to Nojpetén where a fierce struggle ensued as Díaz attempted to defend himself with his sword, killing several Itzas. The two other men were immediately killed while the friars were beaten and tied to X-shaped crosses before having their hearts cut out. Across the lake, the Itza attacked the porters guarding the expedition supplies and killed all of them. The Itza killed a total of 87 expedition members, including 50 soldiers, two Dominicans and about 35 Maya helpers. The remains of the small group that were killed on Nojpetén were later retrieved by the Spanish after the fall of the city and were taken back to Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala for burial.[220] | |
| Aftermath of Amésqueta's entry | |
| Over the following weeks scouts were sent out to try to make contact with local Mopan and Chʼol communities, including Chok Ajaw, AjMay, IxBʼol and Manche without success – most of the natives had fled, leaving the forest deserted. At San Pedro Mártir he received news of AjChan's embassy to Mérida in December 1695 and the formal surrender of the Itza to Spanish authority.[219] Unable to reconcile the news with the loss of his men at Lake Petén Itzá, and with appalling conditions in San Pedro Mártir, Amésqueta abandoned the unfinished fort.[221] Friar Cano recommended to the new Guatemalan president that the Chʼol be moved to Verapaz where they could be properly administered. As a result of the failed expedition, Cano's recommendation was accepted, the fort was dismantled and any Maya that could be captured across a wide swathe of southern Petén was forcibly relocated to Belén near Rabinal in Verapaz. This way this relocation was conducted was brutal and ruthless and was condemned by several high-ranking colonial officials, including oidor José de Escals and even by Amésqueta.[222] | |
| Fall of Nojpetén | |
| Map showing Lake Petén Itzá extending east-west. Two smaller lakes lie a short distance to the east, first Lake Salpetén and then Lake Macanché. The town of Yalain is on the north shore of Lake Macanché; Zacpetén is on the north shore of Lake Salpetén. Ixlú is on the east shore of the main lake, Uspetén is on its north shore. Chakokʼot and Chakʼan are on the northwest shore, Chʼichʼ is on a small peninsula on the southwest side of the lake. Nojpetén is on an island in an extension of the lake branching southeast. Beyond this branch are two small lakes, Petenxil and Eckixil. The Camino Real route to Guatemala extends south from the south shore opposite Nojpetén. The Camino Real route to Yucatán runs north around the west shore of the lake from Chʼichʼ to Chakʼan and then heads north away from the lake to Tanxulukmul and onwards. Kantetul is a short way to the east of Tanxulukmul. The Itza territory covered the almost the entire western half of the lake and extended further westwards, it also included the two small lakes extending from the southern branch of the lake. The area south of the main lake was Itza-dominated. The Kowoj territory covered the area northeast of the lake, and the easternmost portion of the south shore. It extended around Lake Zacpetén. Yalain territory surrounded the small Macanché lake. | |
| Lake Petén Itza at the time of the conquest | |
| The Itzas' continued resistance had become a major embarrassment for the Spanish colonial authorities, and soldiers were despatched from Campeche to take Nojpetén once and for all.[184] The final assault was made possible by the gradual opening of the road from Mérida to Petén;[223] by December 1696 this road had reached the lake shore although it was unfinished and still almost impassable in places.[224] By this time the deep divisions between the political leaders of the Itza were such that a unified defence of the Itza kingdom had become impossible.[225] | |
| Final preparations | |
| In late December 1696 the Chakʼan Itza attacked the large Kejache mission town of Pakʼekʼem; they abducted almost all the inhabitants and burned the church. The demoralised Spanish garrison at Chuntuki buried their weapons and ammunition and retreated five leagues (approximately 13 miles or 21 km) back towards Campeche.[226] From late December 1696 to the middle of January 1697 Ursúa sent parties of soldiers and workmen along the road towards the lake; the first group was commanded by Pedro de Zubiaur and had instructions to begin building a galeota, a large oar-powered warship.[227] This group was followed by reinforcements bringing supplies, including light and heavy weapons, gunpowder and food. On 23 January Ursúa left Campeche with more soldiers and muleteers, bringing the total number of soldiers arriving as reinforcements to 130.[228] The Spanish fortified their positions at Chʼichʼ and deployed heavy artillery for its defence.[229] | |
| Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi arrived on the western shore of lake Petén Itzá with his soldiers on 26 February 1697, and once there built the heavily armed galeota attack boat, which was assembled at Chʼichʼ over a space of 12 days in early March.[230] The galeota had a keel of 30 cubits or 14.4 metres (47 ft); it had 12 oars on each side and a rudder with an iron screw. The galeota carried 114 men and at least five artillery pieces, including a pieza (light cannon) and four pedreros (mortars).[40] The piragua longboat used to cross the San Pedro River was also transported to the lake to be used in the attack on the Itza capital; this boat had 6 oars and a rudder.[231] | |
| From 28 February onwards the Spanish expedition was repeatedly approached by hostile Itzas, who sometimes shot arrows in the direction of the intruders but inflicted no casualties.[232] At the same time, small groups of curious Itzas mingled freely with the Spanish and received trinkets from them such as belts, necklaces and earrings.[229] | |
| Assault on Nojpetén | |
| On 10 March, Itza and Yalain emissaries arrived at Chʼichʼ to negotiate with Ursúa. First came AjChan who had already met him in Mérida; he was followed by Chamach Xulu, the ruler of the Yalain.[233] Kan Ekʼ then sent a canoe with a white flag raised bearing emissaries, including the Itza high priest, who offered peaceful surrender. Ursúa received the embassy in peace and invited Kan Ekʼ to visit his encampment three days later. On the appointed day Kan Ekʼ failed to arrive; instead Maya warriors massed both along the shore and in canoes upon the lake.[234] | |
| Ursúa decided that any further attempts at peaceful incorporation of the Itza into the Spanish Empire were pointless, and a waterbourne assault was launched upon Kan Ek's capital on the morning of 13 March.[235] The encampment at Chʼichʼ was left defended by 25 Spanish soldiers, three Maya musketeers and several artillery pieces.[236] Ursúa boarded the galeota with 108 soldiers, two secular priests, five personal servants, the baptised Itza emissary AjChan and his brother-in-law and an Itza prisoner from Nojpetén. The attack boat was rowed east from Chʼichʼ towards the Itza capital; halfway across the lake it encountered a large fleet of canoes spread in an arc across the approach to Nojpetén, covering about 600 metres (2,000 ft) from one shore to another – Ursúa simply gave the order to row through them. A large number of defenders had gathered along the shore of Nojpetén and on the roofs of the city. As the galeota approached, more canoes put out from the shore and the Spanish were surrounded.[237] Once they had surrounded the galeota, Itza archers began to shoot at the invaders. Ursúa gave orders to his men not to fire but arrows wounded several soldiers; one of the wounded soldiers discharged his musket and at that point the officers lost control of their men. The defending Itza soon fled from the withering Spanish gunfire.[238] | |
| The city fell after a brief but bloody battle in which many Itza warriors died; the Spanish suffered only minor casualties. The Spanish bombardment caused heavy loss of life on the island;[239] the surviving Itza abandoned their capital and swam across to the mainland with many dying in the water.[240] After the battle the surviving defenders melted away into the forests, leaving the Spanish to occupy an abandoned Maya town.[184] Martín de Ursúa planted his standard upon the highest point of the island and renamed Nojpetén as Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo, Laguna del Itza ("Our Lady of Remedy and Saint Paul, Lake of the Itza").[241] The Itza nobility fled, dispersing to Maya settlements throughout Petén; in response the Spanish scoured the region with search parties.[242] Kan Ekʼ was soon captured with help from the Yalain Maya ruler Chamach Xulu;[243] The Kowoj king (Aj Kowoj) was also soon captured, together with other Maya nobles and their families.[239] With the defeat of the Itza, the last independent and unconquered native kingdom in the Americas fell to the European colonisers.[86] | |
| Aftermath | |
| Martín de Ursúa had little interest in administering the newly conquered territory and delegated its control to military officers who he did very little to support, either militarily or financially.[244] With Nojpetén safely in the hands of the Spanish, Ursúa returned to Mérida, leaving Kan Ekʼ and other high-ranking members of his family as prisoners of the Spanish garrison at Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo, isolated among the hostile Itza and Kowoj who still dominated the mainland. The garrison was reinforced in 1699 by a military expedition from Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala, accompanied by mixed-race ladino civilians who came to found their own town around the military camp. The settlers brought disease with them, which killed many soldiers and colonists and swept through the indigenous population. The Guatemalans stayed just three months before returning to Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala, taking the captive Itza king with them, together with his son and two of his cousins. The cousins died on the long journey to Santiago; Ajaw Kan Ekʼ and his son spent the rest of their lives under house arrest in the colonial capital.[239] | |
| When the Spanish conquered the Petén lakes in 1697, the Yalain were initially cooperative and assisted in the capture of the king of the Itza. At this time Yalain was ruled by Chamach Xulu. The Yalain leadership encouraged Christian conversion as a means of maintaining peace with the occupying Spanish forces. As time went on, Yalain cooperation with the Spanish appears to have decreased.[243] Soon after the conquest, the Yalain fled their settlements to avoid foraging Spanish parties that were abducting Maya women for "service" at their barracks. At this time, such was the hostility that was felt towards the occupying forces that the inhabitants of the Yalain settlements preferred to burn their fields and break all their pottery rather than leave anything for the Spanish.[245] The Yalain capital is recorded as having been burned in 1698.[246] | |
| Final years of conquest | |
| An open field with patchy, worn grass extending towards a low church with a simple white facade. The facade has three short spires, with the middle spire taller than the flanking spires. The central spire supports a cross. The shorter spires sit above arched openings, a bell is visible in the left-hand arch. An arched wooden door is set into the facade; a square window is above it. The main body of the church only stands about half the height of the facade and extends back to the left. The wall is bare except for a smaller doorway and a small window. The roof is rusty corrugated metal. A lower building with a shaded balcony extends to the left of the church. Two poles support a power line running across the field to the church. The base of each pole is painted white. A line of trees runs across behind the church. | |
| Spanish colonial church in Dolores | |
| The white facade of a single-storey building, extending away from the viewer to the left. There is a single arched doorway, and a row of windows set into arched recesses. The roof is rusty corrugated metal. Four low white posts are linked by chains in the right foreground, one of them has been knocked over. Two ladies are visible in front of the left-most window. One sits on a dark plastic chair looking into a pram, the other stands behind the pram, also looking at it. | |
| Castillo de Arismendi, built in Nuestra Señora de los Remedios (modern Flores) | |
| In the late 17th century, the small population of Chʼol Maya in southern Petén and Belize was forcibly removed to Alta Verapaz, where the people were absorbed into the Qʼeqchiʼ population.[84] After the conquest, the colonial administration of Petén was divided between the ecclesiastical authorities in Yucatán and secular administration as part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala. There was never a strong Spanish presence in the area, which remained remote, although the Spanish built a fortress-prison, the Castillo de Arismendi; it was finished in 1700.[247] | |
| The distance from Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo (formerly Nojpetén) to Mérida, combined with the difficult terrain and the hostility of the natives led to the road from Yucatán falling into a state of disrepair.[223] In 1701 Ursúa y Arezmendi realised that the road was in such a poor state that the Spanish garrison could not be supplied from Yucatán. He wrote to the King of Spain, requesting that Petén be transferred from the jurisdiction of Yucatán to the Audiencia Real of Guatemala.[248] In 1703 Ursúa's petition was granted, with the condition that the ecclesiastical authority over Petén would pass to the Dominican Order.[249] | |
| Between 1703 and 1753, reducciones were established at San José and San Andrés on Lake Petén Itzá, Santa Ana just south of the lake, and at San Luis, Santo Toribio and Dolores in the south (not to be confused with Dolores del Lakandon).[250] Each of these mission towns had its own minister who answered to the vicario general with the Spanish garrison at Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo.[249] In the first decades of the 18th century, churches were built in five colonial towns: Dolores, Remedios, San Andrés, San José and Santo Toribio.[251] The church in Dolores was built in 1708; the construction was probably overseen by Juan Antonio Ruiz y Bustamante.[252] In 1699 there were nine priests in Petén but thereafter there was usually a shortage of clergy in colonial Petén. In spite of the objections of the Dominicans who had been working in southern Petén, the Franciscans continued to provide clergy from Yucatán, and it was the Franciscans who oversaw the spiritual welfare of Petén during the colonial period.[253] | |
| AjTut was one of the lords of the northern Chakʼan Itza province of the conquered Itza kingdom; friar Avendaño had met him during his expedition to Nojpetén. After the conquest he relocated from the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá to Mompana, a region lying between Lake Yaxha and the Classic period ruins of Tikal. For some years after the conquest he established the Mompana region as a refuge from the Spanish and engaged in internecine war against the surviving Kowoj to the south.[254] | |
| Reductions around Lake Petén Itzá | |
| At the time of the fall of Nojpetén, there are estimated to have been 60,000 Maya living around Lake Petén Itzá, including a large number of refugees from other areas. It is estimated that 88% of them died during the first ten years of colonial rule owing to a combination of disease and war.[35] Although disease was responsible for the majority of deaths, Spanish expeditions and internecine warfare between indigenous groups also played their part.[36] | |
| Catholic priests from Yucatán founded several mission towns around Lake Petén Itzá in 1702–1703.[239] The first towns to be concentrated into colonial reducciones were Ixtutz, which became the new town of San José, and neighbouring San Andrés, both on the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá.[255] They were first subjugated by one of Ursúa's officers, Cristobal de Sologaistoa, before being passed into the care of the Dominican friars for the Christian conversion of the inhabitants.[249] Surviving Itza and Kowoj were resettled in the new colonial towns by a mixture of persuasion and force. Kowoj and Itza leaders in these mission towns rebelled against their Spanish overlords in 1704 and almost retook Nojpetén,[256] but although well-planned, the rebellion was quickly crushed. Its leaders were executed, and most of the mission towns were abandoned; by 1708 only about 6,000 Maya remained in central Petén.[239] The reductions failed in large part because the missionaries charged with converting the inhabitants could not speak the Itza language.[249] | |
| Legacy of the conquest | |
| Martín de Ursúa used his conquest of the Itza as a stepping stone to achieving the coveted post of Governor-General of the Philippines, which he took up in 1709.[257] European-introduced diseases devastated the native population of Petén, with the effects of disease compounded by the psychological impact of defeat. The population around Lake Petén Itzá numbered between 20,000 and 40,000 in 1697. By 1714, a census recorded just over 3,000 individuals in Spanish Petén, including non-Indians. This number would not have included the so-called "wild" Maya living in the forest far from Spanish administration and control. By 1700 the new colonial capital of Petén was mainly inhabited by colonists, soldiers and convicts.[258] During the second half of the 18th century, adult male Indians were heavily taxed, often being forced into debt peonage. Western Petén and neighbouring Chiapas remained sparsely populated, and the Maya inhabitants avoided contact with the Spanish.[259] | |
| San José, on the northwest shore of lake Petén Itzá, is the home of the last surviving speakers of the Itza language. The surname Kowoj still survives, but the Kowoj and Itza have fully merged and no longer exist as separate ethnicities. In modern times there is a history of conflict between San José (the former Itza town of Chakokʼot) and neighbouring San Andrés (the former Kowoj-allied town of Chakʼan), and this mutual hostility probably represents ancient hostility between the Itza and the Kowoj.[260] | |
| Historical sources | |
| Page in antiquated typeface with archaic Spanish text reading Historia de la conquista de la provincia de el itzá, reducción, y progresos de la de el lacandón, y otras naciones de indio bárbaros, de la mediación de el reino de Guatemala, a las provincias de Yucatán, en la América septentrional. Primera parte. Escríbela don Juan de Villagutierre Soto-Mayor. Abogado, y relator, que ha sido de la Real Chancillería de Valladolid, y ahora relator en el real y supremo Consejo de las Indias, y la dedica a el mismo real, y supremo consejo. | |
| Title page of Historia de la Conquista de la Provincia de el Itza produced in 1701, four years after the fall of Nojpetén, by the relator of the Council of the Indies | |
| Hernán Cortés described his expedition to Honduras in the fifth letter of his Cartas de Relación,[261] in which he details his crossing of what is now Guatemala's Petén Department. Bernal Díaz del Castillo accompanied Cortés on the expedition to Honduras.[262] He wrote a lengthy account of the conquest of Mexico and neighbouring regions, the Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España ("True History of the Conquest of New Spain").[263] His account was finished around 1568, some 40 years after the campaigns it describes;[264] it includes his own description of the expedition.[262] In 1688 colonial historian Diego López de Cogolludo detailed the expeditions of the Spanish missionaries Bartolomé de Fuensalida and Juan de Orbita in 1618 and 1619 in his Los trés siglos de la dominación española en Yucatán o sea historia de esta provincia ("The three centuries of Spanish domination in Yucatán, or the history of this province"); he based it upon Fuensalida's report, which is now lost.[265] | |
| Franciscan friar Andrés Avendaño y Loyola recorded his own account of his late 17th century journeys to Nojpetén, written in 1696 and entitled Relación de las entradas que hize a la conversión de los gentiles Ytzaex ("Account of the expeditions that I made to convert the Itza heathens").[266] When the Spanish finally conquered Petén in 1697 they produced a vast quantity of documentation.[87] Juan de Villagutierre Soto-Mayor was a Spanish colonial official who first held the post of relator of the Royal Chancery of Valladolid and later as that of the Council of the Indies. As such he had access to the large amount of colonial documents stored in the General Archive of the Indies. From these he produced his Historia de la Conquista de la Provincia de el Itza, reduccion, y progressos de la de el Lacandon, y otras naciones de indios barbaros, de la mediacion de el Reyno de Guatimala, a las provincias del Yucatan en la América Septentrional ("History of the Conquest of the Province of the Itza, reduction, and advances in that of the Lakandon, and other nations of barbarous indians, and the intervention of the Kingdom of Guatemala, and the provinces of Yucatan in Northern America"). This was first published in Madrid in 1701 and detailed the history of Petén from 1525 through to 1699.[267] | |
| Archaeology | |
| Ursúa referred to the western port town of Chʼichʼ as Nich. The modern name for a point on the south side of the bay is Punta Nijtún, which is probably derived from the colonial Yucatec nix tun, meaning stone ramp.[268] Archaeologists carried out excavations at the lake shore at Punta Nijtún and discovered a stone ramp there, which was probably built by Ursúa's troops to launch his galeota.[269] | |
| Notes | |
| Two Spanish colonial settlements in Quintana Roo bore the name Bacalar. The principal town of that name was Salamanca de Bacalar, often shortened to just Bacalar, near Chetumal on the Caribbean coast. Bacalar-at-Chunjujubʼ was a smaller settlement on the road to Mérida, modern Chunhuhub.[89] In this article, unless stated otherwise, all references to Bacalar refer to Salamanca de Bacalar. | |
| IxPimienta was a village west of Bacalar, on a single-file path from Yucatán to Petén, at a junction with another path leading to Tipuj. By 1561 it was inhabited by Maya that had fled from already-conquered neighbouring regions and in 1622 most of the inhabitants were originally from Spanish-dominated north-western Yucatan.[94] | |
| The Spanish legua unit of measurement was equal to 5000 varas. This was approximately 2.6 miles (4.2 km).[128] All distances in this article are based upon this conversion but are subject to often very approximate estimates given in the sources. | |
| The term pardo was frequently used by the Spanish to refer to mulattos but was also used to refer to mixed-race black and indigenous.[151] | |
| Tanxulukmul was also the name of an Itza refuge recorded in the Book of Chilam Bʼalam of Chumayel. This was probably the same place, and has been tentatively identified as the ruins of Akte, near the large Classic period site of Motul de San José, 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from the north shore of Lake Petén Itza.[179] | |
| This Saklemakal can probably be identified with the ruins of Kantetul, 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) north of Motul de San José.[181] | |
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| Caso Barrera & Aliphat 2007, p. 53. | |
| Webre 2004, pp. 1–2. | |
| Feldman 2000, pp. xxii, 234. | |
| Feldman 2000, p. xxii. | |
| Webre 2004, pp. 2, 7. | |
| Webre 2004, p. 2. | |
| Caso Barrera & Aliphat 2007, p. 57. | |
| Webre 2004, p. 11. | |
| Webre 2004, p. 12. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 120. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 232; Jones 2000, p. 362. | |
| Jones 2000, p. 362; Jones 1998, pp. 132–133. | |
| Webre 2004, p. 13. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 232. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 243. | |
| Jones 2000, p. 365. | |
| Jones 1998, p. xix; Lovell 2005, p. 66; Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 618. | |
| Jones 1998, p. xix. | |
| Jones 1998, p. xxi. | |
| Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 773. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 130; ITMB 2000. | |
| Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 773; Means 1917, pp. 61–62, 64. | |
| Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 774. | |
| Schwartz 1990, pp. 34–35. | |
| Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 774; Jones 1998, p. 46; Chuchiak IV 2005, p. 131. | |
| Caso Barrera 2002, pp. 83, 139–140. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 42, 47. | |
| Chuchiak IV 2005, p. 132. | |
| Means 1917, p. 79. | |
| Means 1917, p. 80. | |
| Means 1917, p. 81. | |
| Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 774; Means 1917, p. 81. | |
| Means 1917; Jones 1998. | |
| Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 774; Jones 1998, p. 48.. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 48. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 48; Thompson & 1977, 2014, 857. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 48–49. | |
| Feldman 2000, p. 151. | |
| Means 1917, p. 144. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 111, 132–133, 145. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 168. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 168–169. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 169–170. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 170–171. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 170. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 167. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 170, 187, 216–217. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 175. | |
| Means 1917, p. 209. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 167–168. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 186. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 230–231. | |
| Jones 1998; ITMB 2000. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 131. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 132, 134; Means 1917, p. 97. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 141. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 133. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 134. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 135. | |
| Rowlett 2005. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 135–136. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 136. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 137–138. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 139. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 139–140. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 140–141. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 140. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 142. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 173. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 143. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 143–144. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 130, 144. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 144. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 148. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 148–149. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 149. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 145. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 132–133, 145. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 145–146. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 147. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 144, 147. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 152. | |
| Restall 2000, p. 196n82. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 154; Means 1917, pp. 117–118. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 154. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 163. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 162. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 162–163. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 148, 150. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 149–150. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 150. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 151. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 130, 151–152. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 153. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 150, 154. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 154–155. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 155. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 130, 155–156. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 156. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 148, 157; Quezada 2011, p. 23; ITMB 1998. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 157. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 158. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 158–159. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 159–160. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 160. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 160–161. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 187. | |
| Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 774–775. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 189. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 189–190; Means 1917, p. 128. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 190, 471n15; Foias 2000, p. 773. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 190. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 190; Emery 2003, p. 34. | |
| Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 775. | |
| Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 775; Jones 1998, p. 192. | |
| Jones 2000, p. 362. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 205. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 207. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 209–210. | |
| Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 775; Jones 1998, pp. 214–215. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 216. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 216–217. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 217–218. | |
| Vayhinger-Scheer & 2006, 2011, p. 383. | |
| Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 775–776; Jones 1998, pp. 218–219. | |
| Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 776. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 189, 226. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 226. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 226–227. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 227. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 211–212, 227. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 227; Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 776. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 227–228. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 228; Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 776. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 228. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 229. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 227, 229. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 230. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 303. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 229–230. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 233. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 232–233. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 233–234. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 234. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 235. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 236. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 237. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 237–238. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 238–239. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 239–240. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 240. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 479n59. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 241–242. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 242–243. | |
| Fialko Coxemans 2003, p. 72. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 249. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 245–246. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 253, 256. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. xxvi, 252–253, 265. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 253. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 267. | |
| Jones 2009, p. 59; Jones 1998, pp. 253, 265–266. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 252, 268. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 266–267. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 269–270. | |
| Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 777. | |
| Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 777; Jones 1998, p. 295. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 296–297. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 297. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 298–299. | |
| Jones 2009, p. 59. | |
| Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 777–778. | |
| Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 778; Jones 2009, p. 59. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 295. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 306. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 117. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 367–368. | |
| Rice et al. 1997, p. 550. | |
| Arrivillaga Cortés 1998, p. 53. | |
| Fialko Coxemans 2003, pp. 72–73. | |
| Fialko Coxemans 2003, p. 73. | |
| Fialko Coxemans 2003, p. 73; ITMB 1998; Laporte Molina 1998, pp. 136–137. | |
| Schwartz 1990, p. 46. | |
| Chocón & Corzo 2009, p. 92. | |
| Schwartz 1990, p. 48. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. 6, 95. | |
| Fialko Coxemans 2003, p. 73; ITMB 1998. | |
| Jones 1998, p. xxi; Jones 2009, p. 59. | |
| Jones 1998, pp. xxi–xxii, 115. | |
| Schwartz 1990, p. 38. | |
| Schwartz 1990, p. 39. | |
| Hofling 2009, p. 79; Jones 1998, p. 8; Jones 2009, p. 60. | |
| Cortés & 1844, 2005, p. xxi. | |
| Jones, Rice & Rice 1981, p. 532. | |
| Restall & Asselbergs 2007, pp. 49–50. | |
| Díaz del Castillo & 1632, 2005, p. 5. | |
| Jones, Rice & Rice 1981, pp. 534, 546. | |
| Jones, Rice & Rice 1981, pp. 535, 545. | |
| Wauchope & Cline 1973, pp. 104–105. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 266; McNair et al. 1997, p. 559. | |
| Jones 1998, p. 266. | |
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| Villagutierre Soto-Mayor, Juan de (1701). Historia de la Conquista de la Provincia de el Itza [History of the Conquest of the Province of the Itza] (in Spanish). Madrid, Spain: Lucas Antonio de Bedmar y Narvaez. OCLC 311383898. | |
| Wauchope, Robert; and Howard Francis Cline (1973). Robert Wauchope; Howard Francis Cline (eds.). Handbook of Middle American Indians: Part Two. Guide to ethnohistorical sources. Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-70153-3. OCLC 310563755. | |
| Webre, Stephen (2004). "Política, evangelización y guerra: Fray Antonio Margil de Jesús y la frontera centroamericana, 1684–1706" [Politics, Evangelisation and War: Friar Antonio Margil de Jesús and the Central American Frontier, 1684–1706]. VII Congreso Centroamericano de Historia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras, Tegucigalpa, 19–23 July 2004 (in Spanish). San José, Costa Rica: Universidad de Costa Rica, Escuela de Historia. Archived from the original (DOC) on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 9 December 2012. | |
| Webster, David L. (2002). The Fall of the Ancient Maya: Solving the Mystery of the Maya Collapse. London, UK: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05113-5. OCLC 48753878. | |
| Further reading | |
| Wikisource has original text related to this article: | |
| History of the Spanish Conquest of Yucatan and of the Itzas | |
| Spanish Wikisource has original text related to this article: | |
| Historia de la Conquista de la Provincia de el Itza | |
| Wikimedia Commons has media related to Spanish conquest of Petén. | |
| Caso Barrera, Laura; Mario Aliphat F. (April–June 2002). "Organización política de los itzaes desde el posclásico hasta 1702" [The Political Organisation of the Itza from the Postclassic to 1702]. Historia Mexicana (in Spanish). El Colegio de México. 51 (4): 713–748. ISSN 0185-0172. JSTOR 25139407. OCLC 181416455. (subscription required) | |
| Chase, Arlen F. (April 1976). "Topoxte and Tayasal: Ethnohistory in Archaeology" (PDF). American Antiquity. Washington, D.C.: Society for American Archaeology. 41 (2): 154–167. doi:10.2307/279166. ISSN 0002-7316. JSTOR 279166. OCLC 482285289. S2CID 161252127. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 November 2013. Retrieved 2 December 2012. | |
| Lentz, Mark (October 2013). ""The Mission" That Wasn't: Yucatan's Jesuits, the Mayas, and El Petén, 1703–1767". World History Connected. Hawaii Pacific University, Honolulu, Hawaii, US: University of Illinois Press. 10 (3). ISSN 1931-8642. OCLC 475466974. Retrieved 15 November 2013. | |
| Pons Sáez, Nuria (1997). La Conquista del Lacandón [The Conquest of the Lacandon] (in Spanish). Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. ISBN 968-36-6150-5. OCLC 40857165. | |
| Pugh, Timothy; José Rómulo Sánchez; Yuko Shiratori; Prudence Rice; Miriam Salas (2012). B. Arroyo; L. Paiz; H. Mejía (eds.). "Arqueología histórica en la región de los lagos de Petén" [Historical archaeology in the Petén lakes region] (PDF). Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala (in Spanish). Guatemala, Guatemala City: Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes, Instituto de Antropología e Historia and Asociación Tikal. XXV (2011): 622–634. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 6 August 2014. | |
| Rice, Prudence M. (2009c). "The Kowoj in Geopolitical-Ritual Perspective". In Prudence M. Rice; Don S. Rice (eds.). The Kowoj: Identity, Migration, and Geopolitics in Late Postclassic Petén, Guatemala. Boulder, Colorado, US: University Press of Colorado. pp. 21–54. ISBN 978-0-87081-930-8. OCLC 225875268. | |
| Rice, Don S.; Prudence M. Rice; Timothy Pugh (1998). "Settlement Continuity and Change in the Central Peten Lakes Region: The Case of Zacpeten". In Andrés Ciudad Ruiz; et al. (eds.). Anatomia de una Civilizacion: Aproximaciones Interdisciplinarias a la Cultura Maya (PDF). Madrid, Spain: Sociedad Española de Estudios Mayas. pp. 207–252. ISBN 978-84-923545-0-4. OCLC 806716345. Retrieved 15 November 2013. | |
| Salazar, Gabriel (2000) [1620]. "Geography of the Lowlands: Gabriel Salazar, 1620". In Lawrence H. Feldman (ed.). Lost Shores, Forgotten Peoples: Spanish Explorations of the South East Maya Lowlands. Durham, North Carolina, US: Duke University Press. pp. 21–54. ISBN 0-8223-2624-8. OCLC 254438823. | |
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| Spanish colonization of the Americas | |
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| Spanish Empire | |
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| Maya civilization | |
| Categories: 17th-century conflicts17th century in Central America17th century in Guatemala17th century in Mexico17th century in New Spain17th century in the Maya civilizationColonial GuatemalaColonial MexicoGuatemala–Spain relationsHistory of MesoamericaHistory of PeténItzaSpanish conquests in the AmericasWars involving GuatemalaWars involving SpainSpanish conquest of Central AmericaOperation Barras | |
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| Operation Barras | |
| Part of the Sierra Leone Civil War | |
| Map of Sierra Leone | |
| A map of Sierra Leone on which is marked Freetown (the capital, to the extreme west) and the nearby towns of Hastings (where the SAS and Paras prepared for the operation) and Masiaka (where the Jordanian detachment of UNAMSIL was based) | |
| Date 10 September 2000 | |
| Location | |
| Occra Hills, Sierra Leone | |
| 8°33′22″N 12°47′49″W | |
| Result British victory, all hostages rescued. | |
| Belligerents | |
| United Kingdom West Side Boys | |
| Commanders and leaders | |
| John Holmes Foday Kallay (POW) | |
| Strength | |
| 150[1] 100–200[1][2] | |
| Casualties and losses | |
| 1 killed | |
| 12 wounded[3] 25+ killed | |
| 18 captured[4] | |
| vte | |
| Sierra Leone Civil War | |
| RUF insurgency KenemaBoSilver Anvil1992 coup1992 coup attempt1996 coup1996 coup attempt1997 coupNoble ObeliskFreetown Hastings AirportPalliserLungi LolKhukriBarras | |
| This article is part of a series on the | |
| Sierra Leone Civil War | |
| Personalities | |
| Ahmad Tejan KabbahJohnny Paul KoromaFoday SankohValentine StrasserJulius Maada BioCharles TaylorSolomon MusaHinga NormanYahya KanuMoinina FofanaAllieu KondewaTony BlairDavid RichardsLansana ContéSani AbachaMaxwell KhobeVijay JetleyDaniel Opande | |
| Armed forces | |
| ECOMOGExecutive OutcomesKamajorsRUFSandline InternationalSLAWest Side Boys | |
| Key events | |
| RUF insurgency KenemaBoSilver Anvil1992 coup1992 coup attempt1996 coup1996 coup attempt1997 coupNoble ObeliskSiege of Freetown Hastings AirportPalliserLungi LolKhukriBarras | |
| Attempts at peace | |
| Abidjan Peace AccordLomé Peace AccordUNAMSILBritish interventionSCSL | |
| Political groups | |
| AFRCAPCNPRCSLPP | |
| Ethnic groups | |
| KrioLimbaMendeTemne | |
| See also | |
| Blood diamondFreetownLiberian Civil WarMano River | |
| vte | |
| Operation Barras was a British Army operation that took place in Sierra Leone on 10 September 2000, during the late stages of the nation's civil war. The operation aimed to release five British soldiers of the Royal Irish Regiment and their Sierra Leone Army (SLA) liaison officer, who were being held by a militia group known as the "West Side Boys". The soldiers were part of a patrol that was returning from a visit to Jordanian peacekeepers attached to the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL) at Masiaka on 25 August 2000 when they turned off the main road and down a track towards the village of Magbeni. There the patrol of twelve men was overwhelmed by a large number of heavily armed rebels, taken prisoner, and transported to Gberi Bana on the opposite side of Rokel Creek. | |
| Negotiators secured the release of six of the soldiers, but were unable to gain the freedom of the remaining five and their SLA liaison officer before the West Side Boys' demands became increasingly unrealistic. Negotiators concluded that these were delaying tactics rather than an effort to resolve the crisis. By 9 September, the soldiers had been held for over a fortnight. Fearing that the soldiers would be killed or moved to a location from which it would be more difficult to extract them, the British government authorised an assault on the West Side Boys' base, to take place at dawn the following day, 10 September. | |
| The ground operation was conducted by D Squadron, 22 Regiment Special Air Service—who assaulted Gberi Bana in a bid to extract the Royal Irish—and elements of 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment (1 PARA), who launched a diversionary assault on Magbeni. The operation freed the five soldiers and their SLA liaison officer, as well as twenty-one Sierra Leonean civilians who had been held prisoner by the West Side Boys. At least twenty-five West Side Boys were killed in the assault, as was one British soldier, while eighteen West Side Boys—including the gang's leader, Foday Kallay—were taken prisoner and later transferred to the custody of the Sierra Leone Police. Many West Side Boys fled the area during the assault, and over 300 surrendered to UNAMSIL forces within a fortnight. | |
| The operation restored confidence in the British forces operating in Sierra Leone, which had been undermined by the capture of the Royal Irish patrol. After the operation, the British government increased its support of UNAMSIL and its efforts to bring the civil war to an end, both politically, through the United Nations Security Council, and through the provision of staff officers to support UNAMSIL. The successful use of 1 PARA in Operation Barras influenced the creation of the Special Forces Support Group—a permanent unit, initially built around 1 PARA, whose role is to act as a force multiplier for British special forces on large or complex operations. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Background | |
| 2 Capture of the Royal Irish patrol | |
| 3 Deterioration | |
| 3.1 Military planning | |
| 3.2 Deployment to Sierra Leone | |
| 4 The operation | |
| 4.1 Decision to launch | |
| 4.2 Assault | |
| 4.2.1 Gberi Bana | |
| 4.2.2 Magbeni | |
| 4.2.3 Conclusion of the assault | |
| 5 Aftermath | |
| 6 Long-term impact | |
| 7 See also | |
| 8 Notes | |
| 9 References | |
| Background | |
| See also: British military intervention in the Sierra Leone Civil War | |
| Sierra Leone is a former British colony in West Africa, close to the equator, with an area of 71,740 square kilometres (27,700 square miles)[5]—similar in size to South Carolina or Scotland. By 2000, the country had been consumed by a civil war which had begun in 1991. The West Side Boys[note 1] were a militia group who had been involved in the civil war. They were initially loyal to the Revolutionary United Front (RUF), the rebel army opposing the government; they later fought for the government, against the RUF, and were involved in at least one operation directed by British officers in exchange for weapons and medical supplies.[7] But the West Side Boys refused to integrate into the reconstituted Sierra Leone Army and began operating as bandits from the abandoned villages of Magbeni and Gberi Bana, on opposite sides of Rokel Creek.[2][7][8] | |
| British forces were deployed to Sierra Leone in May 2000, initially for a non-combatant evacuation operation under the codename Operation Palliser, in which they were tasked with evacuating foreign nationals—particularly those from the United Kingdom, other Commonwealth countries, and others for whom the British government had accepted consular responsibility. As part of the mission, British forces secured Sierra Leone's main airport, Lungi. Having secured Freetown and Lungi, and evacuated the foreign nationals who wished to leave, the initial forces left and were replaced by a "Short Term Training Team" (STTT), whose mission was to train and rebuild the Sierra Leone Army. The STTT was initially formed from a detachment from 2nd Battalion, The Royal Anglian Regiment, who were replaced in July 2000 by 1st Battalion, The Royal Irish Regiment (1 R IRISH).[8] | |
| The Special Air Service (SAS) is a corps of the British Army and part of the United Kingdom's special forces. It consists of three regiments, of which two are drawn from the Territorial Army and one regular regiment—22 Regiment, which was involved in Operation Barras. The SAS was formed by Colonel David Stirling in Africa in 1941, at the height of the Second World War's North African Campaign. Its original role was to penetrate enemy lines and strike at airfields and supply lines deep in enemy territory, first in North Africa and later around the Mediterranean and in occupied Europe. Stirling established the principle of using small teams—having realised that small, well-trained teams could sometimes prove much more effective than a unit of hundreds of soldiers. The SAS first entered the public eye after Operation Nimrod, the operation to end the Iranian Embassy siege in 1980.[9] | |
| The 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment (1 PARA) is part of the British Army's infantry and, as in the SAS, applicants must undergo an additional level of scrutiny in order to be accepted. Unlike in the SAS, new recruits to the army can apply to join the Parachute Regiment directly from the Infantry Training Centre at Catterick in Yorkshire (in the case of soldiers) or the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst (for officers). The regiment, whose personnel are commonly known as "paras", specialises in parachute and other types of airborne insertion, and has close ties to the SAS, providing more of its personnel than any other regiment.[10] | |
| Capture of the Royal Irish patrol | |
| Desert-coloured Land Rover with mounted machine gun | |
| A Land Rover with Weapons Mount Installation Kit ("Wimik"), similar to the vehicles used by the Royal Irish patrol, this one in service with the RAF Regiment | |
| On 25 August 2000, a patrol led by Major Allan Marshall consisting of 11 men from the 1 R IRISH and an official from the Sierra Leone Army acting as interpreter, Lieutenant Musa Bangura, left their base in Waterloo to visit Jordanian peacekeepers attached to the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL) and based at Masiaka. Over lunch, they were informed that the West Side Boys had begun to disarm, despite their initial reluctance, and Marshall decided to take the patrol to investigate en route back to their base.[11] | |
| The patrol turned off the main road onto a dirt track that led to the village of Magbeni, where the West Side Boys were based. As they approached the base, they were surrounded by a large group of West Side Boys, who used an anti-aircraft gun mounted on a Bedford truck to block the patrol's route. Marshall dismounted his vehicle, then resisted an attempt to grab his rifle and was beaten. He and the rest of the patrol were then forced into canoes at the bank of Rokel Creek and transported to Gberi Bana, a village on the other side of the river, just upstream from the point of the initial confrontation.[11] | |
| British forces in Sierra Leone were operating on the authority of the Sierra Leone government, but President Ahmad Kabbah allowed British forces to negotiate for the soldiers' release themselves, as his government lacked the requisite expertise. The negotiations were led by Lieutenant Colonel Simon Fordham, commanding officer of 1 R IRISH, who was assisted by a small team which included hostage negotiators from the Metropolitan Police.[12] | |
| The West Side Boys would not allow negotiators any closer to the village of Magbeni than the end of the track from the main road, so Fordham met there with the self-styled "Brigadier"[note 2] Foday Kallay, the gang's leader, to negotiate for the soldiers' release.[14] | |
| On 29 August, Fordham demanded proof that the captive soldiers were still alive, and Kallay brought with him to that day's meeting the two officers from the group—Marshall, the company commander, and Captain Ed Flaherty, the regimental signals officer. During the meeting, Flaherty shook hands with Fordham and covertly passed him a sketch map of Gberi Bana which detailed the layout of the village and the building in which the soldiers were being held.[14] | |
| Two days later, on 31 August, five of the eleven hostages were released in exchange for a satellite telephone and medical supplies.[14][15] The OC of the captured soldiers had originally decided to release the youngest first, but this was changed to the married men last minute. However, out of the married men the West Side Boys wanted two of them to remain due to their signals experience. The released soldiers included the Sergeant Major, two corporals and two rangers. The West Side Boys told the British negotiators that the remaining captured soldiers which included the OC, a Captain, a Sergeant, a Lance Corporal and two Rangers that they would not be released until the gang's remaining demands were met. The released soldiers were flown for debriefing to RFA Sir Percivale, of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary, off the coast.[14] | |
| After the release of the soldiers, the West Side Boys' spokesman, the self-styled "Colonel Cambodia", used the satellite telephone to contact the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) for a lengthy interview in which they outlined a series of demands, including a re-negotiation of the Lomé Peace Accord and the release of prisoners held by the Sierra Leone authorities. The BBC had prior warning from the Foreign Office that the interview would take place. "Colonel Cambodia" quickly depleted the batteries in the telephone, but his call to the BBC enabled specialists from the Royal Corps of Signals to determine the exact position of the telephone.[14] | |
| Deterioration | |
| The West Side Boys were unstable, possibly due to use of cannabis and cocaine, and their behaviour during the crisis was erratic.[14] After their release, the five soldiers described an incident in which Kallay, dissatisfied with their explanation, conducted a mock execution in which he threatened to shoot the soldiers unless they told him why they had entered the West Side Boys' territory. The gang's drug habits also posed a problem for the British negotiators as their cannabis use caused them to forget previous discussions and the cocaine made them distrustful.[14] | |
| During the negotiations, the relatives of several of the West Side Boys were brought to the gang's camp to ask them to release the British soldiers. The gang responded that they had nothing against the soldiers, but that holding them had brought attention to their demands—which now included immunity from prosecution, safe passage to the UK to take up university courses, and guaranteed acceptance to the re-formed Sierra Leone Army.[16] | |
| Military planning | |
| Around the time that the five soldiers were released, two negotiators from the SAS joined Fordham's negotiating team. One of them joined Fordham in several meetings with the West Side Boys, posing as a Royal Irish major in order to provide reconnaissance and gather intelligence in case an assault was required. Shortly after the patrol's capture Surgeon Lieutenant Jon Carty RN, the medical officer on board HMS Argyll—which was operating off the coast—was brought ashore to assess the soldiers, should they be freed, or to provide immediate care in the event of an assault resulting in casualties. Argyll also served as a temporary base for two Army Air Corps Lynx attack helicopters from No. 657 Squadron which had been flown to Sierra Leone to support any direct action.[16] | |
| An officer in warm-weather uniform | |
| General Sir David Richards (then a brigadier), was commander of British forces in Sierra Leone in 2000. | |
| As planning for a potential military operation to release the captive soldiers progressed, it became clear that, given the number of West Side Boys and their separation between two locations (Gberi Bana as well as the village of Magbeni; see below), the operation could not be conducted by special forces alone.[17] Thus, the headquarters of 1st Battalion The Parachute Regiment (1 PARA) was ordered to assemble an enhanced company group, which would support special forces if such an operation was launched. The battalion's commanding officer selected A Company, led by Major Matthew Lowe, which had been on exercise in Jamaica at the time of the initial British deployment to Sierra Leone.[18][19] | |
| Several members of A Company were new recruits who had only completed basic training two weeks prior. Lowe decided that replacing them with more experienced soldiers would risk undermining the cohesion and morale of the company, but several specialist units from elsewhere in 1 PARA were attached to A Company to bring the company group up to the required strength, including a signals group, snipers, heavy machine gun sections, and a mortar section.[18][19] The additional firepower was included to maximise the options available to the planners, given that the West Side Boys had a numerical advantage and that additional resources would not be immediately available should the operation run into difficulties.[20] | |
| On 31 August, the company group was ordered to move to South Cerney in Gloucestershire, under the cover story that they were conducting a "readiness to move" exercise. It was only at this point, and after all mobile telephones had been confiscated to ensure operational security,[note 3] that the entire company was briefed on the operation that was being planned. With the operation becoming more likely to be launched, Lowe and his planning group flew to Dakar, Senegal, on 3 September to continue planning and to study intelligence gathered from SAS patrols operating near the West Side Boys' camp.[18] | |
| The British government feared that deployment of forces to Sierra Leone might precipitate an adverse reaction by the West Side Boys against the captive soldiers. They calculated that it would take 14 hours to launch an assault from the United Kingdom should it be required in an emergency, so the remainder of the company group was also moved to Dakar in order to reduce the response time.[22] | |
| In order to further reduce the response time, political authority to launch the assault in an emergency was delegated to the British High Commissioner in Freetown, Alan Jones, while the military decision was delegated to Brigadier David Richards, commander of British forces in Sierra Leone.[20] Two days later, a pair of SAS observation teams (one on each side of Rokel Creek) were inserted near the villages by assault boats manned by the Special Boat Service (SBS)—the Royal Navy's special forces unit. They began monitoring the West Side Boys' movements and gathering intelligence, such as details of weapons, as well as identifying viable landing sites for helicopters.[18][23] | |
| With the progression of the plans, the enhanced A Company was tasked with planning for an assault on the village of Magbeni, to the south of Rokel Creek, while the SAS would aim to release the captive Royal Irish soldiers by assaulting Gberi Bana, on the north bank. The Magbeni assault had several purposes: to neutralise weapons in the village which could disrupt the SAS operation, to distract the West Side Boys in Magbeni and prevent them from crossing Rokel Creek to interfere with the operation in Gberi Bana, to defeat the West Side Boys and destroy their military capabilities, and to recover the Royal Irish patrol's vehicles.[19][24] | |
| Several methods of insertion were considered, both for the paras and the special forces personnel, including an overland approach using four-wheel drive vehicles, and a water-borne insertion using the same method by which the SAS observation teams had arrived at their position. The planning group decided that the overland approach would not allow troops to enter the village undetected, largely due to the West Side Boys' roadblocks on the road into the village, and that insertion from Rokel Creek was not feasible for large numbers of troops due to the sandbanks and powerful currents in the river. Thus, it was decided that the insertions would be made from three Royal Air Force Chinook helicopters from No. 7 Squadron, which had been in Sierra Leone since the beginning of Operation Palliser.[25] | |
| Deployment to Sierra Leone | |
| By 5 September, the British media was openly speculating on the possibility that an operation would be launched to free the remaining soldiers, having picked up on 1 PARA's heightened readiness. The following day, the media was reporting that British forces had arrived in Sierra Leone "as a contingency". The British special forces kept a low profile, as was traditional, and the media interest surrounding 1 PARA allowed D Squadron, 299 signal squadron, 22 SAS to enter Sierra Leone unnoticed.[26] | |
| The enhanced A Company group—approximately 130 troops in total—arrived in the country in several groups and joined the SAS, who had already established a base in Hastings, a village 30 miles (50 kilometres) south of Freetown, where several of the paras recognised former colleagues among the troopers from D Squadron. At Hastings, the paras focused on live firing exercises and rehearsed various scenarios in a scale replica of Magbeni which had been constructed at the camp.[27][28] | |
| As well as learning the layout of the village and refining battle technique, the rehearsals allowed the soldiers to acclimatise to the tropical heat, and led commanders to the decision that the paras would go into battle with minimal equipment to reduce the risk of heat exhaustion—excluding weapons and ammunition, they would carry only water and field dressings. Some officers feared that the weight of body armour would increase the risk of heat exhaustion, but commanders hoped that the cooler temperatures of the early morning (when the operation was planned to be launched) would mitigate the effects of the weight, and decided to order its use.[28] | |
| A day after the arrival of the paras, Director Special Forces (DSF), Brigadier John Holmes, arrived in Freetown with a headquarters staff which included the commanding officer of 22 SAS and the officer commanding D Squadron, as well as three personnel from the Royal Air Force's Tactical Communications Wing. Holmes based himself at Seaview House, the British military headquarters in Freetown, near the British High Commission. From there, his staff established contact with the SAS observation teams on either side of Rokel Creek and with COBRA,[note 4] the British government's emergency committee in London.[30][31] The DSF, who usually attends COBRA meetings during crises which may require the use of special forces, was represented by his chief of staff and by Lieutenant Colonel Tim Collins,[note 5] operations officer at Headquarters Special Forces.[23][32] | |
| The operation | |
| Decision to launch | |
| On 9 September, "Colonel Cambodia" stated that the remaining six members of the Royal Irish patrol, who had now been held for over a fortnight, would be released only after a new government was formed in Sierra Leone. The negotiators concluded that the West Side Boys' increasingly unrealistic demands were stalling tactics rather than a serious attempt to conclude the crisis. At around the same time, the SAS teams near the West Side Boys' base reported that they had seen no sign of the captive soldiers during the four days they had been in position. There were also concerns that the West Side Boys might move further inland, and either kill the soldiers or move them to a location from which it would be more difficult for British forces to extract them. The combination of these factors led COBRA to order an assault.[33] | |
| The operation was to commence at first light the next day, 10 September. The intervening time was spent securing the political and legal basis for the raid. Final approval was gained from Sierra Leonean President Ahmad Kabbah, and British Prime Minister Tony Blair, while the Army Legal Corps secured approval from the Sierra Leonean Police. Fordham, who had been leading the negotiations, telephoned the West Side Boys and was able to establish that the captive soldiers were alive, and the final orders were issued in the evening of 9 September.[33] | |
| The two villages were to be assaulted simultaneously—Gberi Bana, where the Royal Irish were held, by the SAS and Magbeni by the paras. In addition to the remaining Royal Irish soldiers, the SAS were also tasked with extracting Lieutenant Musa Bangura—the patrol's SLA liaison, whose extraction was given the same priority as that of the Royal Irish—and a group of Sierra Leonean civilians who were being held by the West Side Boys.[34] | |
| Assault | |
| Marines descending from a helicopter with no equipment other than a rope | |
| US Marines fast-roping from a Sea Knight—the same insertion technique used by the SAS at Gberi Bana | |
| The task force left Hastings—approximately 15 minutes' flying time from the West Side Boys' camp—at approximately 06:15.[35] Downstream from the villages—approximately 15 minutes' flying time, just out of the West Side Boys' visual and hearing range, the helicopters went into a holding pattern to allow the SAS observation teams time to get into position to prevent the West Side Boys from attacking any of the captives before the extraction teams were on the ground. Once the observation teams were in position, the helicopters proceeded up the line of Rokel Creek, the Chinooks flying low enough that the downdraft tore off the corrugated iron roofs of several huts in the villages, including the roof of the building in which the Royal Irish were being held.[34] | |
| As the helicopters approached, the SAS observation team at Gberi Bana engaged West Side Boys in the vicinity of the captives to prevent any gang members from attempting to kill them before the area was secured.[34] Upon their arrival, the two Lynx attack helicopters strafed the villages to make the landing zones as safe as possible for the Chinooks and destroy the heavy weapons that had been identified by the SAS observation teams.[36] | |
| Gberi Bana | |
| After the first sweep by the attack helicopters, two Chinooks carried the SAS to Gberi Bana. The troopers fast-roped into the village and immediately came under fire from the West Side Boys. Early on in the confrontation, the British operation sustained its first casualty—a round entered Trooper Bradley Tinnion's flank, leaving him seriously injured. He was dragged back to the helicopter and flown to the medical team aboard the RFA Sir Percivale, dying despite intensive resuscitation attempts on board. The SAS proceeded to clear the village, engaging those West Side Boys who offered resistance and capturing those who surrendered, including Foday Kallay.[36] | |
| The SAS located the captive British soldiers from the latter's shouts of "British Army, British Army!", though Bangura had been held separately and proved more difficult to locate. He was found in a squalid open pit, which had been used by the West Side Boys as a lavatory,[37] and had been starved and beaten during his captivity, and thus had to be carried to the helicopter. Less than 20 minutes after the arrival of the SAS, the remaining members of the Royal Irish patrol, including Bangura, had been evacuated from the area.[36] | |
| As the SAS operation concluded, the Chinooks ferried prisoners and bodies from Gberi Bana to the Jordanian battalion of UNAMSIL. From there, the bodies would be identified and buried, and those prisoners identified as West Side Boys would be handed over to the Sierra Leonean Police.[38][39] Operation Barras also freed 22 Sierra Leonean civilians who had been held captive by the West Side Boys—the men were used as servants and put through crude military training by the West Side Boys, possibly with the intention of forcing them to fight in the future, while the women were used as sex slaves. Planners had been concerned that West Side Boys might try to conceal themselves among the civilians and so the civilians were also restrained and taken to the Jordanian peacekeepers' base to be identified. A 23rd civilian was caught in the crossfire and killed during the assault.[37][40] | |
| Magbeni | |
| A vehicle being carried underneath a helicopter | |
| A RAF Chinook with underslung Land Rover, a procedure used to retrieve the Royal Irish patrol's vehicles from Magbeni | |
| The third Chinook carried half of the enhanced A Company group from 1 PARA to Magbeni. The helicopter hovered low above the landing zone that had been identified by the second SAS observation team and the paras jumped from the rear ramp. The observation team had warned that the ground was wet but had been unable to determine the depth of the water, so the paras were surprised to find themselves jumping into a chest-deep swamp. The majority of the first group immediately waded through the swamp to get to the nearby tree line and from there to the village, but a small party tasked with securing the landing zone had to wait in the swamp for the Chinook to pick up the remaining members of the company group and return to insert them at the landing zone.[41] | |
| The returning Chinook, carrying the remainder of the A Company group including second-in-command (2IC) Captain Danny Matthews, came under fire from a heavy machine gun in Magbeni, which was promptly strafed by one of the 657 Squadron Lynx helicopters until it ceased firing. The soldiers in Matthews' helicopter exited and joined the first half of the company group on the ground. As the company group moved forward, an explosion—possibly a mortar fired by the British fire support group—injured seven men, including company commander Major Matthew Lowe, one of the platoon commanders, a signaller, and two of Lowe's headquarters staff.[42] | |
| Another signaller radioed in a casualty report, and one of the Chinooks en route to Gberi Bana to extract the Royal Irish (who had just been freed by the SAS) landed on the track through the village. The casualties were loaded onto the helicopter, which then picked up the Royal Irish and flew to RFA Sir Percivale where all 13 men were assessed by medics.[42] | |
| The operation continued under the leadership of Matthews, the company 2IC, who had taken command almost immediately after the company commander was wounded. Under his command, each of the platoons assaulted a different cluster of buildings to which they had been assigned during training on the replica village at Hastings. The West Side Boys' ammunition store was found and secured and, once the rest of the buildings had been cleared, the paras took up defensive positions to block any potential counter-attack and patrols went into the immediate jungle in search of any West Side Boys hiding in the bushes.[43] | |
| The village was completely secure by 08:00 and the paras secured the approaches with Claymore mines and mortars positioned to prevent a counter-attack, while a detachment destroyed the remaining vehicles and heavy weapons including the Bedford lorry which had blocked the Royal Irish patrol. The paras also recovered the Royal Irish patrol's Land Rovers, which were slung under the Chinooks and removed. The last British soldiers left the area at approximately 14:00.[43] | |
| Conclusion of the assault | |
| The remaining members of the captured patrol were flown to RFA Sir Percivale. Fordham visited the men shortly after the operation and stated "they looked remarkably well considering the ordeal they had been through" and described them as being "physically and mentally exhausted".[44] After medical checks, the soldiers, who had been held for 17 days, were allowed to telephone their families and then rejoined their battalion in Freetown. The paras were flown to RFA Argus where they spent the night before being flown back to the United Kingdom the next day. D Squadron, 22 SAS also left Sierra Leone the day after the operation, along with Director Special Forces and his headquarters staff.[44] | |
| Aftermath | |
| A grey-haired bespectacled man in a suit | |
| Talk show host Sir David Frost, who broke the news of Operation Barras to the British public | |
| The operation was the first time in its history that the SAS had been deployed to rescue other members of the British Army. One British soldier, Bradley Tinnion, died after being wounded during the operation, having been evacuated to HMS Argyll.[45] Another twelve soldiers were injured, one seriously.[46] The British Ministry of Defence (MoD) did not officially acknowledge the involvement of special forces, issuing a press release which made no mention of the SAS, but when it was made public that Tinnion was a Lance Bombardier originally from 29 Commando Regiment Royal Artillery, it became clear to experts that Tinnion had been serving with special forces. Operation Barras was Tinnion's first operational deployment as an SAS trooper.[36] | |
| Confirmed to have died in the operation were 25 West Side Boys, although the true figure is probably higher, possibly as many 80. The gang's resistance was stronger than expected and there was speculation that more bodies lay undiscovered in the jungle.[47][48] Several other West Side Boys were captured, while others fled into the jungle. Many of those who fled later surrendered to Jordanian peacekeepers. The Jordanians had received 30 by the end of the day, and 371—including 57 children—had surrendered within a fortnight of Operation Barras, to which Julius Spencer, Sierra Leone's Minister for Information, declared that the West Side boys were "finished as a military threat".[44][49] | |
| Some of those who surrendered went on to volunteer for the new Sierra Leone Army and those who were accepted went into the British-run training programme. Kallay, the gang's leader, recorded a message for broadcast on Sierra Leonean radio urging the remaining West Side Boys to surrender to UNAMSIL. He also identified the bodies of West Side Boys killed in Magbeni and Gberi Bana, which were subsequently buried in a mass grave.[44] | |
| The morning of the operation, General Sir Charles Guthrie, Chief of the Defence Staff (CDS)—the professional head of the British Armed Forces—was coincidentally due to appear on Breakfast with Frost, a Sunday morning political television programme hosted by Sir David Frost. The first public knowledge of Operation Barras came from Guthrie's interview with Frost, which took place while the operation was still concluding. Guthrie told Frost "[W]e didn't want to have to assault, because it's a very difficult operation, there are big risks in it but we have done it [...] because our negotiations were getting nowhere. The hostages had been there for three weeks, they [the West Side Boys] were threatening to kill them, or they were threatening to move them to other parts of Sierra Leone and once they'd done that we'd never be able to recover [the soldiers] with ease, which I hope we've done this morning".[50] The MoD issued a press release with more details later in the day.[3] | |
| names engraved into a stone plaque | |
| Wider view of the memorial | |
| Memorial to 29 Commando Regiment Royal Artillery (Tinnion's unit prior to being attached to the SAS) in Plymouth, bearing Tinnion's name | |
| Several decorations were awarded to the personnel who took part in Operation Barras, including two Conspicuous Gallantry Crosses (Parachute Regiment Colour Sergeant John David Baycroft and Royal Air Force Squadron Leader Iain James McKechnie MacFarlane), five Military Crosses (Parachute Regiment Warrant Officer Class 2 Harry William Bartlett, Major James Robert Chiswell, Captain Evan John Jeaffreson Fuery, Sergeant Stephen Michael Christopher Heaney, and Acting Captain Daniel John Matthews), and five Distinguished Flying Crosses (Royal Air Force Flight Lieutenant Timothy James Burgess, Squadron Leader Iain James McKechnie MacFarlane, Flight Lieutenant Jonathan Priest, Flight Lieutenant Paul Graham Shepherd, and Army Air Corps Captain Allan Laughlan Moyes). Holmes (Director Special Forces) was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his part in the operation.[50] Tinnion received a posthumous Mention in Despatches.[51] | |
| Marshall was later transferred to another regiment at his own request, while two of the soldiers on the patrol subsequently left the army and another two transferred to "Home Service" units (those based permanently in Northern Ireland).[52] | |
| Long-term impact | |
| A photograph of a man with greying hair speaking into a microphone and gesturing with his left hand | |
| Tony Blair, then British prime minister, authorised Operation Barras and ordered the original intervention in Sierra Leone by British forces. | |
| The capture of the Royal Irish patrol had undermined the confidence of the Sierra Leonean population in the British operation, which they hoped would help to bring an end to the country's civil war, and embarrassed the British government, which had been critical of similar previous incidents involving UNAMSIL personnel.[2][15] Operation Barras restored confidence in the British forces, prompting military historian William Fowler to call the operation "a necessarily spectacular endorsement of the rule of law and the elected government of Sierra Leone".[53] | |
| The British media struck a celebratory note at the success of Operation Barras, but some suggested that Marshall had erred in diverting the patrol off the main road to visit the West Side Boys. Both Marshall and Bangura—the patrol's Sierra Leone Army liaison—were adamant that the patrol had been asked by the Jordanian peacekeepers serving with UNAMSIL to, in Bangura's words, "take a closer look".[54] However, the commander of UNAMSIL—General Mohamed Garba of Nigeria—initially denied that the Royal Irish had met the Jordanians and both UNAMSIL HQ and the Jordanian commanding officer denied that the patrol were asked to investigate the West Side Boys' camp.[54][55] | |
| An investigation into the capture of the patrol was launched by Land Command and a senior officer was despatched to Freetown to debrief the members of the patrol. The report was critical of Marshall, stating that he "made an error of professional judgement in diverting from a planned and authorised journey to make an unauthorised visit to the village of Magbeni."[55] | |
| The risks of Operation Barras were acknowledged by the MoD and by officers involved in the planning and the assault. It was described by an SAS soldier as "not a clinical, black balaclava, Princes Gate type operation. It was a very grubby, green operation with lots of potential for things to go wrong".[55] Richard Connaughton observed in the journal Small Wars & Insurgencies that the operation showed that Tony Blair's government was not averse to the possibility of casualties where they felt the cause was just.[56][55] | |
| Geoff Hoon, British Secretary of State for Defence, summed up the effect of the operation at a press conference, stating that "[Operation Barras] sends a number of powerful messages. Firstly, it is a yet further demonstration of the refusal of successive British governments to do deals with terrorists and hostage takers. Secondly, we hope the West Side Group [sic] and other rebel units in Sierra Leone will now [...] accept the rule of law and the authority of the democratically elected government of Sierra Leone. Thirdly, we hope all those who may in future consider taking similar actions against UK armed forces will think carefully about the possible consequences and realise there is nothing to be gained by such action".[24] | |
| Andrew M. Dorman of King's College London suggested that the fate of the wider British operation in Sierra Leone depended heavily on the success or failure of Operation Barras and that, had the British forces been defeated, the United Kingdom would have been forced to withdraw all its forces from Sierra Leone. Dorman also suggests that a defeat would have "raised questions" regarding Tony Blair's policy of using armed force for humanitarian intervention.[57][58] | |
| The success of Operation Barras was a factor in the decision to form the Special Forces Support Group (SFSG), a permanent unit whose role is to act as a force multiplier for British special forces on large or complex operations. The SFSG was formed in 2006 from an infantry battalion—originally 1 PARA, which was the first battalion to serve in the role—with supporting elements from the Royal Marines and Royal Air Force Regiment. The SFSG went on to support special forces operations in Afghanistan and Iraq.[59] | |
| The capture of the Royal Irish patrol and the effectiveness of the operation to free them prompted the British government to increase its support of UNAMSIL, both politically and through the provision of staff officers to assist UNAMSIL's operational headquarters (though not with a significant contribution of peacekeepers, despite considerable lobbying). The British also applied political pressure through the United Nations Security Council on the Revolutionary United Front (RUF)—the second main party to the civil war after the government—and on Sierra Leone's neighbour Liberia, which had provided support to the RUF. The new approach, combined with a larger and more powerful UNAMSIL, hastened the demobilisation of the RUF and thus the end of the Sierra Leone Civil War.[60][61] | |
| See also | |
| Operation Khukri, similar operation to rescue two companies of Indian soldiers | |
| Notes | |
| The West Side Boys derived their name from New York gang culture and were known to themselves as the "West Side Soldiers" or sometimes the "West Side Niggaz", which they changed to "West Side Boys" as the latter would not be acceptable for use in news reports.[6][2] | |
| Some West Side Boys had served as soldiers or junior officers in the Sierra Leone Army, but they styled themselves with grand titles and awarded themselves inflated ranks.[13] | |
| Operational security was tight throughout the preparations for Operation Barras—even the negotiating team were not informed that the operation was going to take place. Several rumours emerged that the Royal Irish were warned of the assault, including one that they were warned with the cryptic statement "Sally and Sarah send their regards and so does Dawn" (the SAS are coming at first light). Given the level of operational security, these rumours are almost certainly myths.[21] | |
| COBRA is a British government committee convened to handle national crises. The committee is named after the room in which it meets—the Cabinet Office Briefing Room—and usually known as "COBRA" or "Cobra" or sometimes "COBR". Similarly to the SAS, COBRA first became known to the public during the Iranian Embassy siege.[29][30] | |
| Tim Collins, late of the Royal Irish Regiment, was serving as operations officer under the DSF during Barras. Officers serving with special forces usually return to their parent regiment after their tour of duty, and Collins' next duty was as commanding officer of 1 R IRISH. | |
| References | |
| Bibliography | |
| Collins, Tim (2005). Rules of Engagement: A Life in Conflict. London: Headline Publishing Group. ISBN 9780755313747. | |
| Connaughton, Richard (September 2001). "Operation 'Barass' (sic)". Small Wars & Insurgencies. London: Routledge. 12 (2): 110–119. doi:10.1080/714005388. S2CID 220390148. | |
| Dorman, Andrew M. (2009). Blair's Successful War: British Military Intervention in Sierra Leone. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 9780754672999. | |
| Fowler, William (2004). Operation Barras: The SAS Rescue Mission: Sierra Leone 2000. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 9780297846284. | |
| Fowler, William (2010). Certain Death in Sierra Leone – The SAS and Operation Barras 2000. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781846038501. | |
| Fremont-Barnes, Gregory (2009). Who Dares Wins: The SAS and the Iranian Embassy Siege 1980. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781846033957. | |
| Neville, Leigh (2016). The SAS 1983–2014. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781472814036. | |
| Citations | |
| Fowler, 2004, p. 126. | |
| Connaughton, p. 110. | |
| Fowler, 2010, p. 58. | |
| Fowler, 2004, p. 149. | |
| "Sierra Leone". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 19 October 2012. | |
| Fowler, 2004, p. 210. | |
| Fowler, 2004, p. 110. | |
| Fowler, 2010, pp. 7–9. | |
| Fremont-Barnes, pp. 6–7. | |
| Fowler, 2010, p. 24. | |
| Fowler, 2010, pp. 10–12. | |
| Dorman, p. 106. | |
| Fowler, 2004, pp. 110–111. | |
| Fowler, 2010, pp. 13–16. | |
| Connaughton, p. 111. | |
| Fowler, 2010, pp. 17–21. | |
| Dorman, p. 108. | |
| Fowler, 2010, pp. 21–27. | |
| Fowler, 2004, p. 115. | |
| Dorman, p. 109. | |
| Fowler, 2004, p. 151. | |
| Fowler, 2004, p. 123. | |
| Fowler, 2004, p. 124. | |
| Dorman, p. 113. | |
| Fowler, 2010, pp. 26–29. | |
| Fowler, 2010, p. 28. | |
| Connaughton, p. 112. | |
| Fowler, 2010, pp. 29–30. | |
| Fremont-Barnes, p. 22. | |
| Fowler, 2004, pp. 123–124 | |
| Fowler, 2010, p. 31. | |
| Collins, p. 13. | |
| Fowler, 2010, pp. 32–33. | |
| Fowler, 2010, pp. 38–39. | |
| Fowler, 2004, p. 137. | |
| Fowler, 2010, pp. 42–43. | |
| Fowler, 2010, p. 52. | |
| Fowler, 2010, p. 54. | |
| Fowler, 2004, p. 128. | |
| Mcgreal, Chris; Morris, Steven; Wintour, Patrick (11 September 2000). "After 16 long days, free in 20 minutes". The Guardian. Guardian News and Media. Retrieved 6 October 2012. | |
| Fowler, 2010, p. 43. | |
| Fowler, 2010, pp. 46–47. | |
| Fowler, 2010, pp. 50–54. | |
| Fowler, 2010, p. 55. | |
| Neville, pp. 31–32. | |
| Fowler, 2010, p. 57. | |
| Fowler, 2010, p. 51. | |
| Neville, p. 32. | |
| Connaughton, p. 117. | |
| Fowler, 2010, pp. 56–57. | |
| Fowler, 2004, p. 176. | |
| Collins, pp. 25–27. | |
| Fowler, 2004, p. 158. | |
| Fowler, 2010, p. 18. | |
| Fowler, 2010, pp. 59–60. | |
| Connaughton, p. 116. | |
| Dorman, pp. 113–114. | |
| Dorman, p. 9. | |
| Fowler, 2010, p. 61. | |
| Dorman, pp. 115–122. | |
| Fowler, 2004, p. 177. | |
| Coordinates: 8°33′22″N 12°47′49″W | |
| Authority control: National libraries Edit this at Wikidata | |
| United States | |
| Categories: 2000 in Sierra Leone20th-century military history of the United KingdomConflicts in 2000Military operations involving the United KingdomMilitary raidsOperations involving British special forcesParachute Regiment (United Kingdom)Royal Irish Regiment (1992)Sierra Leone Civil WarSpecial Air ServiceSierra Leone–United Kingdom relations | |
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| English language | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
| Jump to navigationJump to search | |
| For other uses, see English (disambiguation). | |
| English | |
| Pronunciation /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/[1] | |
| Ethnicity English people | |
| Anglo-Saxons (historically) | |
| Native speakers 360–400 million (2006)[2] | |
| L2 speakers: 750 million; | |
| as a foreign language: 600–700 million[2] | |
| Language family | |
| Indo-European | |
| Germanic | |
| West Germanic | |
| North Sea Germanic | |
| Anglo-Frisian | |
| Anglic | |
| English | |
| Early forms | |
| Old English | |
| Middle English | |
| Early Modern English | |
| Writing system | |
| Latin (English alphabet) | |
| Anglo Saxon runes (historically) | |
| English Braille, Unified English Braille | |
| Signed forms Manually coded English | |
| (multiple systems) | |
| Official status | |
| Official language in | |
| 59 countries | |
| 27 non-sovereign entities | |
| Various organisations | |
| Recognised minority | |
| language in | |
| Worldwide, especially in | |
| Greenland | |
| Malaysia | |
| Sri Lanka | |
| Bahrain | |
| Various others[citation needed] | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-1 en | |
| ISO 639-2 eng | |
| ISO 639-3 eng | |
| Glottolog stan1293 | |
| Linguasphere 52-ABA | |
| English language distribution.svg | |
| Regions where English is a majority native language | |
| Regions where English is official or widely spoken, but not as a primary native language | |
| This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. | |
| Part of a series on the | |
| English language | |
| Topics | |
| English-speaking worldAs a second languageHistory | |
| Advanced topics | |
| English as a lingua francaEuropean languageModern EnglishLoanwordsLinguistic purism | |
| Phonology | |
| Phonology (History) | |
| Dialects | |
| EnglishAmericanAnguillianAntiguanAustralianBahamianBajanBay IslandsBelizeanBermudianBruneiBurmeseCameroonianCanadianCaribbeanFalkland IslandsFijianGambianGuyaneseGhanaianIndianIrishJamaicanKenyanLiberianMalawianMalaysianManxMyanmarNamibianNepaliNew ZealandNigerianPakistaniPhilippineSan Andrés–ProvidenciaScottishSingaporeSouth AfricanSouth AtlanticSri LankanTrinidadian and TobagonianUgandanWelshZimbabweansee also: List of dialects of English | |
| Teaching | |
| Teaching English as a second languageCategory:English words and phrases | |
| Higher category: Language | |
| vte | |
| English is a West Germanic language of the Indo-European language family, originally spoken by the inhabitants of early medieval England.[3][4][5] It is named after the Angles, one of the ancient Germanic peoples that migrated from Anglia, a peninsula on the Baltic Sea (not to be confused with East Anglia in England), to the area of Great Britain later named after them: England. The closest living relatives of English include Scots, followed by the Low Saxon and Frisian languages. While English is genealogically West Germanic, its vocabulary is also distinctively influenced by Old Norman French and Latin, as well as by Old Norse (a North Germanic language).[6][7][8] Speakers of English are called Anglophones. | |
| The earliest forms of English, evolved from a group of West Germanic (Ingvaeonic) dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the 5th century and further mutated by Norse-speaking Viking settlers starting in the 8th and 9th centuries, are collectively called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, after which considerable French (especially Old Norman) and Latinate vocabulary was incorporated into English over some three hundred years.[9][10] Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London, the printing of the King James Bible and the start of the Great Vowel Shift.[11] | |
| Modern English has spread around the world since the 17th century as a consequence of the worldwide influence of the British Empire and the United States of America. Through all types of printed and electronic media of these countries, English has become the leading language of international discourse and the lingua franca in many regions and professional contexts such as science, navigation and law.[3] Modern English grammar is the result of a gradual change from a typical Indo-European dependent-marking pattern, with a rich inflectional morphology and relatively free word order, to a mostly analytic pattern with little inflection, and a fairly fixed subject–verb–object word order.[12] Modern English relies more on auxiliary verbs and word order for the expression of complex tenses, aspect and mood, as well as passive constructions, interrogatives and some negation. | |
| English is the most spoken language in the world (if Chinese is divided into variants)[13] and the third-most spoken native language in the world, after Standard Chinese and Spanish.[14] It is the most widely learned second language and is either the official language or one of the official languages in 59 sovereign states. There are more people who have learned English as a second language than there are native speakers. As of 2005, it was estimated that there were over 2 billion speakers of English.[15] English is the majority native language in the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand (see Anglosphere) and the Republic of Ireland, and is widely spoken in some areas of the Caribbean, Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia and Oceania.[16] It is a co-official language of the United Nations, the European Union and many other world and regional international organisations. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch. There is much variability among the many accents and dialects of English used in different countries and regions in terms of phonetics and phonology, and sometimes also vocabulary, idioms, grammar, and spelling, but it does not typically prevent understanding by speakers of other dialects and accents, although mutual unintelligibility can occur at extreme ends of the dialect continuum. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Classification | |
| 2 History | |
| 2.1 Proto-Germanic to Old English | |
| 2.2 Middle English | |
| 2.3 Early Modern English | |
| 2.4 Spread of Modern English | |
| 3 Geographical distribution | |
| 3.1 Three circles of English-speaking countries | |
| 3.2 Pluricentric English | |
| 3.3 English as a global language | |
| 4 Phonology | |
| 4.1 Consonants | |
| 4.2 Vowels | |
| 4.3 Phonotactics | |
| 4.4 Stress, rhythm and intonation | |
| 4.5 Regional variation | |
| 5 Grammar | |
| 5.1 Nouns and noun phrases | |
| 5.1.1 Adjectives | |
| 5.1.2 Pronouns, case, and person | |
| 5.1.3 Prepositions | |
| 5.2 Verbs and verb phrases | |
| 5.2.1 Tense, aspect and mood | |
| 5.2.2 Phrasal verbs | |
| 5.2.3 Adverbs | |
| 5.3 Syntax | |
| 5.3.1 Basic constituent order | |
| 5.3.2 Clause syntax | |
| 5.3.3 Auxiliary verb constructions | |
| 5.3.4 Questions | |
| 5.3.5 Discourse level syntax | |
| 6 Vocabulary | |
| 6.1 Word formation processes | |
| 6.2 Word origins | |
| 6.3 English loanwords and calques in other languages | |
| 7 Writing system | |
| 8 Dialects, accents, and varieties | |
| 8.1 Britain and Ireland | |
| 8.2 North America | |
| 8.3 Australia and New Zealand | |
| 8.4 Southeast Asia | |
| 8.5 Africa, the Caribbean, and South Asia | |
| 9 Sample text | |
| 10 See also | |
| 11 References | |
| 12 Bibliography | |
| 13 External links | |
| Classification | |
| Anglic languages | |
| English | |
| Scots | |
| Anglo-Frisian languages | |
| Anglic and | |
| Frisian (West, North, Saterland) | |
| North Sea Germanic languages Anglo-Frisian and | |
| Low German/Low Saxon | |
| West Germanic languages | |
| North Sea Germanic and | |
| Dutch; in Africa: Afrikaans | |
| ...... German (High): | |
| Central; in Lux.: Luxembourgish | |
| Upper | |
| ...... Yiddish | |
| The West Germanic languages | |
| English is an Indo-European language and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages.[17] Old English originated from a Germanic tribal and linguistic continuum along the Frisian North Sea coast, whose languages gradually evolved into the Anglic languages in the British Isles, and into the Frisian languages and Low German/Low Saxon on the continent. The Frisian languages, which together with the Anglic languages form the Anglo-Frisian languages, are the closest living relatives of English. Low German/Low Saxon is also closely related, and sometimes English, the Frisian languages, and Low German are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic (North Sea Germanic) languages, though this grouping remains debated.[7] Old English evolved into Middle English, which in turn evolved into Modern English.[18] Particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other Anglic languages, including Scots[19] and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy (Yola) dialects of Ireland.[20] | |
| Like Icelandic and Faroese, the development of English in the British Isles isolated it from the continental Germanic languages and influences, and it has since diverged considerably. English is not mutually intelligible with any continental Germanic language, differing in vocabulary, syntax, and phonology, although some of these, such as Dutch or Frisian, do show strong affinities with English, especially with its earlier stages.[21] | |
| Unlike Icelandic and Faroese, which were isolated, the development of English was influenced by a long series of invasions of the British Isles by other peoples and languages, particularly Old Norse and Norman French. These left a profound mark of their own on the language, so that English shows some similarities in vocabulary and grammar with many languages outside its linguistic clades—but it is not mutually intelligible with any of those languages either. Some scholars have argued that English can be considered a mixed language or a creole—a theory called the Middle English creole hypothesis. Although the great influence of these languages on the vocabulary and grammar of Modern English is widely acknowledged, most specialists in language contact do not consider English to be a true mixed language.[22][23] | |
| English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares innovations with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German, and Swedish.[24] These shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor called Proto-Germanic. Some shared features of Germanic languages include the division of verbs into strong and weak classes, the use of modal verbs, and the sound changes affecting Proto-Indo-European consonants, known as Grimm's and Verner's laws. English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic (see Phonological history of Old English § Palatalization).[25] | |
| History | |
| Main article: History of English | |
| Proto-Germanic to Old English | |
| Main article: Old English | |
| The opening to the Old English epic poem Beowulf, handwritten in half-uncial script: | |
| Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... | |
| "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..." | |
| The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon (c. year 550–1066). Old English developed from a set of West Germanic dialects, often grouped as Anglo-Frisian or North Sea Germanic, and originally spoken along the coasts of Frisia, Lower Saxony and southern Jutland by Germanic peoples known to the historical record as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes.[26][27] From the 5th century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain as the Roman economy and administration collapsed. By the 7th century, the Germanic language of the Anglo-Saxons became dominant in Britain, replacing the languages of Roman Britain (43–409): Common Brittonic, a Celtic language, and Latin, brought to Britain by the Roman occupation.[28][29][30] England and English (originally Ænglaland and Ænglisc) are named after the Angles.[31] | |
| Old English was divided into four dialects: the Anglian dialects (Mercian and Northumbrian) and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon.[32] Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the 9th century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex, the West Saxon dialect became the standard written variety.[33] The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Cædmon's Hymn, is written in Northumbrian.[34] Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the early period of Old English were written using a runic script.[35] By the 6th century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms. It included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩.[35][36] | |
| Old English is essentially a distinct language from Modern English and is virtually impossible for 21st-century unstudied English-speakers to understand. Its grammar was similar to that of modern German, and its closest relative is Old Frisian. Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs had many more inflectional endings and forms, and word order was much freer than in Modern English. Modern English has case forms in pronouns (he, him, his) and has a few verb inflections (speak, speaks, speaking, spoke, spoken), but Old English had case endings in nouns as well, and verbs had more person and number endings.[37][38][39] | |
| The translation of Matthew 8:20 from 1000 shows examples of case endings (nominative plural, accusative plural, genitive singular) and a verb ending (present plural): | |
| Foxas habbað holu and heofonan fuglas nest | |
| Fox-as habb-að hol-u and heofon-an fugl-as nest-∅ | |
| fox-nom.pl have-prs.pl hole-acc.pl and heaven-gen.sg bird-nom.pl nest-acc.pl | |
| "Foxes have holes and the birds of heaven nests"[40] | |
| Middle English | |
| Main articles: Middle English and Influence of French on English | |
| Englischmen þeyz hy hadde fram þe bygynnyng þre manner speche, Souþeron, Northeron, and Myddel speche in þe myddel of þe lond, ... Noþeles by comyxstion and mellyng, furst wiþ Danes, and afterward wiþ Normans, in menye þe contray longage ys asperyed, and som vseþ strange wlaffyng, chyteryng, harryng, and garryng grisbytting. | |
| Although, from the beginning, Englishmen had three manners of speaking, southern, northern and midlands speech in the middle of the country, ... Nevertheless, through intermingling and mixing, first with Danes and then with Normans, amongst many the country language has arisen, and some use strange stammering, chattering, snarling, and grating gnashing. | |
| John of Trevisa, ca. 1385[41] | |
| From the 8th to the 12th century, Old English gradually transformed through language contact into Middle English. Middle English is often arbitrarily defined as beginning with the conquest of England by William the Conqueror in 1066, but it developed further in the period from 1200 to 1450. | |
| First, the waves of Norse colonisation of northern parts of the British Isles in the 8th and 9th centuries put Old English into intense contact with Old Norse, a North Germanic language. Norse influence was strongest in the north-eastern varieties of Old English spoken in the Danelaw area around York, which was the centre of Norse colonisation; today these features are still particularly present in Scots and Northern English. However the centre of norsified English seems to have been in the Midlands around Lindsey, and after 920 CE when Lindsey was reincorporated into the Anglo-Saxon polity, Norse features spread from there into English varieties that had not been in direct contact with Norse speakers. An element of Norse influence that persists in all English varieties today is the group of pronouns beginning with th- (they, them, their) which replaced the Anglo-Saxon pronouns with h- (hie, him, hera).[42] | |
| With the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the now norsified Old English language was subject to contact with Old French, in particular with the Old Norman dialect. The Norman language in England eventually developed into Anglo-Norman.[9] Because Norman was spoken primarily by the elites and nobles, while the lower classes continued speaking Anglo-Saxon (English), the main influence of Norman was the introduction of a wide range of loanwords related to politics, legislation and prestigious social domains.[8] Middle English also greatly simplified the inflectional system, probably in order to reconcile Old Norse and Old English, which were inflectionally different but morphologically similar. The distinction between nominative and accusative cases was lost except in personal pronouns, the instrumental case was dropped, and the use of the genitive case was limited to indicating possession. The inflectional system regularised many irregular inflectional forms,[43] and gradually simplified the system of agreement, making word order less flexible.[44] In the Wycliffe Bible of the 1380s, the verse Matthew 8:20 was written: Foxis han dennes, and briddis of heuene han nestis[45] Here the plural suffix -n on the verb have is still retained, but none of the case endings on the nouns are present. By the 12th century Middle English was fully developed, integrating both Norse and French features; it continued to be spoken until the transition to early Modern English around 1500. Middle English literature includes Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, and Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur. In the Middle English period, the use of regional dialects in writing proliferated, and dialect traits were even used for effect by authors such as Chaucer.[46] | |
| Early Modern English | |
| Main article: Early Modern English | |
| Graphic representation of the Great Vowel Shift, showing how the pronunciation of the long vowels gradually shifted, with the high vowels i: and u: breaking into diphthongs and the lower vowels each shifting their pronunciation up one level | |
| The next period in the history of English was Early Modern English (1500–1700). Early Modern English was characterised by the Great Vowel Shift (1350–1700), inflectional simplification, and linguistic standardisation. | |
| The Great Vowel Shift affected the stressed long vowels of Middle English. It was a chain shift, meaning that each shift triggered a subsequent shift in the vowel system. Mid and open vowels were raised, and close vowels were broken into diphthongs. For example, the word bite was originally pronounced as the word beet is today, and the second vowel in the word about was pronounced as the word boot is today. The Great Vowel Shift explains many irregularities in spelling since English retains many spellings from Middle English, and it also explains why English vowel letters have very different pronunciations from the same letters in other languages.[47][48] | |
| English began to rise in prestige, relative to Norman French, during the reign of Henry V. Around 1430, the Court of Chancery in Westminster began using English in its official documents, and a new standard form of Middle English, known as Chancery Standard, developed from the dialects of London and the East Midlands. In 1476, William Caxton introduced the printing press to England and began publishing the first printed books in London, expanding the influence of this form of English.[49] Literature from the Early Modern period includes the works of William Shakespeare and the translation of the Bible commissioned by King James I. Even after the vowel shift the language still sounded different from Modern English: for example, the consonant clusters /kn ɡn sw/ in knight, gnat, and sword were still pronounced. Many of the grammatical features that a modern reader of Shakespeare might find quaint or archaic represent the distinct characteristics of Early Modern English.[50] | |
| In the 1611 King James Version of the Bible, written in Early Modern English, Matthew 8:20 says, "The Foxes haue holes and the birds of the ayre haue nests."[40] This exemplifies the loss of case and its effects on sentence structure (replacement with subject–verb–object word order, and the use of of instead of the non-possessive genitive), and the introduction of loanwords from French (ayre) and word replacements (bird originally meaning "nestling" had replaced OE fugol).[40] | |
| Spread of Modern English | |
| By the late 18th century, the British Empire had spread English through its colonies and geopolitical dominance. Commerce, science and technology, diplomacy, art, and formal education all contributed to English becoming the first truly global language. English also facilitated worldwide international communication.[51][3] England continued to form new colonies, and these later developed their own norms for speech and writing. English was adopted in parts of North America, parts of Africa, Australasia, and many other regions. When they obtained political independence, some of the newly independent nations that had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using English as the official language to avoid the political and other difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others.[52][53][54] In the 20th century the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States and its status as a superpower following the Second World War has, along with worldwide broadcasting in English by the BBC[55] and other broadcasters, caused the language to spread across the planet much faster.[56][57] In the 21st century, English is more widely spoken and written than any language has ever been.[58] | |
| As Modern English developed, explicit norms for standard usage were published, and spread through official media such as public education and state-sponsored publications. In 1755 Samuel Johnson published his A Dictionary of the English Language, which introduced standard spellings of words and usage norms. In 1828, Noah Webster published the American Dictionary of the English language to try to establish a norm for speaking and writing American English that was independent of the British standard. Within Britain, non-standard or lower class dialect features were increasingly stigmatised, leading to the quick spread of the prestige varieties among the middle classes.[59] | |
| In modern English, the loss of grammatical case is almost complete (it is now only found in pronouns, such as he and him, she and her, who and whom), and SVO word order is mostly fixed.[59] Some changes, such as the use of do-support, have become universalised. (Earlier English did not use the word "do" as a general auxiliary as Modern English does; at first it was only used in question constructions, and even then was not obligatory.[60] Now, do-support with the verb have is becoming increasingly standardised.) The use of progressive forms in -ing, appears to be spreading to new constructions, and forms such as had been being built are becoming more common. Regularisation of irregular forms also slowly continues (e.g. dreamed instead of dreamt), and analytical alternatives to inflectional forms are becoming more common (e.g. more polite instead of politer). British English is also undergoing change under the influence of American English, fuelled by the strong presence of American English in the media and the prestige associated with the US as a world power.[61][62][63] | |
| Geographical distribution | |
| See also: List of territorial entities where English is an official language, List of countries by English-speaking population, and English-speaking world | |
| Percentage of English speakers by country and dependency as of 2014. | |
| 80–100% | |
| 60–80% | |
| 40–60% | |
| 20–40% | |
| 0.1–20% | |
| No data | |
| Percentage of English native speakers (2017) | |
| As of 2016, 400 million people spoke English as their first language, and 1.1 billion spoke it as a secondary language.[64] English is the largest language by number of speakers. English is spoken by communities on every continent and on islands in all the major oceans.[65] | |
| The countries where English is spoken can be grouped into different categories according to how English is used in each country. The "inner circle"[66] countries with many native speakers of English share an international standard of written English and jointly influence speech norms for English around the world. English does not belong to just one country, and it does not belong solely to descendants of English settlers. English is an official language of countries populated by few descendants of native speakers of English. It has also become by far the most important language of international communication when people who share no native language meet anywhere in the world. | |
| Three circles of English-speaking countries | |
| The Indian linguist Braj Kachru distinguished countries where English is spoken with a three circles model.[66] In his model, | |
| the "inner circle" countries have large communities of native speakers of English, | |
| "outer circle" countries have small communities of native speakers of English but widespread use of English as a second language in education or broadcasting or for local official purposes, and | |
| "expanding circle" countries are countries where many people learn English as a foreign language. | |
| Kachru based his model on the history of how English spread in different countries, how users acquire English, and the range of uses English has in each country. The three circles change membership over time.[67] | |
| Braj Kachru's Three Circles of English | |
| Braj Kachru's Three Circles of English | |
| Countries with large communities of native speakers of English (the inner circle) include Britain, the United States, Australia, Canada, Ireland, and New Zealand, where the majority speaks English, and South Africa, where a significant minority speaks English. The countries with the most native English speakers are, in descending order, the United States (at least 231 million),[68] the United Kingdom (60 million),[69][70][71] Canada (19 million),[72] Australia (at least 17 million),[73] South Africa (4.8 million),[74] Ireland (4.2 million), and New Zealand (3.7 million).[75] In these countries, children of native speakers learn English from their parents, and local people who speak other languages and new immigrants learn English to communicate in their neighbourhoods and workplaces.[76] The inner-circle countries provide the base from which English spreads to other countries in the world.[67] | |
| Estimates of the numbers of second language and foreign-language English speakers vary greatly from 470 million to more than 1 billion, depending on how proficiency is defined.[16] Linguist David Crystal estimates that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1.[77] In Kachru's three-circles model, the "outer circle" countries are countries such as the Philippines,[78] Jamaica,[79] India, Pakistan, Singapore,[80] Malaysia and Nigeria[81][82] with a much smaller proportion of native speakers of English but much use of English as a second language for education, government, or domestic business, and its routine use for school instruction and official interactions with the government.[83] | |
| Those countries have millions of native speakers of dialect continua ranging from an English-based creole to a more standard version of English. They have many more speakers of English who acquire English as they grow up through day-to-day use and listening to broadcasting, especially if they attend schools where English is the medium of instruction. Varieties of English learned by non-native speakers born to English-speaking parents may be influenced, especially in their grammar, by the other languages spoken by those learners.[76] Most of those varieties of English include words little used by native speakers of English in the inner-circle countries,[76] and they may show grammatical and phonological differences from inner-circle varieties as well. The standard English of the inner-circle countries is often taken as a norm for use of English in the outer-circle countries.[76] | |
| In the three-circles model, countries such as Poland, China, Brazil, Germany, Japan, Indonesia, Egypt, and other countries where English is taught as a foreign language, make up the "expanding circle".[84] The distinctions between English as a first language, as a second language, and as a foreign language are often debatable and may change in particular countries over time.[83] For example, in the Netherlands and some other countries of Europe, knowledge of English as a second language is nearly universal, with over 80 percent of the population able to use it,[85] and thus English is routinely used to communicate with foreigners and often in higher education. In these countries, although English is not used for government business, its widespread use puts them at the boundary between the "outer circle" and "expanding circle". English is unusual among world languages in how many of its users are not native speakers but speakers of English as a second or foreign language.[86] | |
| Many users of English in the expanding circle use it to communicate with other people from the expanding circle, so that interaction with native speakers of English plays no part in their decision to use the language.[87] Non-native varieties of English are widely used for international communication, and speakers of one such variety often encounter features of other varieties.[88] Very often today a conversation in English anywhere in the world may include no native speakers of English at all, even while including speakers from several different countries. This is particularly true of the shared vocabulary of mathematics and the sciences.[89] | |
| Pluricentric English | |
| Pie chart showing the percentage of native English speakers living in "inner circle" English-speaking countries. Native speakers are now substantially outnumbered worldwide by second-language speakers of English (not counted in this chart). | |
| US (64.3%) | |
| UK (16.7%) | |
| Canada (5.3%) | |
| Australia (4.7%) | |
| South Africa (1.3%) | |
| Ireland (1.1%) | |
| New Zealand (1%) | |
| Other (5.6%) | |
| English is a pluricentric language, which means that no one national authority sets the standard for use of the language.[90][91][92][93] Spoken English, for example English used in broadcasting, generally follows national pronunciation standards that are also established by custom rather than by regulation. International broadcasters are usually identifiable as coming from one country rather than another through their accents,[94] but newsreader scripts are also composed largely in international standard written English. The norms of standard written English are maintained purely by the consensus of educated English-speakers around the world, without any oversight by any government or international organisation.[95] | |
| American listeners generally readily understand most British broadcasting, and British listeners readily understand most American broadcasting. Most English speakers around the world can understand radio programmes, television programmes, and films from many parts of the English-speaking world.[96] Both standard and non-standard varieties of English can include both formal or informal styles, distinguished by word choice and syntax and use both technical and non-technical registers.[97] | |
| The settlement history of the English-speaking inner circle countries outside Britain helped level dialect distinctions and produce koineised forms of English in South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.[98] The majority of immigrants to the United States without British ancestry rapidly adopted English after arrival. Now the majority of the United States population are monolingual English speakers,[68][99] and English has been given official or co-official status by 30 of the 50 state governments, as well as all five territorial governments of the US, though there has never been an official language at the federal level.[100][101] | |
| English as a global language | |
| Main article: English as a lingua franca | |
| See also: Foreign language influences in English and Study of global communication | |
| English has ceased to be an "English language" in the sense of belonging only to people who are ethnically English.[102][103] Use of English is growing country-by-country internally and for international communication. Most people learn English for practical rather than ideological reasons.[104] Many speakers of English in Africa have become part of an "Afro-Saxon" language community that unites Africans from different countries.[105] | |
| As decolonisation proceeded throughout the British Empire in the 1950s and 1960s, former colonies often did not reject English but rather continued to use it as independent countries setting their own language policies.[53][54][106] For example, the view of the English language among many Indians has gone from associating it with colonialism to associating it with economic progress, and English continues to be an official language of India.[107] English is also widely used in media and literature, and the number of English language books published annually in India is the third largest in the world after the US and UK.[108] However English is rarely spoken as a first language, numbering only around a couple hundred-thousand people, and less than 5% of the population speak fluent English in India.[109][110] David Crystal claimed in 2004 that, combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world,[111] but the number of English speakers in India is very uncertain, with most scholars concluding that the United States still has more speakers of English than India.[112] | |
| Modern English, sometimes described as the first global lingua franca,[56][113] is also regarded as the first world language.[114][115] English is the world's most widely used language in newspaper publishing, book publishing, international telecommunications, scientific publishing, international trade, mass entertainment, and diplomacy.[115] English is, by international treaty, the basis for the required controlled natural languages[116] Seaspeak and Airspeak, used as international languages of seafaring[117] and aviation.[118] English used to have parity with French and German in scientific research, but now it dominates that field.[119] It achieved parity with French as a language of diplomacy at the Treaty of Versailles negotiations in 1919.[120] By the time of the foundation of the United Nations at the end of World War II, English had become pre-eminent[121] and is now the main worldwide language of diplomacy and international relations.[122] It is one of six official languages of the United Nations.[123] Many other worldwide international organisations, including the International Olympic Committee, specify English as a working language or official language of the organisation. | |
| Many regional international organisations such as the European Free Trade Association, Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN),[57] and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) set English as their organisation's sole working language even though most members are not countries with a majority of native English speakers. While the European Union (EU) allows member states to designate any of the national languages as an official language of the Union, in practice English is the main working language of EU organisations.[124] | |
| Although in most countries English is not an official language, it is currently the language most often taught as a foreign language.[56][57] In the countries of the EU, English is the most widely spoken foreign language in nineteen of the twenty-five member states where it is not an official language (that is, the countries other than Ireland and Malta). In a 2012 official Eurobarometer poll (conducted when the UK was still a member of the EU), 38 percent of the EU respondents outside the countries where English is an official language said they could speak English well enough to have a conversation in that language. The next most commonly mentioned foreign language, French (which is the most widely known foreign language in the UK and Ireland), could be used in conversation by 12 percent of respondents.[125] | |
| A working knowledge of English has become a requirement in a number of occupations and professions such as medicine[126] and computing. English has become so important in scientific publishing that more than 80 percent of all scientific journal articles indexed by Chemical Abstracts in 1998 were written in English, as were 90 percent of all articles in natural science publications by 1996 and 82 percent of articles in humanities publications by 1995.[127] | |
| International communities such as international business people may use English as an auxiliary language, with an emphasis on vocabulary suitable for their domain of interest. This has led some scholars to develop the study of English as an auxiliary language. The trademarked Globish uses a relatively small subset of English vocabulary (about 1500 words, designed to represent the highest use in international business English) in combination with the standard English grammar.[128] Other examples include Simple English. | |
| The increased use of the English language globally has had an effect on other languages, leading to some English words being assimilated into the vocabularies of other languages. This influence of English has led to concerns about language death,[129] and to claims of linguistic imperialism,[130] and has provoked resistance to the spread of English; however the number of speakers continues to increase because many people around the world think that English provides them with opportunities for better employment and improved lives.[131] | |
| Although some scholars[who?] mention a possibility of future divergence of English dialects into mutually unintelligible languages, most think a more likely outcome is that English will continue to function as a koineised language in which the standard form unifies speakers from around the world.[132] English is used as the language for wider communication in countries around the world.[133] Thus English has grown in worldwide use much more than any constructed language proposed as an international auxiliary language, including Esperanto.[134][135] | |
| Phonology | |
| Main article: English phonology | |
| The phonetics and phonology of the English language differ from one dialect to another, usually without interfering with mutual communication. Phonological variation affects the inventory of phonemes (i.e. speech sounds that distinguish meaning), and phonetic variation consists in differences in pronunciation of the phonemes. [136] This overview mainly describes the standard pronunciations of the United Kingdom and the United States: Received Pronunciation (RP) and General American (GA). (See § Dialects, accents, and varieties, below.) | |
| The phonetic symbols used below are from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).[137][138][139] | |
| Consonants | |
| Main article: English phonology § Consonants | |
| Most English dialects share the same 24 consonant phonemes. The consonant inventory shown below is valid for California English,[140] and for RP.[141] | |
| Consonant phonemes | |
| Labial Dental Alveolar Post- | |
| alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal | |
| Nasal m n ŋ | |
| Stop p b t d k ɡ | |
| Affricate tʃ dʒ | |
| Fricative f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h | |
| Approximant l ɹ* j w | |
| * Conventionally transcribed /r/ | |
| In the table, when obstruents (stops, affricates, and fricatives) appear in pairs, such as /p b/, /tʃ dʒ/, and /s z/, the first is fortis (strong) and the second is lenis (weak). Fortis obstruents, such as /p tʃ s/ are pronounced with more muscular tension and breath force than lenis consonants, such as /b dʒ z/, and are always voiceless. Lenis consonants are partly voiced at the beginning and end of utterances, and fully voiced between vowels. Fortis stops such as /p/ have additional articulatory or acoustic features in most dialects: they are aspirated [pʰ] when they occur alone at the beginning of a stressed syllable, often unaspirated in other cases, and often unreleased [p̚] or pre-glottalised [ʔp] at the end of a syllable. In a single-syllable word, a vowel before a fortis stop is shortened: thus nip has a noticeably shorter vowel (phonetically, but not phonemically) than nib [nɪˑb̥] (see below).[142] | |
| lenis stops: bin [b̥ɪˑn], about [əˈbaʊt], nib [nɪˑb̥] | |
| fortis stops: pin [pʰɪn]; spin [spɪn]; happy [ˈhæpi]; nip [nɪp̚] or [nɪʔp] | |
| In RP, the lateral approximant /l/, has two main allophones (pronunciation variants): the clear or plain [l], as in light, and the dark or velarised [ɫ], as in full.[143] GA has dark l in most cases.[144] | |
| clear l: RP light [laɪt] | |
| dark l: RP and GA full [fʊɫ], GA light [ɫaɪt] | |
| All sonorants (liquids /l, r/ and nasals /m, n, ŋ/) devoice when following a voiceless obstruent, and they are syllabic when following a consonant at the end of a word.[145] | |
| voiceless sonorants: clay [kl̥eɪ̯]; snow RP [sn̥əʊ̯], GA [sn̥oʊ̯] | |
| syllabic sonorants: paddle [ˈpad.l̩], button [ˈbʌt.n̩] | |
| Vowels | |
| Main article: English phonology § Vowels | |
| The pronunciation of vowels varies a great deal between dialects and is one of the most detectable aspects of a speaker's accent. The table below lists the vowel phonemes in Received Pronunciation (RP) and General American (GA), with examples of words in which they occur from lexical sets compiled by linguists. The vowels are represented with symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet; those given for RP are standard in British dictionaries and other publications.[146] | |
| Monophthongs | |
| RP GA Word | |
| iː i need | |
| ɪ bid | |
| e ɛ bed | |
| æ back | |
| ɑː ɑ bra | |
| ɒ box | |
| ɔ, ɑ cloth | |
| ɔː paw | |
| uː u food | |
| ʊ good | |
| ʌ but | |
| ɜː ɜɹ bird | |
| ə comma | |
| Closing diphthongs | |
| RP GA Word | |
| eɪ bay | |
| əʊ oʊ road | |
| aɪ cry | |
| aʊ cow | |
| ɔɪ boy | |
| Centring diphthongs | |
| RP GA Word | |
| ɪə ɪɹ peer | |
| eə ɛɹ pair | |
| ʊə ʊɹ poor | |
| In RP, vowel length is phonemic; long vowels are marked with a triangular colon ⟨ː⟩ in the table above, such as the vowel of need [niːd] as opposed to bid [bɪd]. In GA, vowel length is non-distinctive. | |
| In both RP and GA, vowels are phonetically shortened before fortis consonants in the same syllable, like /t tʃ f/, but not before lenis consonants like /d dʒ v/ or in open syllables: thus, the vowels of rich [rɪtʃ], neat [nit], and safe [seɪ̯f] are noticeably shorter than the vowels of ridge [rɪˑdʒ], need [niˑd], and save [seˑɪ̯v], and the vowel of light [laɪ̯t] is shorter than that of lie [laˑɪ̯]. Because lenis consonants are frequently voiceless at the end of a syllable, vowel length is an important cue as to whether the following consonant is lenis or fortis.[147] | |
| The vowel /ə/ only occurs in unstressed syllables and is more open in quality in stem-final positions.[148][149] Some dialects do not contrast /ɪ/ and /ə/ in unstressed positions, so that rabbit and abbot rhyme and Lenin and Lennon are homophonous, a dialect feature called weak vowel merger.[150] GA /ɜr/ and /ər/ are realised as an r-coloured vowel [ɚ], as in further [ˈfɚðɚ] (phonemically /ˈfɜrðər/), which in RP is realised as [ˈfəːðə] (phonemically /ˈfɜːðə/).[151] | |
| Phonotactics | |
| An English syllable includes a syllable nucleus consisting of a vowel sound. Syllable onset and coda (start and end) are optional. A syllable can start with up to three consonant sounds, as in sprint /sprɪnt/, and end with up to five, as in (for some dialects) angsts /aŋksts/. This gives an English syllable the following structure, (CCC)V(CCCCC), where C represents a consonant and V a vowel; the word strengths /strɛŋkθs/ is thus close to the most complex syllable possible in English. The consonants that may appear together in onsets or codas are restricted, as is the order in which they may appear. Onsets can only have four types of consonant clusters: a stop and approximant, as in play; a voiceless fricative and approximant, as in fly or sly; s and a voiceless stop, as in stay; and s, a voiceless stop, and an approximant, as in string.[152] Clusters of nasal and stop are only allowed in codas. Clusters of obstruents always agree in voicing, and clusters of sibilants and of plosives with the same point of articulation are prohibited. Furthermore, several consonants have limited distributions: /h/ can only occur in syllable-initial position, and /ŋ/ only in syllable-final position.[153] | |
| Stress, rhythm and intonation | |
| See also: Stress and vowel reduction in English and Intonation in English | |
| Stress plays an important role in English. Certain syllables are stressed, while others are unstressed. Stress is a combination of duration, intensity, vowel quality, and sometimes changes in pitch. Stressed syllables are pronounced longer and louder than unstressed syllables, and vowels in unstressed syllables are frequently reduced while vowels in stressed syllables are not.[154] Some words, primarily short function words but also some modal verbs such as can, have weak and strong forms depending on whether they occur in stressed or non-stressed position within a sentence. | |
| Stress in English is phonemic, and some pairs of words are distinguished by stress. For instance, the word contract is stressed on the first syllable (/ˈkɒntrækt/ KON-trakt) when used as a noun, but on the last syllable (/kənˈtrækt/ kən-TRAKT) for most meanings (for example, "reduce in size") when used as a verb.[155][156][157] Here stress is connected to vowel reduction: in the noun "contract" the first syllable is stressed and has the unreduced vowel /ɒ/, but in the verb "contract" the first syllable is unstressed and its vowel is reduced to /ə/. Stress is also used to distinguish between words and phrases, so that a compound word receives a single stress unit, but the corresponding phrase has two: e.g. a burnout (/ˈbɜːrnaʊt/) versus to burn out (/ˈbɜːrn ˈaʊt/), and a hotdog (/ˈhɒtdɒɡ/) versus a hot dog (/ˈhɒt ˈdɒɡ/).[158] | |
| In terms of rhythm, English is generally described as a stress-timed language, meaning that the amount of time between stressed syllables tends to be equal.[159] Stressed syllables are pronounced longer, but unstressed syllables (syllables between stresses) are shortened. Vowels in unstressed syllables are shortened as well, and vowel shortening causes changes in vowel quality: vowel reduction.[160] | |
| Regional variation | |
| Varieties of Standard English and their features[161] | |
| Phonological | |
| features United | |
| States Canada Republic | |
| of Ireland Northern | |
| Ireland Scotland England Wales South | |
| Africa Australia New | |
| Zealand | |
| father–bother merger yes yes | |
| /ɒ/ is unrounded yes yes yes | |
| /ɜːr/ is pronounced [ɚ] yes yes yes yes | |
| cot–caught merger possibly yes possibly yes yes | |
| fool–full merger yes yes | |
| /t, d/ flapping yes yes possibly often rarely rarely rarely rarely yes often | |
| trap–bath split possibly possibly often yes yes often yes | |
| non-rhotic (/r/-dropping after vowels) yes yes yes yes yes | |
| close vowels for /æ, ɛ/ yes yes yes | |
| /l/ can always be pronounced [ɫ] yes yes yes yes yes yes | |
| /ɑːr/ is fronted possibly possibly yes yes | |
| Dialects and low vowels | |
| Lexical set RP GA Can Sound change | |
| THOUGHT /ɔː/ /ɔ/ or /ɑ/ /ɑ/ cot–caught merger | |
| CLOTH /ɒ/ lot–cloth split | |
| LOT /ɑ/ father–bother merger | |
| PALM /ɑː/ | |
| BATH /æ/ /æ/ trap–bath split | |
| TRAP /æ/ | |
| Varieties of English vary the most in pronunciation of vowels. The best known national varieties used as standards for education in non-English-speaking countries are British (BrE) and American (AmE). Countries such as Canada, Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and South Africa have their own standard varieties which are less often used as standards for education internationally. Some differences between the various dialects are shown in the table "Varieties of Standard English and their features".[161] | |
| English has undergone many historical sound changes, some of them affecting all varieties, and others affecting only a few. Most standard varieties are affected by the Great Vowel Shift, which changed the pronunciation of long vowels, but a few dialects have slightly different results. In North America, a number of chain shifts such as the Northern Cities Vowel Shift and Canadian Shift have produced very different vowel landscapes in some regional accents.[162] | |
| Some dialects have fewer or more consonant phonemes and phones than the standard varieties. Some conservative varieties like Scottish English have a voiceless [ʍ] sound in whine that contrasts with the voiced [w] in wine, but most other dialects pronounce both words with voiced [w], a dialect feature called wine–whine merger. The unvoiced velar fricative sound /x/ is found in Scottish English, which distinguishes loch /lɔx/ from lock /lɔk/. Accents like Cockney with "h-dropping" lack the glottal fricative /h/, and dialects with th-stopping and th-fronting like African American Vernacular and Estuary English do not have the dental fricatives /θ, ð/, but replace them with dental or alveolar stops /t, d/ or labiodental fricatives /f, v/.[163][164] Other changes affecting the phonology of local varieties are processes such as yod-dropping, yod-coalescence, and reduction of consonant clusters.[165] | |
| General American and Received Pronunciation vary in their pronunciation of historical /r/ after a vowel at the end of a syllable (in the syllable coda). GA is a rhotic dialect, meaning that it pronounces /r/ at the end of a syllable, but RP is non-rhotic, meaning that it loses /r/ in that position. English dialects are classified as rhotic or non-rhotic depending on whether they elide /r/ like RP or keep it like GA.[166] | |
| There is complex dialectal variation in words with the open front and open back vowels /æ ɑː ɒ ɔː/. These four vowels are only distinguished in RP, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. In GA, these vowels merge to three /æ ɑ ɔ/,[167] and in Canadian English, they merge to two /æ ɑ/.[168] In addition, the words that have each vowel vary by dialect. The table "Dialects and open vowels" shows this variation with lexical sets in which these sounds occur. | |
| Grammar | |
| Main article: English grammar | |
| As is typical of an Indo-European language, English follows accusative morphosyntactic alignment. Unlike other Indo-European languages though, English has largely abandoned the inflectional case system in favour of analytic constructions. Only the personal pronouns retain morphological case more strongly than any other word class. English distinguishes at least seven major word classes: verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, determiners (including articles), prepositions, and conjunctions. Some analyses add pronouns as a class separate from nouns, and subdivide conjunctions into subordinators and coordinators, and add the class of interjections.[169] English also has a rich set of auxiliary verbs, such as have and do, expressing the categories of mood and aspect. Questions are marked by do-support, wh-movement (fronting of question words beginning with wh-) and word order inversion with some verbs.[170] | |
| Some traits typical of Germanic languages persist in English, such as the distinction between irregularly inflected strong stems inflected through ablaut (i.e. changing the vowel of the stem, as in the pairs speak/spoke and foot/feet) and weak stems inflected through affixation (such as love/loved, hand/hands).[171] Vestiges of the case and gender system are found in the pronoun system (he/him, who/whom) and in the inflection of the copula verb to be.[171] | |
| The seven word-classes are exemplified in this sample sentence:[172] | |
| The chairman of the committee and the loquacious politician clashed violently when the meeting started. | |
| Det. Noun Prep. Det. Noun Conj. Det. Adj. Noun Verb Advb. Conj. Det. Noun Verb | |
| Nouns and noun phrases | |
| English nouns are only inflected for number and possession. New nouns can be formed through derivation or compounding. They are semantically divided into proper nouns (names) and common nouns. Common nouns are in turn divided into concrete and abstract nouns, and grammatically into count nouns and mass nouns.[173] | |
| Most count nouns are inflected for plural number through the use of the plural suffix -s, but a few nouns have irregular plural forms. Mass nouns can only be pluralised through the use of a count noun classifier, e.g. one loaf of bread, two loaves of bread.[174] | |
| Regular plural formation: | |
| Singular: cat, dog | |
| Plural: cats, dogs | |
| Irregular plural formation: | |
| Singular: man, woman, foot, fish, ox, knife, mouse | |
| Plural: men, women, feet, fish, oxen, knives, mice | |
| Possession can be expressed either by the possessive enclitic -s (also traditionally called a genitive suffix), or by the preposition of. Historically the -s possessive has been used for animate nouns, whereas the of possessive has been reserved for inanimate nouns. Today this distinction is less clear, and many speakers use -s also with inanimates. Orthographically the possessive -s is separated from a singular noun with an apostrophe. If the noun is plural formed with -s the apostrophe follows the -s.[170] | |
| Possessive constructions: | |
| With -s: The woman's husband's child | |
| With of: The child of the husband of the woman | |
| Nouns can form noun phrases (NPs) where they are the syntactic head of the words that depend on them such as determiners, quantifiers, conjunctions or adjectives.[175] Noun phrases can be short, such as the man, composed only of a determiner and a noun. They can also include modifiers such as adjectives (e.g. red, tall, all) and specifiers such as determiners (e.g. the, that). But they can also tie together several nouns into a single long NP, using conjunctions such as and, or prepositions such as with, e.g. the tall man with the long red trousers and his skinny wife with the spectacles (this NP uses conjunctions, prepositions, specifiers, and modifiers). Regardless of length, an NP functions as a syntactic unit.[170] For example, the possessive enclitic can, in cases which do not lead to ambiguity, follow the entire noun phrase, as in The President of India's wife, where the enclitic follows India and not President. | |
| The class of determiners is used to specify the noun they precede in terms of definiteness, where the marks a definite noun and a or an an indefinite one. A definite noun is assumed by the speaker to be already known by the interlocutor, whereas an indefinite noun is not specified as being previously known. Quantifiers, which include one, many, some and all, are used to specify the noun in terms of quantity or number. The noun must agree with the number of the determiner, e.g. one man (sg.) but all men (pl.). Determiners are the first constituents in a noun phrase.[176] | |
| Adjectives | |
| Adjectives modify a noun by providing additional information about their referents. In English, adjectives come before the nouns they modify and after determiners.[177] In Modern English, adjectives are not inflected so as to agree in form with the noun they modify, as adjectives in most other Indo-European languages do. For example, in the phrases the slender boy, and many slender girls, the adjective slender does not change form to agree with either the number or gender of the noun. | |
| Some adjectives are inflected for degree of comparison, with the positive degree unmarked, the suffix -er marking the comparative, and -est marking the superlative: a small boy, the boy is smaller than the girl, that boy is the smallest. Some adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms, such as good, better, and best. Other adjectives have comparatives formed by periphrastic constructions, with the adverb more marking the comparative, and most marking the superlative: happier or more happy, the happiest or most happy.[178] There is some variation among speakers regarding which adjectives use inflected or periphrastic comparison, and some studies have shown a tendency for the periphrastic forms to become more common at the expense of the inflected form.[179] | |
| Pronouns, case, and person | |
| English pronouns conserve many traits of case and gender inflection. The personal pronouns retain a difference between subjective and objective case in most persons (I/me, he/him, she/her, we/us, they/them) as well as an animateness distinction in the third person singular (distinguishing it from the three sets of animate third person singular pronouns) and an optional gender distinction in the animate third person singular (distinguishing between she/her [feminine], they/them [neuter], and he/him [masculine]).[180][181] The subjective case corresponds to the Old English nominative case, and the objective case is used in the sense both of the previous accusative case (for a patient, or direct object of a transitive verb), and of the Old English dative case (for a recipient or indirect object of a transitive verb).[182][183] The subjective is used when the pronoun is the subject of a finite clause, otherwise the objective is used.[184] While grammarians such as Henry Sweet[185] and Otto Jespersen[186] noted that the English cases did not correspond to the traditional Latin-based system, some contemporary grammars, for example Huddleston & Pullum (2002), retain traditional labels for the cases, calling them nominative and accusative cases respectively. | |
| Possessive pronouns exist in dependent and independent forms; the dependent form functions as a determiner specifying a noun (as in my chair), while the independent form can stand alone as if it were a noun (e.g. the chair is mine).[187] The English system of grammatical person no longer has a distinction between formal and informal pronouns of address (the old second person singular familiar pronoun thou acquired a pejorative or inferior tinge of meaning and was abandoned). | |
| Both the second and third persons share pronouns between the plural and singular: | |
| Plural and singular are always identical (you, your, yours) in the second person (except in the reflexive form: yourself/yourselves) in most dialects. Some dialects have introduced innovative second person plural pronouns, such as y'all (found in Southern American English and African American (Vernacular) English), youse (found in Australian English), or ye (in Hiberno-English). | |
| In the third person, the they/them series of pronouns (they, them, their, theirs, themselves) are used in both plural and singular, and are the only pronouns available for the plural. In the singular, the they/them series (sometimes with the addition of the singular-specific reflexive form themself) serve as a gender-neutral set of pronouns, alongside the feminine she/her series and the masculine he/him series.[180][181][188][189][190][191][192] | |
| English personal pronouns | |
| Person Subjective case Objective case Dependent possessive Independent possessive Reflexive | |
| 1st p. sg. I me my mine myself | |
| 2nd p. sg. you you your yours yourself | |
| 3rd p. sg. he/she/it/they him/her/it/them his/her/its/their his/hers/its/theirs himself/herself/itself/themself/themselves | |
| 1st p. pl. we us our ours ourselves | |
| 2nd p. pl. you you your yours yourselves | |
| 3rd p. pl. they them their theirs themselves | |
| Pronouns are used to refer to entities deictically or anaphorically. A deictic pronoun points to some person or object by identifying it relative to the speech situation—for example, the pronoun I identifies the speaker, and the pronoun you, the addressee. Anaphoric pronouns such as that refer back to an entity already mentioned or assumed by the speaker to be known by the audience, for example in the sentence I already told you that. The reflexive pronouns are used when the oblique argument is identical to the subject of a phrase (e.g. "he sent it to himself" or "she braced herself for impact").[193] | |
| Prepositions | |
| Prepositional phrases (PP) are phrases composed of a preposition and one or more nouns, e.g. with the dog, for my friend, to school, in England.[194] Prepositions have a wide range of uses in English. They are used to describe movement, place, and other relations between different entities, but they also have many syntactic uses such as introducing complement clauses and oblique arguments of verbs.[194] For example, in the phrase I gave it to him, the preposition to marks the recipient, or Indirect Object of the verb to give. Traditionally words were only considered prepositions if they governed the case of the noun they preceded, for example causing the pronouns to use the objective rather than subjective form, "with her", "to me", "for us". But some contemporary grammars such as that of Huddleston & Pullum (2002:598–600) no longer consider government of case to be the defining feature of the class of prepositions, rather defining prepositions as words that can function as the heads of prepositional phrases. | |
| Verbs and verb phrases | |
| English verbs are inflected for tense and aspect and marked for agreement with present-tense third-person singular subject. Only the copula verb to be is still inflected for agreement with the plural and first and second person subjects.[178] Auxiliary verbs such as have and be are paired with verbs in the infinitive, past, or progressive forms. They form complex tenses, aspects, and moods. Auxiliary verbs differ from other verbs in that they can be followed by the negation, and in that they can occur as the first constituent in a question sentence.[195][196] | |
| Most verbs have six inflectional forms. The primary forms are a plain present, a third-person singular present, and a preterite (past) form. The secondary forms are a plain form used for the infinitive, a gerund-participle and a past participle.[197] The copula verb to be is the only verb to retain some of its original conjugation, and takes different inflectional forms depending on the subject. The first-person present-tense form is am, the third person singular form is is, and the form are is used in the second-person singular and all three plurals. The only verb past participle is been and its gerund-participle is being. | |
| English inflectional forms | |
| Inflection Strong Regular | |
| Plain present take love | |
| 3rd person sg. | |
| present takes loves | |
| Preterite took loved | |
| Plain (infinitive) take love | |
| Gerund–participle taking loving | |
| Past participle taken loved | |
| Tense, aspect and mood | |
| English has two primary tenses, past (preterite) and non-past. The preterite is inflected by using the preterite form of the verb, which for the regular verbs includes the suffix -ed, and for the strong verbs either the suffix -t or a change in the stem vowel. The non-past form is unmarked except in the third person singular, which takes the suffix -s.[195] | |
| Present Preterite | |
| First person I run I ran | |
| Second person You run You ran | |
| Third person John runs John ran | |
| English does not have future verb forms.[198] The future tense is expressed periphrastically with one of the auxiliary verbs will or shall.[199] Many varieties also use a near future constructed with the phrasal verb be going to ("going-to future").[200] | |
| Future | |
| First person I will run | |
| Second person You will run | |
| Third person John will run | |
| Further aspectual distinctions are shown by auxiliary verbs, primarily have and be, which show the contrast between a perfect and non-perfect past tense (I have run vs. I was running), and compound tenses such as preterite perfect (I had been running) and present perfect (I have been running).[201] | |
| For the expression of mood, English uses a number of modal auxiliaries, such as can, may, will, shall and the past tense forms could, might, would, should. There are also subjunctive and imperative moods, both based on the plain form of the verb (i.e. without the third person singular -s), for use in subordinate clauses (e.g. subjunctive: It is important that he run every day; imperative Run!).[199] | |
| An infinitive form, that uses the plain form of the verb and the preposition to, is used for verbal clauses that are syntactically subordinate to a finite verbal clause. Finite verbal clauses are those that are formed around a verb in the present or preterite form. In clauses with auxiliary verbs, they are the finite verbs and the main verb is treated as a subordinate clause.[202] For example, he has to go where only the auxiliary verb have is inflected for time and the main verb to go is in the infinitive, or in a complement clause such as I saw him leave, where the main verb is to see, which is in a preterite form, and leave is in the infinitive. | |
| Phrasal verbs | |
| English also makes frequent use of constructions traditionally called phrasal verbs, verb phrases that are made up of a verb root and a preposition or particle that follows the verb. The phrase then functions as a single predicate. In terms of intonation the preposition is fused to the verb, but in writing it is written as a separate word. Examples of phrasal verbs are to get up, to ask out, to back up, to give up, to get together, to hang out, to put up with, etc. The phrasal verb frequently has a highly idiomatic meaning that is more specialised and restricted than what can be simply extrapolated from the combination of verb and preposition complement (e.g. lay off meaning terminate someone's employment).[203] In spite of the idiomatic meaning, some grammarians, including Huddleston & Pullum (2002:274), do not consider this type of construction to form a syntactic constituent and hence refrain from using the term "phrasal verb". Instead, they consider the construction simply to be a verb with a prepositional phrase as its syntactic complement, i.e. he woke up in the morning and he ran up in the mountains are syntactically equivalent. | |
| Adverbs | |
| The function of adverbs is to modify the action or event described by the verb by providing additional information about the manner in which it occurs.[170] Many adverbs are derived from adjectives by appending the suffix -ly. For example, in the phrase the woman walked quickly, the adverb quickly is derived in this way from the adjective quick. Some commonly used adjectives have irregular adverbial forms, such as good, which has the adverbial form well. | |
| Syntax | |
| In the English sentence The cat sat on the mat, the subject is the cat (a noun phrase), the verb is sat, and on the mat is a prepositional phrase (composed of a noun phrase the mat headed by the preposition on). The tree describes the structure of the sentence. | |
| Modern English syntax language is moderately analytic.[204] It has developed features such as modal verbs and word order as resources for conveying meaning. Auxiliary verbs mark constructions such as questions, negative polarity, the passive voice and progressive aspect. | |
| Basic constituent order | |
| English word order has moved from the Germanic verb-second (V2) word order to being almost exclusively subject–verb–object (SVO).[205] The combination of SVO order and use of auxiliary verbs often creates clusters of two or more verbs at the centre of the sentence, such as he had hoped to try to open it. | |
| In most sentences, English only marks grammatical relations through word order.[206] The subject constituent precedes the verb and the object constituent follows it. The example below demonstrates how the grammatical roles of each constituent are marked only by the position relative to the verb: | |
| The dog bites the man | |
| S V O | |
| The man bites the dog | |
| S V O | |
| An exception is found in sentences where one of the constituents is a pronoun, in which case it is doubly marked, both by word order and by case inflection, where the subject pronoun precedes the verb and takes the subjective case form, and the object pronoun follows the verb and takes the objective case form.[207] The example below demonstrates this double marking in a sentence where both object and subject are represented with a third person singular masculine pronoun: | |
| He hit him | |
| S V O | |
| Indirect objects (IO) of ditransitive verbs can be placed either as the first object in a double object construction (S V IO O), such as I gave Jane the book or in a prepositional phrase, such as I gave the book to Jane.[208] | |
| Clause syntax | |
| Main article: English clause syntax | |
| In English a sentence may be composed of one or more clauses, that may, in turn, be composed of one or more phrases (e.g. Noun Phrases, Verb Phrases, and Prepositional Phrases). A clause is built around a verb and includes its constituents, such as any NPs and PPs. Within a sentence, there is always at least one main clause (or matrix clause) whereas other clauses are subordinate to a main clause. Subordinate clauses may function as arguments of the verb in the main clause. For example, in the phrase I think (that) you are lying, the main clause is headed by the verb think, the subject is I, but the object of the phrase is the subordinate clause (that) you are lying. The subordinating conjunction that shows that the clause that follows is a subordinate clause, but it is often omitted.[209] Relative clauses are clauses that function as a modifier or specifier to some constituent in the main clause: For example, in the sentence I saw the letter that you received today, the relative clause that you received today specifies the meaning of the word letter, the object of the main clause. Relative clauses can be introduced by the pronouns who, whose, whom and which as well as by that (which can also be omitted.)[210] In contrast to many other Germanic languages there is no major differences between word order in main and subordinate clauses.[211] | |
| Auxiliary verb constructions | |
| Main articles: Do-support and Subject–auxiliary inversion | |
| English syntax relies on auxiliary verbs for many functions including the expression of tense, aspect, and mood. Auxiliary verbs form main clauses, and the main verbs function as heads of a subordinate clause of the auxiliary verb. For example, in the sentence the dog did not find its bone, the clause find its bone is the complement of the negated verb did not. Subject–auxiliary inversion is used in many constructions, including focus, negation, and interrogative constructions. | |
| The verb do can be used as an auxiliary even in simple declarative sentences, where it usually serves to add emphasis, as in "I did shut the fridge." However, in the negated and inverted clauses referred to above, it is used because the rules of English syntax permit these constructions only when an auxiliary is present. Modern English does not allow the addition of the negating adverb not to an ordinary finite lexical verb, as in *I know not—it can only be added to an auxiliary (or copular) verb, hence if there is no other auxiliary present when negation is required, the auxiliary do is used, to produce a form like I do not (don't) know. The same applies in clauses requiring inversion, including most questions—inversion must involve the subject and an auxiliary verb, so it is not possible to say *Know you him?; grammatical rules require Do you know him?[212] | |
| Negation is done with the adverb not, which precedes the main verb and follows an auxiliary verb. A contracted form of not -n't can be used as an enclitic attaching to auxiliary verbs and to the copula verb to be. Just as with questions, many negative constructions require the negation to occur with do-support, thus in Modern English I don't know him is the correct answer to the question Do you know him?, but not *I know him not, although this construction may be found in older English.[213] | |
| Passive constructions also use auxiliary verbs. A passive construction rephrases an active construction in such a way that the object of the active phrase becomes the subject of the passive phrase, and the subject of the active phrase is either omitted or demoted to a role as an oblique argument introduced in a prepositional phrase. They are formed by using the past participle either with the auxiliary verb to be or to get, although not all varieties of English allow the use of passives with get. For example, putting the sentence she sees him into the passive becomes he is seen (by her), or he gets seen (by her).[214] | |
| Questions | |
| Both yes–no questions and wh-questions in English are mostly formed using subject–auxiliary inversion (Am I going tomorrow?, Where can we eat?), which may require do-support (Do you like her?, Where did he go?). In most cases, interrogative words (wh-words; e.g. what, who, where, when, why, how) appear in a fronted position. For example, in the question What did you see?, the word what appears as the first constituent despite being the grammatical object of the sentence. (When the wh-word is the subject or forms part of the subject, no inversion occurs: Who saw the cat?.) Prepositional phrases can also be fronted when they are the question's theme, e.g. To whose house did you go last night?. The personal interrogative pronoun who is the only interrogative pronoun to still show inflection for case, with the variant whom serving as the objective case form, although this form may be going out of use in many contexts.[215] | |
| Discourse level syntax | |
| While English is a subject-prominent language, at the discourse level it tends to use a topic-comment structure, where the known information (topic) precedes the new information (comment). Because of the strict SVO syntax, the topic of a sentence generally has to be the grammatical subject of the sentence. In cases where the topic is not the grammatical subject of the sentence, it is often promoted to subject position through syntactic means. One way of doing this is through a passive construction, the girl was stung by the bee. Another way is through a cleft sentence where the main clause is demoted to be a complement clause of a copula sentence with a dummy subject such as it or there, e.g. it was the girl that the bee stung, there was a girl who was stung by a bee.[216] Dummy subjects are also used in constructions where there is no grammatical subject such as with impersonal verbs (e.g., it is raining) or in existential clauses (there are many cars on the street). Through the use of these complex sentence constructions with informationally vacuous subjects, English is able to maintain both a topic-comment sentence structure and a SVO syntax. | |
| Focus constructions emphasise a particular piece of new or salient information within a sentence, generally through allocating the main sentence level stress on the focal constituent. For example, the girl was stung by a bee (emphasising it was a bee and not, for example, a wasp that stung her), or The girl was stung by a bee (contrasting with another possibility, for example that it was the boy).[217] Topic and focus can also be established through syntactic dislocation, either preposing or postposing the item to be focused on relative to the main clause. For example, That girl over there, she was stung by a bee, emphasises the girl by preposition, but a similar effect could be achieved by postposition, she was stung by a bee, that girl over there, where reference to the girl is established as an "afterthought".[218] | |
| Cohesion between sentences is achieved through the use of deictic pronouns as anaphora (e.g. that is exactly what I mean where that refers to some fact known to both interlocutors, or then used to locate the time of a narrated event relative to the time of a previously narrated event).[219] Discourse markers such as oh, so or well, also signal the progression of ideas between sentences and help to create cohesion. Discourse markers are often the first constituents in sentences. Discourse markers are also used for stance taking in which speakers position themselves in a specific attitude towards what is being said, for example, no way is that true! (the idiomatic marker no way! expressing disbelief), or boy! I'm hungry (the marker boy expressing emphasis). While discourse markers are particularly characteristic of informal and spoken registers of English, they are also used in written and formal registers.[220] | |
| Vocabulary | |
| See also: Foreign language influences in English | |
| It is generally stated that English has around 170,000 words, or 220,000 if obsolete words are counted; this estimate is based on the last full edition of the Oxford English Dictionary from 1989.[221] Over half of these words are nouns, a quarter adjectives, and a seventh verbs. There is one count that puts the English vocabulary at about 1 million words—but that count presumably includes words such as Latin species names, scientific terminology, botanical terms, prefixed and suffixed words, jargon, foreign words of extremely limited English use, and technical acronyms.[222] | |
| Due to its status as an international language, English adopts foreign words quickly, and borrows vocabulary from many other sources. Early studies of English vocabulary by lexicographers, the scholars who formally study vocabulary, compile dictionaries, or both, were impeded by a lack of comprehensive data on actual vocabulary in use from good-quality linguistic corpora,[223] collections of actual written texts and spoken passages. Many statements published before the end of the 20th century about the growth of English vocabulary over time, the dates of first use of various words in English, and the sources of English vocabulary will have to be corrected as new computerised analysis of linguistic corpus data becomes available.[222][224] | |
| Word formation processes | |
| English forms new words from existing words or roots in its vocabulary through a variety of processes. One of the most productive processes in English is conversion,[225] using a word with a different grammatical role, for example using a noun as a verb or a verb as a noun. Another productive word-formation process is nominal compounding,[222][224] producing compound words such as babysitter or ice cream or homesick.[225] A process more common in Old English than in Modern English, but still productive in Modern English, is the use of derivational suffixes (-hood, -ness, -ing, -ility) to derive new words from existing words (especially those of Germanic origin) or stems (especially for words of Latin or Greek origin). | |
| Formation of new words, called neologisms, based on Greek and/or Latin roots (for example television or optometry) is a highly productive process in English and in most modern European languages, so much so that it is often difficult to determine in which language a neologism originated. For this reason, lexicographer Philip Gove attributed many such words to the "international scientific vocabulary" (ISV) when compiling Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1961). Another active word-formation process in English are acronyms,[226] words formed by pronouncing as a single word abbreviations of longer phrases, e.g. NATO, laser). | |
| Word origins | |
| Main articles: Foreign language influences in English and Lists of English words by country or language of origin | |
| See also: Linguistic purism in English | |
| Source languages of English vocabulary[6][227] | |
| Latin (29%) | |
| (Old) French, including Anglo-French (29%) | |
| Germanic languages (Old/Middle English, Old Norse, Dutch) (26%) | |
| Greek (6%) | |
| Other languages/unknown (6%) | |
| Derived from proper names (4%) | |
| English, besides forming new words from existing words and their roots, also borrows words from other languages. This adoption of words from other languages is commonplace in many world languages, but English has been especially open to borrowing of foreign words throughout the last 1,000 years.[228] The most commonly used words in English are West Germanic.[229] The words in English learned first by children as they learn to speak, particularly the grammatical words that dominate the word count of both spoken and written texts, are mainly the Germanic words inherited from the earliest periods of the development of Old English.[222] | |
| But one of the consequences of long language contact between French and English in all stages of their development is that the vocabulary of English has a very high percentage of "Latinate" words (derived from French, especially, and also from other Romance languages and Latin). French words from various periods of the development of French now make up one-third of the vocabulary of English.[230] Linguist Anthony Lacoudre estimated that over 40,000 English words are of French origin and may be understood without orthographical change by French speakers.[231] Words of Old Norse origin have entered the English language primarily from the contact between Old Norse and Old English during colonisation of eastern and northern England. Many of these words are part of English core vocabulary, such as egg and knife.[232] | |
| English has also borrowed many words directly from Latin, the ancestor of the Romance languages, during all stages of its development.[224][222] Many of these words had earlier been borrowed into Latin from Greek. Latin or Greek are still highly productive sources of stems used to form vocabulary of subjects learned in higher education such as the sciences, philosophy, and mathematics.[233] English continues to gain new loanwords and calques ("loan translations") from languages all over the world, and words from languages other than the ancestral Anglo-Saxon language make up about 60% of the vocabulary of English.[234] | |
| English has formal and informal speech registers; informal registers, including child-directed speech, tend to be made up predominantly of words of Anglo-Saxon origin, while the percentage of vocabulary that is of Latinate origin is higher in legal, scientific, and academic texts.[235][236] | |
| English loanwords and calques in other languages | |
| English has had a strong influence on the vocabulary of other languages.[230][237] The influence of English comes from such factors as opinion leaders in other countries knowing the English language, the role of English as a world lingua franca, and the large number of books and films that are translated from English into other languages.[238] That pervasive use of English leads to a conclusion in many places that English is an especially suitable language for expressing new ideas or describing new technologies. Among varieties of English, it is especially American English that influences other languages.[239] Some languages, such as Chinese, write words borrowed from English mostly as calques, while others, such as Japanese, readily take in English loanwords written in sound-indicating script.[240] Dubbed films and television programmes are an especially fruitful source of English influence on languages in Europe.[240] | |
| Writing system | |
| See also: English alphabet, English braille, and English orthography | |
| Since the ninth century, English has been written in a Latin alphabet (also called Roman alphabet). Earlier Old English texts in Anglo-Saxon runes are only short inscriptions. The great majority of literary works in Old English that survive to today are written in the Roman alphabet.[35] The modern English alphabet contains 26 letters of the Latin script: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z (which also have capital forms: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z). | |
| The spelling system, or orthography, of English is multi-layered and complex, with elements of French, Latin, and Greek spelling on top of the native Germanic system.[241] Further complications have arisen through sound changes with which the orthography has not kept pace.[47] Compared to European languages for which official organisations have promoted spelling reforms, English has spelling that is a less consistent indicator of pronunciation, and standard spellings of words that are more difficult to guess from knowing how a word is pronounced.[242] There are also systematic spelling differences between British and American English. These situations have prompted proposals for spelling reform in English.[243] | |
| Although letters and speech sounds do not have a one-to-one correspondence in standard English spelling, spelling rules that take into account syllable structure, phonetic changes in derived words, and word accent are reliable for most English words.[244] Moreover, standard English spelling shows etymological relationships between related words that would be obscured by a closer correspondence between pronunciation and spelling, for example the words photograph, photography, and photographic,[244] or the words electricity and electrical. While few scholars agree with Chomsky and Halle (1968) that conventional English orthography is "near-optimal",[241] there is a rationale for current English spelling patterns.[245] The standard orthography of English is the most widely used writing system in the world.[246] Standard English spelling is based on a graphomorphemic segmentation of words into written clues of what meaningful units make up each word.[247] | |
| Readers of English can generally rely on the correspondence between spelling and pronunciation to be fairly regular for letters or digraphs used to spell consonant sounds. The letters b, d, f, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, w, y, z represent, respectively, the phonemes /b, d, f, h, dʒ, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, w, j, z/. The letters c and g normally represent /k/ and /ɡ/, but there is also a soft c pronounced /s/, and a soft g pronounced /dʒ/. The differences in the pronunciations of the letters c and g are often signalled by the following letters in standard English spelling. Digraphs used to represent phonemes and phoneme sequences include ch for /tʃ/, sh for /ʃ/, th for /θ/ or /ð/, ng for /ŋ/, qu for /kw/, and ph for /f/ in Greek-derived words. The single letter x is generally pronounced as /z/ in word-initial position and as /ks/ otherwise. There are exceptions to these generalisations, often the result of loanwords being spelled according to the spelling patterns of their languages of origin[244] or residues of proposals by scholars in the early period of Modern English to follow the spelling patterns of Latin for English words of Germanic origin.[248] | |
| For the vowel sounds of the English language, however, correspondences between spelling and pronunciation are more irregular. There are many more vowel phonemes in English than there are single vowel letters (a, e, i, o, u, w, y). As a result, some "long vowels" are often indicated by combinations of letters (like the oa in boat, the ow in how, and the ay in stay), or the historically based silent e (as in note and cake).[245] | |
| The consequence of this complex orthographic history is that learning to read and write can be challenging in English. It can take longer for school pupils to become independently fluent readers of English than of many other languages, including Italian, Spanish, and German.[249] Nonetheless, there is an advantage for learners of English reading in learning the specific sound-symbol regularities that occur in the standard English spellings of commonly used words.[244] Such instruction greatly reduces the risk of children experiencing reading difficulties in English.[250][251] Making primary school teachers more aware of the primacy of morpheme representation in English may help learners learn more efficiently to read and write English.[252] | |
| English writing also includes a system of punctuation marks that is similar to those used in most alphabetic languages around the world. The purpose of punctuation is to mark meaningful grammatical relationships in sentences to aid readers in understanding a text and to indicate features important for reading a text aloud.[253] | |
| Dialects, accents, and varieties | |
| Main articles: List of dialects of the English language, World Englishes, and regional accents of English | |
| Dialectologists identify many English dialects, which usually refer to regional varieties that differ from each other in terms of patterns of grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. The pronunciation of particular areas distinguishes dialects as separate regional accents. The major native dialects of English are often divided by linguists into the two extremely general categories of British English (BrE) and North American English (NAE).[254] There also exists a third common major grouping of English varieties: Southern Hemisphere English, the most prominent being Australian and New Zealand English. | |
| Britain and Ireland | |
| See also: English language in England, Northern England English, Scots language, Scottish English, Welsh English, Estuary English, Ulster English, and Hiberno-English | |
| Map showing the main dialect regions in the UK and Ireland | |
| Speech example (0:31) | |
| 0:32 | |
| An example of a man with a 'Received Pronunciation' accent (Gyles Brandreth). | |
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| Speech example (0:38) | |
| 0:39 | |
| An example of a man with a Cockney accent (Danny Baker) | |
| Problems playing this file? See media help. | |
| Since the English language first evolved in Britain and Ireland, the archipelago is home to the most diverse dialects, particularly in England. Within the United Kingdom, the Received Pronunciation (RP), an educated dialect of South East England, is traditionally used as the broadcast standard and is considered the most prestigious of the British dialects. The spread of RP (also known as BBC English) through the media has caused many traditional dialects of rural England to recede, as youths adopt the traits of the prestige variety instead of traits from local dialects. At the time of the Survey of English Dialects, grammar and vocabulary differed across the country, but a process of lexical attrition has led most of this variation to disappear.[255] | |
| Speech example (0:27) | |
| 0:28 | |
| An example of an Essex male with a working-class Estuary accent of the region around London (Russell Brand). | |
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| Speech example (0:34) | |
| 0:35 | |
| An example of a man with a (West) Yorkshire accent (Lord John Prescott). | |
| Problems playing this file? See media help. | |
| Nonetheless, this attrition has mostly affected dialectal variation in grammar and vocabulary, and in fact, only 3 percent of the English population actually speak RP, the remainder speaking in regional accents and dialects with varying degrees of RP influence.[256] There is also variability within RP, particularly along class lines between Upper and Middle-class RP speakers and between native RP speakers and speakers who adopt RP later in life.[257] Within Britain, there is also considerable variation along lines of social class, and some traits though exceedingly common are considered "non-standard" and are associated with lower class speakers and identities. An example of this is H-dropping, which was historically a feature of lower-class London English, particularly Cockney, and can now be heard in the local accents of most parts of England—yet it remains largely absent in broadcasting and among the upper crust of British society.[258] | |
| Speech example (0:33) | |
| 0:34 | |
| An example of a man with a contemporary Liverpool accent (John Bishop). | |
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| Speech example (0:33) | |
| 0:34 | |
| An example of a man with one of many Scottish accents spoken across Scotland (Alex Salmond). | |
| Problems playing this file? See media help. | |
| Speech example (0:30) | |
| 0:30 | |
| An example of a man with one of many Irish accents spoken across Ireland (Terry Wogan). | |
| Problems playing this file? See media help. | |
| English in England can be divided into four major dialect regions, Southwest English, South East English, Midlands English, and Northern English. Within each of these regions several local subdialects exist: Within the Northern region, there is a division between the Yorkshire dialects and the Geordie dialect spoken in Northumbria around Newcastle, and the Lancashire dialects with local urban dialects in Liverpool (Scouse) and Manchester (Mancunian). Having been the centre of Danish occupation during the Viking Invasions, Northern English dialects, particularly the Yorkshire dialect, retain Norse features not found in other English varieties.[259] | |
| Since the 15th century, southeastern England varieties have centred on London, which has been the centre from which dialectal innovations have spread to other dialects. In London, the Cockney dialect was traditionally used by the lower classes, and it was long a socially stigmatised variety. The spread of Cockney features across the south-east led the media to talk of Estuary English as a new dialect, but the notion was criticised by many linguists on the grounds that London had been influencing neighbouring regions throughout history.[260][261][262] Traits that have spread from London in recent decades include the use of intrusive R (drawing is pronounced drawring /ˈdrɔːrɪŋ/), t-glottalisation (Potter is pronounced with a glottal stop as Po'er /poʔʌ/), and the pronunciation of th- as /f/ (thanks pronounced fanks) or /v/ (bother pronounced bover).[263] | |
| Scots is today considered a separate language from English, but it has its origins in early Northern Middle English[264] and developed and changed during its history with influence from other sources, particularly Scots Gaelic and Old Norse. Scots itself has a number of regional dialects. And in addition to Scots, Scottish English comprises the varieties of Standard English spoken in Scotland; most varieties are Northern English accents, with some influence from Scots.[265] | |
| In Ireland, various forms of English have been spoken since the Norman invasions of the 11th century. In County Wexford, in the area surrounding Dublin, two extinct dialects known as Forth and Bargy and Fingallian developed as offshoots from Early Middle English, and were spoken until the 19th century. Modern Irish English, however, has its roots in English colonisation in the 17th century. Today Irish English is divided into Ulster English, the Northern Ireland dialect with strong influence from Scots, and various dialects of the Republic of Ireland. Like Scottish and most North American accents, almost all Irish accents preserve the rhoticity which has been lost in the dialects influenced by RP.[20][266] | |
| North America | |
| Main articles: American English, General American, African American Vernacular English, Southern American English, Canadian English, and Atlantic Canadian English | |
| Speech example (0:57) | |
| 0:57 | |
| An example of a Midwestern U.S. male with a general American accent (Emery Emery). | |
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| Speech example (10:17) | |
| 10:17 | |
| An example of a Texan male with a Southern U.S. accent (George W. Bush). | |
| Problems playing this file? See media help. | |
| Speech example (0:27) | |
| 0:27 | |
| An example of an Ontario woman with a standard Canadian accent (Margaret Atwood) | |
| Problems playing this file? See media help. | |
| Rhoticity dominates in North American English. The Atlas of North American English found over 50% non-rhoticity, though, in at least one local white speaker in each U.S. metropolitan area designated here by a red dot. Non-rhotic African American Vernacular English pronunciations may be found among African Americans regardless of location. | |
| North American English is fairly homogeneous compared to British English. Today, American accent variation is often increasing at the regional level and decreasing at the very local level,[267] though most Americans still speak within a phonological continuum of similar accents,[268] known collectively as General American (GA), with differences hardly noticed even among Americans themselves (such as Midland and Western American English).[269][270][271] In most American and Canadian English dialects, rhoticity (or r-fulness) is dominant, with non-rhoticity (r-dropping) becoming associated with lower prestige and social class especially after World War II; this contrasts with the situation in England, where non-rhoticity has become the standard.[272] | |
| Separate from GA are American dialects with clearly distinct sound systems, historically including Southern American English, English of the coastal Northeast (famously including Eastern New England English and New York City English), and African American Vernacular English, all of which are historically non-rhotic. Canadian English, except for the Atlantic provinces and perhaps Quebec, may be classified under GA as well, but it often shows the raising of the vowels /aɪ/ and /aʊ/ before voiceless consonants, as well as distinct norms for written and pronunciation standards.[273] | |
| In Southern American English, the most populous American "accent group" outside of GA,[274] rhoticity now strongly prevails, replacing the region's historical non-rhotic prestige.[275][276][277] Southern accents are colloquially described as a "drawl" or "twang,"[278] being recognised most readily by the Southern Vowel Shift initiated by glide-deleting in the /aɪ/ vowel (e.g. pronouncing spy almost like spa), the "Southern breaking" of several front pure vowels into a gliding vowel or even two syllables (e.g. pronouncing the word "press" almost like "pray-us"),[279] the pin–pen merger, and other distinctive phonological, grammatical, and lexical features, many of which are actually recent developments of the 19th century or later.[280] | |
| Today spoken primarily by working- and middle-class African Americans, African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) is also largely non-rhotic and likely originated among enslaved Africans and African Americans influenced primarily by the non-rhotic, non-standard older Southern dialects. A minority of linguists,[281] contrarily, propose that AAVE mostly traces back to African languages spoken by the slaves who had to develop a pidgin or Creole English to communicate with slaves of other ethnic and linguistic origins.[282] AAVE's important commonalities with Southern accents suggests it developed into a highly coherent and homogeneous variety in the 19th or early 20th century. AAVE is commonly stigmatised in North America as a form of "broken" or "uneducated" English, as are white Southern accents, but linguists today recognise both as fully developed varieties of English with their own norms shared by a large speech community.[283][284] | |
| Australia and New Zealand | |
| Main articles: Australian English and New Zealand English | |
| Speech example (17:36) | |
| 17:36 | |
| An example of a male with a general Australian accent. | |
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| Speech example (0:34) | |
| 0:35 | |
| An example of a Queensland male with a cultivated Australian accent (Geoffrey Rush). | |
| Problems playing this file? See media help. | |
| Speech example (0:59) | |
| 1:00 | |
| An example of a male with a New Zealand accent. | |
| Problems playing this file? See media help. | |
| Since 1788, English has been spoken in Oceania, and Australian English has developed as a first language of the vast majority of the inhabitants of the Australian continent, its standard accent being General Australian. The English of neighbouring New Zealand has to a lesser degree become an influential standard variety of the language.[285] Australian and New Zealand English are each other's closest relatives with few differentiating characteristics, followed by South African English and the English of southeastern England, all of which have similarly non-rhotic accents, aside from some accents in the South Island of New Zealand. Australian and New Zealand English stand out for their innovative vowels: many short vowels are fronted or raised, whereas many long vowels have diphthongised. Australian English also has a contrast between long and short vowels, not found in most other varieties. Australian English grammar aligns closely to British and American English; like American English, collective plural subjects take on a singular verb (as in the government is rather than are).[286][287] New Zealand English uses front vowels that are often even higher than in Australian English.[288][289][290] | |
| Southeast Asia | |
| Main articles: Philippine English and Singapore English | |
| The first significant exposure of the Philippines to the English language occurred in 1762 when the British occupied Manila during the Seven Years' War, but this was a brief episode that had no lasting influence. English later became more important and widespread during American rule between 1898 and 1946, and remains an official language of the Philippines. Today, the use of English is ubiquitous in the Philippines, from street signs and marquees, government documents and forms, courtrooms, the media and entertainment industries, the business sector, and other aspects of daily life. One such usage that is also prominent in the country is in speech, where most Filipinos from Manila would use or have been exposed to Taglish, a form of code-switching between Tagalog and English. A similar code-switching method is used by urban native speakers of Visayan languages called Bislish. | |
| Africa, the Caribbean, and South Asia | |
| See also: South African English, Nigerian English, Caribbean English, Indian English, and Pakistani English | |
| Speech example (0:56) | |
| 0:57 | |
| An example of a male with a South African accent. | |
| Problems playing this file? See media help. | |
| English is spoken widely in southern Africa and is an official or co-official language in several countries. In South Africa, English has been spoken since 1820, co-existing with Afrikaans and various African languages such as the Khoe and Bantu languages. Today, about 9 percent of the South African population speaks South African English (SAE) as a first language. SAE is a non-rhotic variety, which tends to follow RP as a norm. It is alone among non-rhotic varieties in lacking intrusive r. There are different L2 varieties that differ based on the native language of the speakers.[291] Most phonological differences from RP are in the vowels.[292] Consonant differences include the tendency to pronounce /p, t, t͡ʃ, k/ without aspiration (e.g. pin pronounced [pɪn] rather than as [pʰɪn] as in most other varieties), while r is often pronounced as a flap [ɾ] instead of as the more common fricative.[293] | |
| Speech example (0:37) | |
| 0:38 | |
| An example of a woman with an educated Nigerian accent (Chimamanda Adichie) | |
| Problems playing this file? See media help. | |
| Nigerian English is a dialect of English spoken in Nigeria.[294] It is based on British English, but in recent years, because of influence from the United States, some words of American English origin have made it into Nigerian English. Additionally, some new words and collocations have emerged from the language, which come from the need to express concepts specific to the culture of the nation (e.g. senior wife). Over 150 million Nigerians speak English.[295] | |
| Several varieties of English are also spoken in the Caribbean islands that were colonial possessions of Britain, including Jamaica, and the Leeward and Windward Islands and Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, the Cayman Islands, and Belize. Each of these areas is home both to a local variety of English and a local English-based creole, combining English and African languages. The most prominent varieties are Jamaican English and Jamaican Creole. In Central America, English-based creoles are spoken in on the Caribbean coasts of Nicaragua and Panama.[296] Locals are often fluent both in the local English variety and the local creole languages and code-switching between them is frequent, indeed another way to conceptualise the relationship between Creole and Standard varieties is to see a spectrum of social registers with the Creole forms serving as "basilect" and the more RP-like forms serving as the "acrolect", the most formal register.[297] | |
| Most Caribbean varieties are based on British English and consequently, most are non-rhotic, except for formal styles of Jamaican English which are often rhotic. Jamaican English differs from RP in its vowel inventory, which has a distinction between long and short vowels rather than tense and lax vowels as in Standard English. The diphthongs /ei/ and /ou/ are monophthongs [eː] and [oː] or even the reverse diphthongs [ie] and [uo] (e.g. bay and boat pronounced [bʲeː] and [bʷoːt]). Often word-final consonant clusters are simplified so that "child" is pronounced [t͡ʃail] and "wind" [win].[298][299][300] | |
| Speech example (0:39) | |
| 0:39 | |
| An example of a North Indian woman with an Indian accent (Vandana Shiva) | |
| Problems playing this file? See media help. | |
| As a historical legacy, Indian English tends to take RP as its ideal, and how well this ideal is realised in an individual's speech reflects class distinctions among Indian English speakers. Indian English accents are marked by the pronunciation of phonemes such as /t/ and /d/ (often pronounced with retroflex articulation as [ʈ] and [ɖ]) and the replacement of /θ/ and /ð/ with dentals [t̪] and [d̪]. Sometimes Indian English speakers may also use spelling based pronunciations where the silent ⟨h⟩ found in words such as ghost is pronounced as an Indian voiced aspirated stop [ɡʱ].[301] | |
| Sample text | |
| Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:[302] | |
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. | |
| See also | |
| Linguistic purism in English | |
| English-speaking world | |
| English-only movement | |
| List of countries and territories where English is an official language | |
| References | |
| Oxford Learner's Dictionary 2015, Entry: English – Pronunciation. | |
| Crystal 2006, pp. 424–426. | |
| The Routes of English. | |
| Crystal 2003a, p. 6. | |
| Wardhaugh 2010, p. 55. | |
| Finkenstaedt, Thomas; Dieter Wolff (1973). Ordered profusion; studies in dictionaries and the English lexicon. C. Winter. ISBN 978-3-533-02253-4. | |
| Bammesberger 1992, p. 30. | |
| Svartvik & Leech 2006, p. 39. | |
| Ian Short, A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World, "Language and Literature", Boydell & Brewer Ltd, 2007. (p. 193) | |
| Crystal 2003b, p. 30. | |
| "How English evolved into a global language". BBC. 20 December 2010. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 9 August 2015. | |
| König 1994, p. 539. | |
| English at Ethnologue (22nd ed., 2019) | |
| Ethnologue 2010. | |
| Crystal, David (2008). "Two thousand million?". English Today. 24 (1): 3–6. doi:10.1017/S0266078408000023. S2CID 145597019. | |
| Crystal 2003b, pp. 108–109. | |
| Bammesberger 1992, pp. 29–30. | |
| Robinson 1992. | |
| Romaine 1982, pp. 56–65. | |
| Barry 1982, pp. 86–87. | |
| Harbert 2007. | |
| Thomason & Kaufman 1988, pp. 264–265. | |
| Watts 2011, Chapter 4. | |
| Durrell 2006. | |
| König & van der Auwera 1994. | |
| Baugh, Albert (1951). A History of the English Language. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 60–83, 110–130 | |
| Shore, Thomas William (1906), Origin of the Anglo-Saxon Race – A Study of the Settlement of England and the Tribal Origin of the Old English People (1st ed.), London, pp. 3, 393 | |
| Collingwood & Myres 1936. | |
| Graddol, Leith & Swann et al. 2007. | |
| Blench & Spriggs 1999. | |
| Bosworth & Toller 1921. | |
| Campbell 1959, p. 4. | |
| Toon 1992, Chapter: Old English Dialects. | |
| Donoghue 2008. | |
| Gneuss 2013, p. 23. | |
| Denison & Hogg 2006, pp. 30–31. | |
| Hogg 1992, Chapter 3. Phonology and Morphology. | |
| Smith 2009. | |
| Trask & Trask 2010. | |
| Lass 2006, pp. 46–47. | |
| Hogg 2006, pp. 360–361. | |
| Thomason & Kaufman 1988, pp. 284–290. | |
| Lass 1992, pp. 103–123. | |
| Fischer & van der Wurff 2006, pp. 111–13. | |
| Wycliffe, John. "Bible" (PDF). Wesley NNU. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 9 April 2015. | |
| Horobin, Simon. "Chaucer's Middle English". The Open Access Companion to the Canterbury Tales. Louisiana State University. Archived from the original on 3 December 2019. Retrieved 24 November 2019. The only appearances of their and them in Chaucer's works are in the Reeve's Tale, where they form part of the Northern dialect spoken by the two Cambridge students, Aleyn and John, demonstrating that at this time they were still perceived to be Northernisms | |
| Lass 2000. | |
| Görlach 1991, pp. 66–70. | |
| Nevalainen & Tieken-Boon van Ostade 2006, pp. 274–79. | |
| Cercignani 1981. | |
| How English evolved into a global language 2010. | |
| Romaine 2006, p. 586. | |
| Mufwene 2006, p. 614. | |
| Northrup 2013, pp. 81–86. | |
| Baker, Colin (1998). Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education. Multilingual Matters. p. 311. ISBN 978-1-85359-362-8. Archived from the original on 20 January 2021. Retrieved 27 August 2017. | |
| Graddol 2006. | |
| Crystal 2003a. | |
| McCrum, MacNeil & Cran 2003, pp. 9–10. | |
| Romaine 1999, pp. 1–56. | |
| Romaine 1999, p. 2: "Other changes such as the spread and regularisation of do support began in the thirteenth century and were more or less complete in the nineteenth. Although do coexisted with the simple verb forms in negative statements from the early ninth century, obligatoriness was not complete until the nineteenth. The increasing use of do periphrasis coincides with the fixing of SVO word order. Not surprisingly, do is first widely used in interrogatives, where the word order is disrupted, and then later spread to negatives." | |
| Leech et al. 2009, pp. 18–19. | |
| Mair & Leech 2006. | |
| Mair 2006. | |
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| Wojcik, R. H. (2006). "Controlled Languages". In Brown, Keith (ed.). Encyclopedia of language & linguistics. Elsevier. pp. 139–142. doi:10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05081-1. ISBN 978-0-08-044299-0. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 6 February 2015. – via ScienceDirect (Subscription may be required or content may be available in libraries.) | |
| Wolfram, W. (2006). "Variation and Language: Overview". In Brown, Keith (ed.). Encyclopedia of language & linguistics. Elsevier. pp. 333–341. doi:10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04256-5. ISBN 978-0-08-044299-0. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 6 February 2015. – via ScienceDirect (Subscription may be required or content may be available in libraries.) | |
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| ''' | |
| Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1] | |
| Scientific classificationedit | |
| Kingdom: Animalia | |
| Phylum: Chordata | |
| Class: Actinopterygii | |
| Order: Perciformes | |
| Family: Pomacanthidae | |
| Genus: Holacanthus | |
| Species: H. ciliaris | |
| Binomial name | |
| Holacanthus ciliaris | |
| (Linnaeus, 1758) | |
| QueenAngelfish distribution.png | |
| Range of the queen angelfish | |
| Synonyms[2] | |
| The queen angelfish (Holacanthus ciliaris), also known as the blue angelfish, golden angelfish, or yellow angelfish, is a species of marine angelfish found in the western Atlantic Ocean. It is a benthic (ocean floor) warm-water species that lives in coral reefs. It is recognized by its blue and yellow coloration and a distinctive spot or "crown" on its forehead. This crown distinguishes it from the closely related and similar-looking Bermuda blue angelfish (Holacanthus bermudensis), with which it overlaps in range and can interbreed. | |
| Adult queen angelfish are selective feeders and primarily eat sponges. Their social structure consists of harems which include one male and up to four females. They live within a territory where the females forage separately and are tended to by the male. Breeding in the species occurs near a full moon. The transparent eggs are pelagic and float in the water, hatching after 15–20 hours. Juveniles of the species have different coloration than adults and act as cleaner fish. | |
| The queen angelfish is popular in the aquarium trade and has been a particularly common exported species from Brazil. In 2010, the queen angelfish was assessed as least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as the wild population appeared to be stable. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Taxonomy | |
| 2 Description | |
| 3 Ecology | |
| 4 Life cycle | |
| 5 Human interactions | |
| 6 References | |
| 7 External links | |
| Taxonomy | |
| The queen angelfish was first described as Chaetodon ciliaris in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae, with the type locality given as the "Western Atlantic/Caribbean".[3] In 1802 it was moved by French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lacépède to the genus Holacanthus,[4] the name of which is derived from the Ancient Greek words "holos" (full) and "akantha" (thorn).[2] Its specific name ciliaris means "fringed", a reference to its squamis ciliatis ("ciliate scales").[5] Other common names for the species include "blue angelfish", "golden angelfish" and "yellow angelfish".[6] | |
| Marine angelfish of the genus Holacanthus likely originated between 10.2 and 7.6 million years ago (mya). The most basal species is the Guinean angelfish (Holacanthus africanus) off the coast of West Africa, indicating that the lineage colonized the Atlantic from the Indian Ocean.[7] The closure of the Isthmus of Panama 3.5–3.1 mya led to the splitting off of the Tropical Eastern Pacific species.[8] The closest relative and sister species of the queen angelfish is the sympatric and similar Bermuda blue angelfish (H. bermudensis), from which it split around 1.5 mya.[7][8] They are known to interbreed, producing a hybrid known as the Townsend angelfish[9] which has features intermediate between the parent species.[10] The Townsend angelfish is fertile, and individuals can breed both with each other and with the two parent species.[11] | |
| The following cladogram is based on molecular evidence:[7][8][12] | |
| Image of a fish in a coral reef | |
| Townsend angelfish, a hybrid of queen and Bermuda blue angelfish | |
| Holacanthus | |
| Rock beauty Holacanthus tricolor 1 (cropped).jpg | |
| Bermuda blue angelfish Bermuda blue angelfish (cropped).jpg | |
| Queen angelfish Holacanthus ciliaris 10 (cropped).jpg | |
| Clarion angelfish Clarion angelfish (Holacanthus clarionensis) (19185438555) (cropped).jpg | |
| Clipperton angelfish Holacanthus limbaughi.jpg | |
| King angelfish Holacanthus passer 1.jpg | |
| Guinean angelfish Holacanthus africanus.jpg | |
| Description | |
| Frontal view of a queen angelfish showing the crown | |
| Frontal view of a queen angelfish with "crown" visible | |
| The queen angelfish has a deep, compressed oval-shaped body with a short, blunt snout and a small mouth containing bristle-like teeth.[13] The dorsal fin contains 14 spines and 19–21 soft rays, and the anal fin has 3 spines and 20–21 soft rays.[2] This species attains a maximum total length of 45 cm (18 in) and weight of 1,600 g (56 oz).[2][6] Males may be larger than females.[14][15] | |
| The species has blue-green flank (side) scales with yellow edges; the tail and paired fins are bright yellow, and the anal fins are orange-yellow. The back of the dorsal fin is tipped in orange-yellow, and the pectoral fins have large blue spots at the base.[14] On the forehead, above and behind the eyes, is an ocellated (eye-like) spot or "crown" with an electric blue ring surrounding a cobalt blue center with electric blue spots.[2][14] This crown is the main feature distinguishing the species from the Bermuda blue angelfish.[6][14] Juveniles are dark blue with bright blue vertical stripes and a yellow pectoral area. They resemble juvenile blue angelfish and are distinguished by more curved vertical stripes.[6] Growing juveniles develop transitional patterns as they reach their adult coloration.[14] | |
| Image of a juvenile angelfish | |
| Juvenile angelfish closer to adult coloration | |
| Seven other color morphs have been recorded off the coast of the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, Brazil. These include a bright-orange gold morph, an all-white morph, a white morph with orange and black blotches, a bright blue morph that has a pale caudal fin, a yellow-faced bright blue morph with a pale caudal fin, a bright blue morph with both the pectorals and caudal fin yellow, and a bright blue morph with black-and-white pectoral/caudal fins and white mouth and operculum.[16] Another color morph was recorded off Dry Tortugas, Florida, in 2009. This fish was mostly cobalt blue with white pectoral, pelvic, and caudal fins. The snout and operculum area had mottled cobalt blue and white coloration, and the dorsal and anal fins were deep yellow-orange and white.[17] | |
| There are records of at least two wild queen angelfish at St. Peter and St. Paul with a "pughead" skeletal deformity, a compressed upper jaw and a protruded lower jaw. Such abnormalities are more common in captive fish.[18] | |
| Ecology | |
| Angelfish among corals | |
| Angelfish at John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park, Key Largo, Florida | |
| Queen angelfish are found in tropical and subtropical areas of the Western Atlantic Ocean around the coasts and islands of the Americas. They occur from Florida along the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea down to Brazil. Their range extends as far east as Bermuda and the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago.[1][6] Queen angelfish are benthic or bottom-dwelling and occur from shallow waters close to shore down to 70 m (230 ft). They live in coral reefs and are typically encountered either as solitary fish or as pairs, swimming among soft corals.[6] | |
| Queen angelfish feed on sponges, tunicates, jellyfish, corals, plankton, and algae. Juveniles act as cleaner fish and set up cleaning stations where they pick ectoparasites off bigger fish.[6] Off St. Thomas Island and Salvador, Bahia, 90% of the diet of adults is sponges. Off the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, more than 30 prey species may be consumed, 68% being sponges, 25% being algae, and 5% being bryozoans. Queen angelfish appear to be selective feeders as the proportion of prey in their diet does not correlate with their abundance. On the species level, the angelfish of the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago prefer the less common sponges Geodia neptuni, Erylus latens, Clathria calla, and Asteropus niger.[19] | |
| Life cycle | |
| Picture of two angelfish, one turning away from the camera | |
| A pair of angelfish off Belize | |
| Queen angelfish live in harems consisting of one male and two to four females within a large territory.[15] Little is known about the sexual development of the species, though they are presumed to be protogynous hermaphrodites. If a harem male disappears, the largest female may change sex.[11] Around midday, the females forage separately in different locations. The male tends to each of them, rushing at, circling, and feeding next to them.[15] Spawning in this species occurs year-round.[20] It is observed sometime around a full moon.[15] | |
| Courtship involves the male displaying his side to the female and slightly flicking his pectoral fins outwardly at intervals lasting a few seconds. At the beginning of spawning, the female ascends towards the surface as the male swims below her with his snout touching her vent.[15] They then release their eggs and semen into the water. The female can discharge between 25 and 75 thousand eggs in an evening.[6] After spawning, the pair separate and head for the bottom, where the female may nip and chase the male.[11] | |
| The transparent eggs are pelagic and float in the water, hatching after 15–20 hours. The initial larvae have a large yolk sac and lack functional eyes, gut or fins, but after 48 hours, the yolk is absorbed, and the larvae have more of a resemblance to fish. These larvae feed on plankton and grow rapidly. Between three and four weeks after hatching, when they have reached a length of 15 to 20 mm (0.6 to 0.8 in), they settle on the floor as juveniles. They live alone and in territories in and around finger sponges and coral. Within these territories, juveniles establish cleaning stations for other fish.[6] | |
| Human interactions | |
| Angelfish in aquarium | |
| Angelfish at aquarium in Barcelona, Spain | |
| Queen angelfish are not normally eaten nor are they commercially fished. They are captured mostly for the aquarium trade, where they are highly valued.[21] As juveniles, angelfish can be conditioned to accept typical aquarium food and hence have a higher survival rate than individuals taken as adults, which would require a more specialized diet.[22] | |
| The queen angelfish has been a commonly exported angelfish species from Brazil.[1] From 1995 to 2000, 43,730 fish were traded at Fortaleza in the northeast of the country, and in 1995, the queen and French angelfish were nearly 75% of marine ornamental fish sold.[23] In 2010, the queen angelfish was assessed as least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, as the species is not fished much in its range (aside from Brazil) and the wild population appeared to be stable.[1] | |
| Queen angelfish have been caught in the eastern Adriatic Sea, off Croatia, in 2011, and the Mediterranean Sea, off Malta, in 2020. These are likely introductions from the aquarium industry and not natural colonizations.[24] In 2015, an aquarium-introduced angelfish was caught in the Red Sea at Eilat's Coral Beach, Israel. The disease-causing bacterium Photobacterium damselae piscicida, which was not previously documented in Red Sea fish, was isolated from its kidney, raising concerns that it could infect native fish.[25] | |
| References | |
| Pyle, R.; Myers, R. F.; Rocha, L. A.; Craig, M. T. (2010). "Holacanthus ciliaris". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2010: e.T165883A6156566. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-4.RLTS.T165883A6156566.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021. | |
| Froese, Rainer (December 2019). "Holacanthus ciliaris (Linnaeus, 1758)". Fishbase. Retrieved 21 February 2021. | |
| Eschmeyer, William N.; Fricke, Ron & van der Laan, Richard (eds.). "Species in the genus Holacanthus". Catalog of Fishes. California Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 21 February 2021. | |
| "Holacanthus Lacepède, 1802". World Register of Marine Species. Retrieved 24 November 2021. | |
| Scharpf, Christopher; Lazara, Kenneth J. (21 July 2020). "Order Acanthuriformes (Part 1): Families Lobotidae, Pomacanthidae, Drepaneidae and Chaetodontidae". The ETYFish Project Fish Name Etymology Database. Retrieved 22 February 2021. | |
| "Holacanthus ciliaris". Discover Fish. Florida Museum. 10 May 2017. Retrieved 22 February 2021. | |
| Alva-Campbell, Y.; Floeter, S. R.; Robertson, D. R.; Bellwood, D. R.; Bernardi, G. (2010). "Molecular phylogenetics and evolution of Holacanthus angelfishes (Pomacanthidae)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 56 (1): 456–461. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2010.02.014. PMID 20171293. | |
| Tariel, J.; Longo, G. C.; Bernardi, G. (2016). "Tempo and mode of speciation in Holacanthus angelfishes based on RADseq markers". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 98: 84–88. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2016.01.010. PMID 26876637. | |
| Reyes-Bonilla, H.; Alvarez-Filip, F.; Sánchez-Alcántara, I. (2010). "New records of the Townsend angelfish (Holacanthus bermudensis X H. ciliaris hybrid) and range extension of the Blue angelfish (H. bermudensis) in the Caribbean Sea". Caribbean Journal of Science. 46 (2–3): 339–345. doi:10.18475/cjos.v46i2.a24. S2CID 130966144. | |
| Feddern, H. (1968). "Hybridization between the western Atlantic angelfishes, Holacanthus isabelita and H. ciliaris" (PDF). Bulletin of Marine Science. 18 (2): 351–382. | |
| Deloach, Ned; Deloach, Anne (2019). Reef Fish Behavior: Florida, Caribbean, Bahamas (2nd ed.). New World Publications. pp. 175–176, 180–181. ISBN 978-1878348685. | |
| Shen, K-N; Chang, C-W; Chen, C-H; Hsiao, C-D (2015). "Complete mitogenomes of King angelfish (Holacanthus passer) and Queen angelfish (Holacanthus ciliaris) (Teleostei: Pomacanthidae)". Mitochondrial DNA Part A. 27 (4): 2815–2816. doi:10.3109/19401736.2015.1053081. PMID 26119118. S2CID 207745744. | |
| "Species: Holacanthus ciliaris, Blue angelfish". Shorefishes of the Greater Caribbean online information. Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. Retrieved 22 February 2021. | |
| Snyder, David B.; Burgess, George H. (2016). Marine Fishes of Florida. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 221–224. ISBN 978-1421418728. | |
| Moyer, J. T.; Thresher, R. E.; Colin, P. L. (1983). "Courtship, spawning and inferred social organization of American angelfishes (Genera Pornacanthus, Holacanthus and Centropyge; Pomacanthidae)". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 9 (1): 25–39. doi:10.1007/BF00001056. S2CID 25999869. | |
| Luiz, O. J. Jr (2003). "Colour Morphs in a Queen Angelfish Holacanthus ciliaris (Perciformes: Pomacanthidae) population of St. Paul's Rocks, NE Brazil". Tropical Fish Hobbyist. 51 (5): 81–90. | |
| Feeley, M.; Luiz, O. J. Jr; Zurcher, N. (2009). "Colour morph of a probable queen angelfish Holacanthus ciliaris from Dry Tortugas, Florida". Journal of Fish Biology. 74 (10): 2415–2421. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2009.02259.x. PMID 20735563. | |
| Francini-Filho, R. B.; Amado-Filho, G. M. (2012). "First record of pughead skeletal deformity in the queen angelfish Holacanthus ciliaris (St. Peter and St. Paul Archipelago, Mid Atlantic Ridge, Brazil)". Coral Reefs. 32 (211): 211. doi:10.1007/s00338-012-0975-z. S2CID 43730987. | |
| Reis, F.; Moraes, F.; Batista, D.; Villaça, R.; Aguiar, A.; Muricy, G. (2013). "Diet of the queen angelfish Holacanthus ciliaris (Pomacanthidae) in São Pedro e São Paulo Archipelago, Brazil". Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. 93 (2): 453–460. doi:10.1017/S0025315412001099. S2CID 87827468. | |
| Nottingham, Mara C.; Feitosa Silva, José Roberto; de Araújo, Maria Elisabeth (2003). "Morphology and Histology of the Testicles of Queen Angelfish Holacanthus ciliaris (Linnaeus, 1758) (Teleostei: Perciformes: Pomacanthidae)". Arquivos de Ciências do Mar. 36 (1–2): 89–94. doi:10.32360/acmar.v36i1-2.6602 (inactive 28 February 2022). | |
| Larkin, S. L.; de Bodisco, C.; Degner, R. L. (2008). "Wholesale and Retail Break-Even Prices for MAC-Certified Queen Angelfish (Holacanthus ciliaris)". In Cato, J. C.; Brown, C. L. (eds.). Marine Ornamental Species: Collection, Culture & Conservation. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 126. ISBN 978-0813829876. | |
| Spotte, S. (1993). Marine Aquarium Keeping. Wiley. p. 87. ISBN 9780471594895. | |
| Monteiro-Neto, C.; Cunha, F. E. A.; Nottingham, M. C.; Araújo, M. E.; Rosa, I. L.; Barros, G. M. L. (2003). "Analysis of the marine ornamental fish trade at Ceará State, northeast Brazil". Biodiversity and Conservation. 12 (6): 1287–1295. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.610.6568. doi:10.1023/A:1023096023733. S2CID 19814034. | |
| Deidun, A.; Galdies, J.; Zava, B. (2020). "A bonanza of angelfish (Perciformes: Pomacanthidae) in the Mediterranean: the second documented record of Holacanthus ciliaris (Linnaeus, 1758)". BioInvasions Records. 9 (4): 827–833. doi:10.3391/bir.2020.9.4.16. S2CID 229615030. | |
| Stern, N.; Rachmilovitz, E. N.; Sharon, G.; Diamant, A. (2016). "The dire implications of releasing marine ornamental fishes into the wild: first reported case from the Red Sea". Marine Biodiversity. 48 (3): 1615–1620. doi:10.1007/s12526-016-0600-4. S2CID 14359958. | |
| External links | |
| Media related to Holacanthus ciliaris at Wikimedia Commons | |
| Data related to Queen angelfish at Wikispecies | |
| Photos of Queen angelfish on Sealife Collection | |
| Taxon identifiers | |
| Holacanthus ciliaris | |
| Wikidata: Q453994Wikispecies: Holacanthus ciliarisADW: Holacanthus_ciliarisBOLD: 60132FishBase: 3609GBIF: 5211452iNaturalist: 47235IRMNG: 10149047ITIS: 169623IUCN: 165883NCBI: 75024WoRMS: 276012 | |
| Chaetodon ciliaris | |
| Wikidata: Q106413841IRMNG: 11041102ITIS: 169559WoRMS: 302646 | |
| Categories: IUCN Red List least concern speciesHolacanthusFish described in 1758Fish of the Western AtlanticFish of the CaribbeanTaxa named by Carl Linnaeus | |
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| William Fremantle (nephew) | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
| Jump to navigationJump to search | |
| William Henry Fremantle (12 December 1831 – 24 December 1916) was an Anglican priest who served as Archdeacon of Maidstone in 1887, and as Dean of Ripon 1895–1915. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Ecclesiastical career | |
| 2 Family | |
| 3 References | |
| 4 External links | |
| Ecclesiastical career | |
| The second son of Thomas Fremantle, 1st Baron Cottesloe, (and a nephew of William Fremantle, his predecessor at Ripon) he was educated at Eton and Balliol.[1] A Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, he was ordained in 1855 and two years later became Vicar of Lewknor. He was then Chaplain to Archibald Campbell, Bishop of London, and went with him in the same post when he was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury seven years later. Appointed to be a Cathedral Canon at Canterbury in 1882,[2] and Archdeacon of Maidstone in 1887, in 1895 he became Dean of Ripon. He retired in 1915[3] and died a year later on Christmas Eve 1916.[4] | |
| He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Botanic Society of London in 1902.[5] | |
| Family | |
| Fremantle married Isabella Maria Eardley, daughter of Sir Culling Eardley. Mrs. Fremantle took an active part in charitable work in the dioceses her husband was appointed to, and her work among the sick poor was well known. She died, aged 66, in July 1901.[6] | |
| Their second son Sir Francis Edward Fremantle was a Conservative politician. | |
| References | |
| "Who was Who"1897–1990 London, A & C Black, 1991 ISBN 071363457X | |
| the Peerage.com | |
| The Times, Saturday, 10 July 1915; p. 4; Issue 40903; col B Resignation Of The Dean Of Ripon | |
| DNB | |
| "Royal Botanic Society of London". The Times. No. 36744. London. 17 April 1902. p. 6. | |
| "Obituary". The Times. No. 36507. London. 15 July 1901. p. 6. | |
| External links | |
| Works by or about William Fremantle at Internet Archive | |
| Wikisource-logo.svg Obituary: Dr. W. H. Fremantle, Dean of Ripon.Scaredy Camp | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
| Jump to navigationJump to search | |
| This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. | |
| Find sources: "Scaredy Camp" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) | |
| Scaredy Camp | |
| Genre Reality show | |
| Created by Liz Becker[1] | |
| Presented by Emma Wilson | |
| Country of origin United States | |
| No. of seasons 2 | |
| No. of episodes 10 | |
| Production | |
| Production locations Henryville, Pennsylvania | |
| Running time 30 minutes | |
| Production company Nickelodeon Productions | |
| Release | |
| Original network Nickelodeon | |
| Original release October 27, 2002 – | |
| August 16, 2003 | |
| Scaredy Camp is an American television series that aired on Nickelodeon. It was hosted by Emma Wilson (the daughter of Weakest Link host, Anne Robinson).[2] | |
| The show featured children competing against each other to find clues about urban legends that surround the summer camp that they are attending.[3] Ten episodes were filmed in all, with repeats shown on Nick GAS until the channel shut down on December 31, 2007. | |
| The show's first season was filmed at Camp Lindenmere in Henryville, Pennsylvania, during the summer of 2002. The camp, however, was referred to as "Camp Lindenwood" on the show, due to legal reasons. The show was created by Liz Sommers (née Becker). | |
| References | |
| http://www.allbusiness.com/services/motion-pictures/4789957-1.html[dead link] | |
| Sachs, Mark (26 October 2002). "Hunt for haunted clues". Los Angeles Times. p. E22. Retrieved 17 February 2019 – via Newspapers.com. icon of an open green padlock | |
| Dawson, Diana (27 October 2002). "Kids probe legends in Nick's 'Scaredy Camp'". El Paso Times. p. 19. Retrieved 17 February 2019 – via Newspapers.com. icon of an open green padlock | |
| External links | |
| Scaredy Camp at IMDb | |
| vte | |
| Nickelodeon game shows | |
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| Riprendimi | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
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| Good Morning Heartache | |
| Riprendimi poster.jpg | |
| Theatrical release poster | |
| Riprendimi | |
| Directed by Anna Negri | |
| Screenplay by | |
| Anna Negri | |
| Giovanna Mori | |
| Produced by | |
| Francesca Neri | |
| Claudio Amendola | |
| Roberto Manni | |
| Starring | |
| Alba Rohrwacher | |
| Marco Foschi | |
| Valentina Lodovini | |
| Stefano Fresi | |
| Alessandro Averone | |
| Cinematography Gian Enrico Bianchi | |
| Edited by Ilaria Fraioli | |
| Music by Dominik Scherrer | |
| Production | |
| company | |
| Bess Movie | |
| Distributed by Medusa Film | |
| Release date | |
| 11 April 2008 (Italy) | |
| Running time 93 minutes | |
| Country Italy | |
| Language Italian | |
| Box office $278,471[1] | |
| Good Morning Heartache (Italian: Riprendimi) is an Italian comedy-drama film of 2008 written by Giovanna Mori and Anna Negri and is directed by the latter.[2] The film is a pseudo-documentary and a low-budget film[3] that was shot in Rome. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Cast | |
| 2 Acknowledgments | |
| 2.1 Sundance Film Festival | |
| 3 Awards and nominations | |
| 4 References | |
| 5 External links | |
| Cast | |
| Alba Rohrwacher as Lucia | |
| Marco Foschi as Giovanni | |
| Valentina Lodovini as Michela | |
| Stefano Fresi as Giorgio | |
| Alessandro Averone as Eros | |
| Marina Rocco as Tiziana | |
| Cristina Odasso as Mara | |
| Francesca Cutolo as Tosca | |
| Massimo De Santis as Peppe | |
| Hossein Taheri as Mario | |
| Giulia Weber as Sara | |
| Acknowledgments | |
| Sundance Film Festival | |
| The film was featured at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival with the creator of the film Anna Negri.[4] | |
| Awards and nominations | |
| 2008 - Annecy Italian Film Festival | |
| Best Actress Award: Alba Rohrwacher | |
| 2008 - Nastro d'Argento | |
| Nominated for Best Actress: Alba Rohrwacher | |
| 2008 - Sulmonacinema Film Festival | |
| Best Actress: Alba Rohrwacher | |
| References | |
| "Foreign Movies: Riprendimi". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 25 February 2018. | |
| "Trama E Cast: Riprendimi" [Plot And Cast: Good Morning Heartache] (in Italian). Coming Soon. 7 April 2008. Retrieved 25 February 2018. | |
| Gandolfi, Marzia (7 April 2008). "INCONTRI: Anna Negri gira un "documentario" sentimentale sul precariato e la sua influenza sui comportamenti sociali. – In principio era amore" [MEETINGS: Anna Negri turns a sentimental "documentary" on precariousness and its influence on social behavior. – In the beginning it was love]. MYmovies.it (in Italian). Retrieved 25 February 2018. | |
| "Festival Italy: Anna Negri at Sundance Festival". Cineuropa. Retrieved 25 February 2018. | |
| External links | |
| Riprendimi at IMDb | |
| Riprendimi at the TCM Movie Database | |
| Riprendimi at AllMovie | |
| Riprendimi at Rotten Tomatoes | |
| Riprendimi at Box Office Mojo | |
| Riprendimi at AlloCiné (in French) | |
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| Categories: 2008 filmsItalian-language films2008 comedy-drama filmsItalian filmsItalian comedy-drama filmsFilms shot in Rome2008 comedy films2008 drama filmsFilms scored by Dominik Scherrer2000s Italian film stubs2000s comedy-drama film stubsOsborne Acres, Alberta | |
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| Osborne Acres | |
| Designated place | |
| Osborne Acres is located in AlbertaOsborne AcresOsborne Acres | |
| Location of Osborne Acres | |
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| Coordinates: 53.558°N 113.799°WCoordinates: 53.558°N 113.799°W | |
| Country Canada | |
| Province Alberta | |
| Region Edmonton Metropolitan Region | |
| Census division 11 | |
| Municipal district Parkland County | |
| Government | |
| • Type Unincorporated | |
| • Governing body Parkland County Council | |
| Area (2021)[1] | |
| • Land 1.49 km2 (0.58 sq mi) | |
| Population (2021)[1] | |
| • Total 101 | |
| • Density 67.6/km2 (175/sq mi) | |
| Time zone UTC−07:00 (MST) | |
| • Summer (DST) UTC−06:00 (MDT) | |
| Area code(s) 780, 587, 825 | |
| Osborne Acres is an unincorporated community in Alberta, Canada within Parkland County that is recognized as a designated place by Statistics Canada.[2] It is located on the west side of Range Road 264, 1.0 km (0.62 mi) south of Highway 16. | |
| Demographics | |
| In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Osborne Acres had a population of 101 living in 30 of its 31 total private dwellings, a change of -12.9% from its 2016 population of 116. With a land area of 1.49 km2 (0.58 sq mi), it had a population density of 67.8/km2 (175.6/sq mi) in 2021.[1] | |
| As a designated place in the 2016 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Osborne Acres had a population of 116 living in 37 of its 41 total private dwellings, a change of 11.5% from its 2011 population of 104. With a land area of 1.49 km2 (0.58 sq mi), it had a population density of 77.9/km2 (201.6/sq mi) in 2016.[3] | |
| See also | |
| List of communities in Alberta | |
| List of designated places in Alberta | |
| References | |
| "Population and dwelling counts: Canada and designated places". Statistics Canada. February 9, 2022. Retrieved February 10, 2022. | |
| Statistics Canada (November 5, 2008). "Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, and designated places, 2006 and 2001 censuses - 100% data (Alberta)". Retrieved October 17, 2010. | |
| "Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, and designated places, 2016 and 2011 censuses – 100% data (Alberta)". Statistics Canada. February 8, 2017. Retrieved February 13, 2017. | |
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| Categories: Designated places in AlbertaLocalities in Parkland CountyEdmonton Capital Region geography stubsCamila Giorgi | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
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| Camila Giorgi | |
| Camila Giorgi in the 2019 Bronx Open (cropped).jpg | |
| Giorgi at the 2019 Bronx Open | |
| Country (sports) Italy | |
| Residence Tirrenia, Italy | |
| Born 30 December 1991 (age 30) | |
| Macerata, Italy | |
| Height 1.68 m (5 ft 6 in) | |
| Turned pro 2006 | |
| Plays Right-handed (two-handed backhand) | |
| Coach Sergio Giorgi | |
| Prize money US$ 5,004,789 | |
| Singles | |
| Career record 391–283 (58.0%) | |
| Career titles 3 | |
| Highest ranking No. 26 (22 October 2018) | |
| Current ranking No. 30 (7 February 2022) | |
| Grand Slam singles results | |
| Australian Open 3R (2015, 2019, 2020, 2022) | |
| French Open 3R (2018) | |
| Wimbledon QF (2018) | |
| US Open 4R (2013) | |
| Other tournaments | |
| Olympic Games QF (2021) | |
| Doubles | |
| Career record 0–4 (0%) | |
| Career titles 0 | |
| Grand Slam doubles results | |
| Australian Open 1R (2013) | |
| Team competitions | |
| Fed Cup 5–8 (38.5%) | |
| Last updated on: 5 April 2022. | |
| Camila Giorgi (Italian pronunciation: [ˈkaːmila ˈdʒordʒi]; born 30 December 1991) is an Italian professional tennis player. She has a career-high singles ranking of world No. 26, achieved on 22 October 2018. She is the current Italian No. 1. | |
| After winning her first ITF title in 2009,[1] Giorgi made her Grand Slam and main-draw debut at the 2011 Wimbledon Championships.[2] Giorgi reached the fourth round of the 2012 Wimbledon Championships in just her second appearance at the tournament. After her successful run at the championships, she made her top-100 debut in the WTA rankings. The following year, she followed it up with a third-round run at the Wimbledon Championships, and made her second Grand Slam fourth round at the US Open. She reached her first Grand Slam quarterfinal at the 2018 Wimbledon Championships, six years after her Wimbledon breakout. Giorgi reached her first WTA Tour final in 2014 at the Katowice Open, and then won her first title at the Rosmalen Open. She won the biggest title of her career at the 2021 National Bank Open in Montréal, defeating former world No. 1, Karolína Plíšková, in the final. | |
| Giorgi is known for her aggressive style of game and her powerful flat groundstrokes, and is considered to be one of the hardest hitters of the ball on the tour. Her most notable professional wins have come at the 2013 US Open, Indian Wells Open, and Eastbourne International, defeating former world No. 1 players Caroline Wozniacki, Maria Sharapova, and Victoria Azarenka, respectively. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Personal life | |
| 2 Career | |
| 2.1 Junior career | |
| 2.2 2006–10: Early professional years | |
| 2.3 2011: Grand Slam and top 150 debut | |
| 2.4 2012: Wimbledon fourth round and top 100 debut | |
| 2.5 2013: US Open fourth round | |
| 2.6 2014: Breakthrough, two WTA finals, top 50 debut | |
| 2.7 2015: First WTA title and top 30 debut | |
| 2.8 2016: Out of top 50 | |
| 2.9 2017: Mixed results | |
| 2.10 2018: Wimbledon quarterfinal, Second WTA title and return to top 30 | |
| 2.11 2019: Two WTA tournament finals, out of top 50 | |
| 2.12 2020: Third Australian Open third round | |
| 2.13 2021: Olympics quarterfinal, first WTA 1000 Masters title, return to top 40 | |
| 3 Playing style | |
| 4 Sponsorships | |
| 5 Performance timelines | |
| 5.1 Singles | |
| 6 Significant finals | |
| 6.1 WTA 1000 finals | |
| 6.1.1 Singles: 1 (1 title) | |
| 7 WTA career finals | |
| 7.1 Singles: 9 (3 titles, 6 runner-ups) | |
| 8 ITF Circuit finals | |
| 8.1 Singles: 7 (5 titles, 2 runner–ups) | |
| 9 Fed Cup/Billie Jean King Cup participation | |
| 9.1 Singles: 14 (7–7) | |
| 9.2 Doubles: 1 (0–1) | |
| 10 WTA Tour career earnings | |
| 11 Head-to-head records | |
| 11.1 Record vs. top-10 ranked players | |
| 11.2 Top 10 wins | |
| 12 See also | |
| 13 Notes | |
| 14 References | |
| 15 External links | |
| Personal life | |
| Giorgi was born in Macerata, Italy, to Jewish parents Sergio Giorgi and Claudia Gabriella Fullone, both Argentines of Italian descent who emigrated to Italy from La Plata.[3] Her father was drafted in Argentina in 1982 and fought in the Falklands War against the British, while her mother is a fashion designer. Now, her father coaches her full-time while her mother designs her dresses for tennis matches.[4][3][5] She is Jewish[6][7][8][9][10] and considered emigrating to Israel in 2012, after her father opened negotiations with the Israel Tennis Association over the financial terms for her immigration.[11] As of September 2013, the Giorgi family was based in the Italian city of Pisa.[5] Giorgi is quadrilingual, speaking Spanish, Italian, French, and English. | |
| Giorgi is one of four children. Her older brother Leandro is studying to be an actor, and younger brother Amadeus is a footballer, who currently plays for Serie D club A.C.D. Campodarsego.[5] She had a sister named Antonela who died in a car accident in Paris.[12] | |
| Career | |
| Junior career | |
| Giorgi at the 2008 Italian Open | |
| Following an initial interest in artistic gymnastics, Giorgi decided to devote herself to tennis after assisting in her brother's training, when she was five years old. She was subjected to hard training by her father, Sergio. Two years later, 1976 French Open champion Adriano Panatta said of her: "It's the first time I play a girl who plays like Andre Agassi."[5] In 2000, she was spotted by tennis coach Nick Bollettieri, who subsequently offered her seven months of training (previously offered only to Maria Sharapova).[5] | |
| In November 2005, she reached the final of the Nike Junior Tour, but was defeated by Zuzana Luknárová from Slovakia. Giorgi reached the final at the Sey Development Cup in the Czech Republic, and the round of 16 at the Astrid Bowl in Belgium. | |
| 2006–10: Early professional years | |
| Giorgi started with $10k tournaments, and obtained her first significant results reaching two semifinals in Baku and Jakarta. At the end of the season, she took part in her first $25k tournament. She closed 2006 with ten wins and seven losses, and as the 944th in the WTA rankings. | |
| She obtained her best results in 2007 in September at Limoges in France, reaching the quarterfinals in a $10k tournament; then in $25k tournaments that she played at the end of the season, in December, in Lagos, Nigeria, where she reached the quarterfinals. | |
| Giorgi started 2008 playing several tournaments in France, where she lived with her family. In May, she played for the first time qualifying for a major tournament circuit, thanks to a wildcard obtained at the Italian Open. She lost to Jill Craybas, No. 66 in the world, in a third set tie-breaker. She also played in the first round of the main draw in Rome-Tevere Remo (25k), Contrexéville (50k), and Rimini (75k). In Martina Franca (25k), she qualified and reached the second round. In November, in Saint Denis (La Réunion, 25k), she reached the quarterfinals. Giorgi finished the year 480th in the WTA rankings. | |
| At the beginning of the 2009 season, Giorgi played few tournaments, failing to qualify for the main draw. She achieved her first important results in April, when she qualified for and reached the quarterfinals of two $25k tournaments. After some successes in tournaments in France, Giorgi won her first ITF tournament in August, in Katowice (25k), starting again from qualifying and defeating players such as Barbora Záhlavová-Strýcová (ranked No. 105) and, in the final, Ksenia Pervak (No. 135). After another quarterfinal in Nantes (50k), Giorgi ended with the victory in a $50k tournament in Toronto. With these two successes, she ended the year with 33 wins and 12 defeats, and reached No. 285 in the rankings. | |
| The 2010 season began poorly for Giorgi, as she suffered three first-round losses in the first three months of the year. In June, she reached the final of a $25k tournament, in Bratislava. In the summer, she played several tournaments in America, where she went to live (in Miami, with her family), without remarkable results. In August, trying for the first time to qualify for a Grand Slam tournament – the US Open – she was defeated in the first round. However, in October, Camila won (losing only one set, in the first round) a $25k tournament in Rock Hill, South Carolina. | |
| 2011: Grand Slam and top 150 debut | |
| At Wimbledon, Giorgi reached 2011 her first main draw in a major event | |
| In February, Giorgi reached the semifinals at two ITF events, but her best result came in May, when she reached the final of a $50k tournament in Raleigh, North Carolina, and a week later triumphed in Carson ($50k), yielding a single set and dominating the semifinal with an unprecedented double bagel. | |
| In June, at Wimbledon, Giorgi passed the qualifiers and reached her first appearance in a major, but she lost in the first round to eventual quarterfinalist Tsvetana Pironkova. Giorgi reached semifinals of two other tournaments before closing the year with 36 wins and 21 defeats, and 149th in the WTA rankings, reaching her best ranking in October when she was No. 141 in the world. | |
| 2012: Wimbledon fourth round and top 100 debut | |
| Giorgi began season by playing at the $25k tournament in Innisbrook, Florida. As the top seed, she lost in the second round to Jessica Pegula. Then, she competed at the $25k tournament in Plantation, Florida. Seeded second, she was defeated in the first round by Johanna Konta. In February, Giorgi played in her WTA tournament of the year at the Memphis International. Seeded fourth for qualifying, she made it to the main draw beating Naomi Broady and sixth seed Chichi Scholl. In the first round, she stunned top-seed Nadia Petrova, 6–4, 6–2.[13][14] In the second round, she lost to Stéphanie Foretz Gacon, 5–7, 4–6.[15] During the week of 5 March, Giorgi competed at the $25k tournament in Fort Walton Beach, Florida. As the second seed, she reached the semifinals where she was defeated by Madison Brengle. Next, Giorgi was the top seed at the $25k tournament in Clearwater, Florida. She made it from qualifying all the way to the quarterfinals where she was stopped by Stefanie Vögele. | |
| Giorgi played in her first WTA Tour clay-court tournament of the year at Charleston. Seeded 19th for qualifying, she made it to the main draw defeating Grace Min and 12th seed Chan Yung-jan. In the first round, she lost to Barbora Záhlavová-Strýcová.[16] Giorgi fell in the final round of qualifying at the French Open to Heidi El Tabakh, in three sets.[17] | |
| Giorgi qualified for the Wimbledon Championships for the second year in a row defeating Emily Webley-Smith, Olivia Rogowska, and Alexa Glatch. In the first round, she beat 16th seed and compatriot Flavia Pennetta.[18] Then she defeated Anna Tatishvili 6–3, 6–1, and in the third round 20th seed Nadia Petrova, 6–3, 7–6, to reach the fourth round of a Grand Slam for the first time in her career.[19] However, Giorgi's Wimbledon run came to an end when she lost in the fourth round to third seed and eventual finalist, Agnieszka Radwańska, 2–6, 3–6.[20] | |
| In June, it was reported that Giorgi was considering immigrating to Israel to play on the Israel Federation Cup team.[21] Raphael Gellar of Israel Sports Radio said that "based on her ranking ... [she] would automatically ... [be] second on the team following Shahar Pe'er."[9] | |
| Giorgi began US Open Series by playing at the Carlsbad Open. As the top seed in qualifying, she lost in the first round to Noppawan Lertcheewakarn. Giorgi then received a wildcard to compete at the Washington Open. She was defeated in the first round by Irina Falconi, in three sets.[22] Playing as a wildcard at the Cincinnati Open, Giorgi beat 14th seed and compatriot Francesca Schiavone in the first round, 6–1, 6–3.[23] In the second round, she lost to wildcard Sloane Stephens, in straight sets.[24] | |
| 2013: US Open fourth round | |
| While ailing from a shoulder injury, Giorgi lost in the first round in Brisbane, Sydney, and at the Australian Open. Her first win came in April in Charleston, where she reached the second round but lost in straight sets to Serena Williams. Giorgi qualified for the main draw in Madrid, but lost in the first round to Nadia Petrova, in three sets. Two weeks later, Giorgi stunned world No. 13, Marion Bartoli, in the first round in Strasbourg, but lost in the second round to Eugenie Bouchard.[25] | |
| At the French Open, Giorgi lost again in the first round. Former top-15 player Peng Shuai defeated her in two sets. At Wimbledon, Giorgi got to the third round, beating British wildcard Samantha Murray, in straight sets, and then-Romanian No. 1, Sorana Cîrstea. However, she lost in straight sets in the third round to eventual champion Marion Bartoli. | |
| At the US Open, Giorgi had one of the biggest upsets of her career, defeating former world No. 1, Caroline Wozniacki, in three sets.[26] She subsequently lost to compatriot Roberta Vinci in the fourth round.[27] | |
| 2014: Breakthrough, two WTA finals, top 50 debut | |
| Giorgi about to serve at the 2014 Indian Wells Open | |
| Giorgi competed at the Australian Open, where she reached for the first time the second round beating Australian wildcard Storm Sanders, in three sets. She lost in the next round to Alizé Cornet, despite a 4–1 lead in the deciding set. In February, Giorgi competed for the first time in the Fed Cup. She defeated Madison Keys, and Italy went on to defeat the US team 3–1.[28] | |
| In March, Giorgi qualified for the main draw in Indian Wells where she beat Andrea Petkovic, Sorana Cîrstea, and former world No. 1, Maria Sharapova. With this victory, she improved her record to 3–2 lifetime against top-10 opponents.[29] She lost in the fourth round to eventual champion Flavia Pennetta.[30] | |
| In April at the Katowice Open, she defeated defending champion Roberta Vinci, Shahar Pe'er, and Carla Suárez Navarro to reach the final, which she lost to Alizé Cornet in three sets, after holding a match point at 5–4 in the third.[30] In Rome, Giorgi defeated top-10 player Dominika Cibulková in the first round but lost to Christina McHale, after winning the first set. Giorgi finally beat Alizé Cornet who was the second seed in Strasbourg, after losing two significant matches to her. At the French Open, Giorgi defeated Bojana Jovanovski in the first round but lost to 2009 champion, Svetlana Kuznetsova, in the second. | |
| Giorgi competed in Eastbourne, beating Victoria Azarenka in the first round before going down to Caroline Wozniacki in the quarterfinals. At Wimbledon, she lost in the second round to Alison Riske. She reached the quarterfinals in Bad Gastein and then lost in the first round at the following three tournaments. Giorgi made a good run in New Haven, defeating Wozniacki who would finish summer hard-court season with 19–4 and Garbiñe Muguruza, before losing in the semifinal to Magdaléna Rybáriková. She was upset early in the US Open, however, losing to a ranked 221 in the world, Anastasia Rodionova, after serving for the match in the second set. | |
| Giorgi lost in the opening rounds in Wuhan and Beijing to Elina Svitolina and Lucie Šafářová, respectively. She broke her series of losses in Linz defeating Andrea Petkovic for the third time in the season. Then she advanced to her second WTA career final without losing a set, but lost to Karolína Plíšková in three sets, again after holding a match point on the opponent's serve. The Italian ended season reaching quarterfinals in Moscow where she defeated the third seed Flavia Pennetta for the second time in her career before losing to Kateřina Siniaková in over three hours. Giorgi finished the season with 8–3 record against top-20 players and reached a career-high ranking of No. 31 before the US Open. | |
| 2015: First WTA title and top 30 debut | |
| Giorgi at the 2015 French Open | |
| Giorgi started 2015 by playing at the Hobart International. Seeded third, she reached the quarterfinals where she lost to Kurumi Nara.[31] At the Australian Open, she upset 12th seed Flavia Pennetta in the first round.[32] She ended up getting defeated in the third round by 18th seed Venus Williams, despite serving for the match in the second set.[33] | |
| Playing in the Fed Cup tie against France, Giorgi beat Alizé Cornet to give Italy a 2–0 lead against France, however, she lost her second match to Caroline Garcia. Italy later lost the tie being the first-ever team to lose after a 2–0 lead at the World Group stage.[34] At the Diamond Games, she was defeated in the first round by fifth seed and eventual finalist, Carla Suárez Navarro. In Dubai, she lost her second-round match to 13th seed Carla Suárez Navarro.[35] Seeded 29th at the Indian Wells Masters, she was defeated in the second round by Heather Watson.[36] Seeded 30th at the Miami Open, she made it to the third round where she lost to third seed Simona Halep.[37] Seeded third at the Katowice Open, she reached her second consecutive final by defeating top seed Agnieszka Radwańska in the semifinals. In the final, however, she fell to eighth seed Anna Karolína Schmiedlová.[38] | |
| Playing in the Fed Cup tie for Italy against the USA, Giorgi played one rubber and lost to Serena Williams.[39] Despite the loss, Italy still beat the USA 3-2.[40] Seeded eighth at the J&T Banka Prague Open, she was defeated in the first round by Yanina Wickmayer.[41] In Madrid, she lost in the first round to Tsvetana Pironkova. At the Italian Open, she was defeated in her first-round match by 16th seed and two-time champion, Jelena Janković. She lost in the second round at the French Open to 21st seed Garbiñe Muguruza.[42] | |
| Giorgi returned to form at the start of the grass-court season, claiming her first WTA Tour title at the Topshelf Open in Rosmalen, defeating Irina Falconi, Dutch wildcard Michaëlla Krajicek, Yaroslava Shvedova in the quarterfinals where Giorgi saved three match points in the final set tie-break, home favorite Kiki Bertens in the semifinals and Belinda Bencic in the final. At the Wimbledon Championships, Giorgi was the No. 31 seed and defeated Teliana Pereira and Lara Arruabarrena in the first and second rounds, respectively, then lost to Caroline Wozniacki in the third round. | |
| 2016: Out of top 50 | |
| [icon] | |
| This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2022) | |
| Giorgi kicked off season at the Brisbane International where she lost in the first round to fourth seed and eventual finalist, Angelique Kerber.[43] Seeded second at the Hobart International, she reached the quarterfinals where she was defeated by eventual finalist, Eugenie Bouchard.[44] At the Australian Open, she lost in the first round to top seed Serena Williams.[45] | |
| 2017: Mixed results | |
| Giorgi at the 2017 Wimbledon Championships | |
| Giorgi began the 2017 season at the Shenzhen Open. She made it to the semifinals where she lost to eighth seed, last year finalist, and eventual finalist, Alison Riske.[46] At the Australian Open, she was defeated in the first round by 12th seed Timea Bacsinszky.[47] | |
| Giorgi retired during her final round of qualifying match at the Qatar Open to Lauren Davis.[48] In March, she played at the Indian Wells Masters. She lost in the opening round to Johanna Larsson.[49] | |
| Starting her clay-court season at the first edition of the Ladies Open Biel Bienne, Giorgi made it to the quarterfinals where she was defeated by qualifier Aliaksandra Sasnovich.[50] In Stuttgart, she fell in the first round of qualifying to Dinah Pfizenmaier.[51] At the J&T Banka Prague Open, Giorgi upset top seed and 2015 champion Karolína Plíšková in the first round.[52] She ended up losing in the quarterfinals to qualifier and eventual champion Mona Barthel.[53] Getting past qualifying at the Internationaux de Strasbourg, she was defeated in the second round by fellow qualifier Ashleigh Barty.[54] Giorgi lost in the first round of the French Open to Océane Dodin.[55] | |
| Competing in s-Hertogenbosch, Giorgi was defeated in the second round by Carina Witthöft.[56] Making it past qualifying at the Aegon Classic, she upset second seed Elina Svitolina in the second round.[57] She retired in her quarterfinals match against Ashleigh Barty due to a right thigh injury.[58] At the Wimbledon, Giorgi reached the third round where she lost to 13th seed and French Open champion Jeļena Ostapenko.[59] | |
| In Washington D.C., Giorgi was defeated in the first round by Canadian wildcard Bianca Andreescu.[60] At the Rogers Cup, she lost in the final round of qualifying to Sorana Cîrstea.[61] Getting past qualifying in Cincinnati, she reached the third round where she fell to top seed and defending champion, Karolína Plíšková.[62] At the US Open, she was defeated in the first round by 31st seed Magdaléna Rybáriková.[63] | |
| Giorgi missed the rest of the season due to injury. She ended the year ranked No. 79. | |
| 2018: Wimbledon quarterfinal, Second WTA title and return to top 30 | |
| Giorgi at the 2018 Wimbledon Championships | |
| At the Shenzhen Open, she lost in the first round to Ana Bogdan.[64] Getting through qualifying at the Sydney International, she reached the semifinal where she was defeated by eventual champion Angelique Kerber.[65] At the Australian Open, Giorgi lost in the second round to 18th seed Ashleigh Barty.[66] | |
| In Dubai, she retired from her second round of qualifying match against Sofya Zhuk due to a left thigh injury.[67] Giorgi returned to action in March at the Miami Open. She was defeated in the first round by Donna Vekić.[68] | |
| Giorgi began clay-court season at the Charleston Open where she lost in the third round to seventh seed Madison Keys.[69] At the Ladies Open Lugano, she was defeated in her third-round match by eventual finalist Aryna Sabalenka.[70] In Prague, Giorgi made it to the semifinals where she lost to eventual finalist Mihaela Buzărnescu.[71] Playing in Rome, she was defeated in the final round of qualifying by Danielle Collins. At the French Open, Giorgi reached the third round where she lost to tenth seed and eventual finalist, Sloane Stephens.[72] | |
| Starting grass-court season seeded eighth at the Nottingham Open, Giorgi was defeated in the first round by Dalila Jakupović.[73] At the Birmingham Classic, she lost in the second round of qualifying to Océane Dodin.[74] In Eastbourne, she was defeated in the second round by top seed, last year finalist, and eventual champion Caroline Wozniacki.[75] At the Wimbledon Championships, Giorgi advanced to the quarterfinals for the first time in her career where she lost to former world No. 1, six-time Wimbledon champion, and eventual finalist Serena Williams.[76] | |
| In August, Giorgi competed at the Cincinnati Open. Despite falling in the final round of qualifying to Viktória Kužmová, she entered the main draw as a lucky loser. She reached the second round where she was defeated by 13th seed Madison Keys.[77] Getting through qualifying at the Connecticut Open, Giorgi lost in the second round to lucky loser Belinda Bencic.[78] At the US Open, she was defeated in the second round by 16th seed and two-time US Open champion, Venus Williams.[79] | |
| The week of September 17 saw Giorgi playing at the Pan Pacific Open in Tokyo. She stunned top seed and two-time defending champion Caroline Wozniacki in her second-round match.[80] She ended up losing in the semifinals to third seed and eventual finalist, Naomi Osaka.[81] In Wuhan, Giorgi was defeated in the first round by Aleksandra Krunić.[82] Seeded fifth at the Linz Open, Giorgi won her second WTA career title beating qualifier Ekaterina Alexandrova in the final.[83] Her final tournament of the season was supposed to be at the Luxembourg Open, but she withdrew due to a right foot injury.[84] | |
| Giorgi ended the season ranked No. 26. | |
| 2019: Two WTA tournament finals, out of top 50 | |
| Giorgi at the 2019 Sydney International | |
| Giorgi was supposed to start her season in Brisbane, but she pulled out of the tournament.[85] Instead, her year began at Sydney. Despite reaching the semifinals last year, she lost in the second round to second seed and defending champion, Angelique Kerber.[86] Seeded 27th at the Australian Open, she was defeated in the third round by seventh seed Karolína Plíšková.[87] | |
| Playing in the Fed Cup tie versus Switzerland, Giorgi lost both of her rubbers to Viktorija Golubic and Belinda Bencic. Switzerland won the tie 3-1 over Italy.[88] At the Qatar Open, she was defeated in the first round by fifth seed Kiki Bertens.[89] She missed the Dubai Championships and the Indian Wells Open due to injury. She returned to action at the Miami Open. Seeded 29th, she lost in the second round to Tatjana Maria.[90] | |
| Giorgi missed the clay-court season including the French Open due to unknown circumstances. She returned to the tour in June at the Eastbourne International where she was defeated in the first round by Hsieh Su-wei.[91] At Wimbledon, she lost in the first round to Dayana Yastremska.[92] | |
| Two weeks after Wimbledon, Giorgi played at the Washington Open where she reached the final and was defeated by Jessica Pegula.[93] At the Rogers Cup, she lost in the first round to Victoria Azarenka.[94] Playing in Cincinnati, she was defeated in the first round by Maria Sakkari.[95] | |
| At the first edition of the Bronx Open, she reached her second final of the season where she lost to qualifier Magda Linette.[96] At the US Open, she suffered a first-round defeat again at the hands of 30th seed Maria Sakkari.[97] | |
| In Tokyo, Giorgi advanced to the quarterfinals where she lost to ninth seed Elise Mertens.[98] At the Wuhan Open, she retired from her first-round match against lucky loser Rebecca Peterson due to a right wrist injury.[99] Seeded sixth at the Luxembourg Open, she was defeated in the first round by Andrea Petkovic.[100] She competed in her final tournament of the year at the Open de Limoges where she lost in the first round to Liudmila Samsonova.[101] | |
| Giorgi ended the year ranked No. 98. | |
| 2020: Third Australian Open third round | |
| Giorgi began the season at the Auckland Open. Getting through the qualifying rounds, she lost in the first round to top seed and eventual champion, Serena Williams.[102] At the Hobart International, she was defeated in the final round of qualifying by Kateryna Kozlova. | |
| In Melbourne, she reached the third round for a second year in a row where she lost to 17th seed and 2016 champion, Angelique Kerber.[103] | |
| During the Fed Cup tie versus Croatia, Giorgi played one rubber and defeated Jana Fett. Italy won the tie 2-0.[104] Playing in Dubai, she was defeated in the first round of qualifying by Julia Görges. At Doha, she lost in the final round of qualifying to Bernarda Pera. Competing at the first edition of the Lyon Open, Giorgi made it to the quarterfinals where she fell to seventh seed Daria Kasatkina.[105] | |
| The WTA Tour suspended and canceled tournaments from the rest of March through July, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. When the tour resumed tournaments in August, Giorgi competed at the Internazionali di Palermo. She reached the semifinals where she was defeated by Fiona Ferro.[106] In Prague, she lost in the second round to third seed and eventual finalist Elise Mertens.[107] Giorgi was defeated in the second round of the US Open by fourth seed, 2018 champion, and eventual champion, Naomi Osaka.[108] | |
| After the US Open, Giorgi played at the Italian Open. She lost in the first round to Dayana Yastremska.[109] At the French Open, she retired during her first-round match against qualifier and compatriot Martina Trevisan.[110] Her final tournament of the year was the Linz Open where she was defeated in the second round by sixth seed Nadia Podoroska.[111] | |
| Giorgi ended the season ranked No. 75. | |
| 2021: Olympics quarterfinal, first WTA 1000 Masters title, return to top 40 | |
| Giorgi started her year off at the first edition of the Yarra Valley Classic. However, she retired during her second-round match against second seed Sofia Kenin due to a left thigh injury.[112] At the Australian Open, she lost in the second round to 15th seed Iga Świątek.[113] | |
| In March, Giorgi competed at the Lyon Open. She reached the quarterfinals where she was defeated by qualifier and eventual champion, Clara Tauson.[114] At the Miami Open, she lost in the first round to qualifier Liudmila Samsonova.[115] | |
| Giorgi withdrew from the Charleston Open, and the Fed Cup tie against Romania due to testing positive for Covid-19.[116] She returned to action in May by playing at the Italian Open. She was defeated in a 3-hour and 51-minute first-round match by Sara Sorribes Tormo.[117] At the first edition of the Emilia-Romagna Open, she lost in the second round to third seed and eventual champion, Coco Gauff.[118] At the French Open, she beat 22nd seed Petra Martić in the first round.[119] She was defeated in the second round by Varvara Gracheva.[120] | |
| Starting her grass-court season at the Birmingham Classic, Giorgi lost in the second round to third seed Donna Vekić.[121] Getting past qualifying at the Eastbourne International, she upset fifth seed and 2019 champion, Karolína Plíšková, in the first round.[122] She then stunned top seed and 2018 finalist, Aryna Sabalenka in the quarterfinals.[123] She retired during her semifinal match against Anett Kontaveit due to a left thigh injury.[124] At Wimbledon, she was defeated in the second round by 19th seed Karolína Muchová.[125] Seeded fourth at the Ladies Open Lausanne, Giorgi lost in the second round to Zarina Diyas.[126] | |
| Representing Italy at the Tokyo Olympics, she beat fifth seed Karolína Plíšková for the second time this year in the third round.[127] She was defeated in the quarterfinals by fourth seed and eventual bronze medalist, Elina Svitolina.[128] | |
| At the Canada Masters in Montreal, she reached unseeded her first WTA 1000 and biggest final of her career having never passed previously beyond the fourth round at any tournament at this level. She eliminated three top-25 players en route, No. 9 seed Elise Mertens in the first round, No. 7 seed Petra Kvitova in the round of 16, No. 15 seed Coco Gauff in the quarterfinals,[129] and Jessica Pegula in the semifinals.[130] In the final, she defeated world No. 6, Karolína Plíšková, to win her first WTA 1000 title, the biggest title of her career, becoming the lowest-ranked champion in Canada since No. 80-ranked Serena Williams took the title in 2011.[131] With this successful run she returned to the top 40 in the WTA singles rankings, raising close to 40 spots in the rankings from 71 to world No. 33, on 16 August 2021. | |
| Playing style | |
| Giorgi is a baseline player, who has a highly aggressive playing style. She likes to take the ball early on the rise, and possesses powerful, flat groundstrokes. Her strongest groundstroke is her two-handed backhand, with which she can hit winners from any position on the court. She hits the ball with relentless power, and is known to be one of the hardest hitters on the tour. She frequently utilizes aggressive serve-forehand combinations to finish points quickly.[132][133] Giorgi aims to generate extreme angles with both her forehand and backhand, to surprise baseline opponents and hit winners with ease. She is known for her tendency to aim for the lines, which means that she accumulates significant numbers of both winners and unforced errors in any match.[5][134][135] Unlike the rest of her game, her serve is known for its inconsistency: she has a tendency to take risks on her second serve, leading to a relatively high double fault count. In 2015, Giorgi served the most double faults recorded in WTA history, at 458.[136] She regularly hits deep returns, and takes the ball early while receiving, allowing her to hit a significant number of return winners.[133] In an article for LiveTennis.com, Nicholas Walz commented on Giorgi's game, saying: "Her play is often too erratic – she followed her result in Indian Wells [defeating No. 4 seed, Maria Sharapova] by losing in the Miami Open qualifying [two weeks later] to Zarina Diyas."[137] Her preferred surfaces are fast hard and grass courts.[133][138] | |
| Sponsorships | |
| Giorgi wears custom-made clothes, designed by her mother (brand: Giomila). Up to 2021, Giorgi used Babolat racquets, specifically using the Pure Storm model, and later the Pure Strike model. In 2021, Giorgi switched companies and began to use the Yonex VCORE 100. | |
| Performance timelines | |
| Key | |
| W F SF QF #R RR Q# P# DNQ A Z# PO G S B NMS P NH | |
| (W) winner; (F) finalist; (SF) semifinalist; (QF) quarterfinalist; (#R) rounds 4, 3, 2, 1; (RR) round-robin stage; (Q#) qualification round; (P#) preliminary round; (DNQ) did not qualify; (A) absent; (Z#) Davis/Fed Cup Zonal Group (with number indication) or (PO) play-off; (G) gold, (S) silver or (B) bronze Olympic/Paralympic medal; (NMS) not a Masters tournament; (P) postponed; (NH) not held; (SR) strike rate (events won / competed); (W–L) win–loss record. | |
| To avoid confusion and double counting, these charts are updated at the conclusion of a tournament or when the player's participation has ended. | |
| Only main-draw results in WTA Tour, Grand Slam tournaments, Fed Cup/Billie Jean King Cup, and Olympic Games are included in win–loss records.[139] | |
| Singles | |
| Current through the 2022 Italian Open. | |
| Tournament 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 SR W–L Win % | |
| Grand Slam tournaments | |
| Australian Open A A A A A 1R 2R 3R 1R 1R 2R 3R 3R 2R 3R 0 / 10 11–10 52% | |
| French Open A A A A Q3 1R 2R 2R 2R 1R 3R A 1R 2R 0 / 8 6–8 43% | |
| Wimbledon A A A 1R 4R 3R 2R 3R 1R 3R QF 1R NH 2R 0 / 10 15–10 60% | |
| US Open A A Q1 Q2 1R 4R 1R 2R 1R 1R 2R 1R 2R 1R 0 / 10 6–10 38% | |
| Win–loss 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–1 3–2 5–4 3–4 6–4 1–4 2–4 8–4 2–3 3–3 3–4 2–1 0 / 38 38–38 50% | |
| National representation | |
| Summer Olympics A NH A NH A NH QF 0 / 1 3–1 75% | |
| WTA 1000 | |
| Dubai / Qatar Open[a] A A A A A A A 2R A A A A A A A 0 / 1 1–1 50% | |
| Indian Wells Open A A A A A A 4R 2R 2R 1R A A NH 2R A 0 / 5 4–5 44% | |
| Miami Open A A A A A 1R Q1 3R 1R A 1R 2R NH 1R A 0 / 6 1–6 14% | |
| Madrid Open NH A A A A 1R Q2 1R 2R[b] A A A NH A 1R 0 / 4 1–3 25% | |
| Italian Open Q1 A A A A A 2R 1R A A Q2 A 1R 1R 1R 0 / 5 1–5 17% | |
| Canadian Open A A A A A A 1R A 2R Q2 A 1R NH W 1 / 4 7–3 70% | |
| Cincinnati Open A A A A 2R A 1R 2R Q1 3R 2R 1R A 1R 0 / 7 5–7 42% | |
| Pan Pacific / Wuhan Open[c] A A A A 1R A 1R 3R A A 1R 1R NH 0 / 5 2–5 29% | |
| China Open NMS A A A 2R A 1R 1R A A A A NH 0 / 3 1–3 25% | |
| Career statistics | |
| Tournaments 0 0 0 1 10 11 19 22 20 13 17 14 9 18 7 Career total: 161 | |
| Titles 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 Career total: 3 | |
| Finals 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 1 2 0 1 0 Career total: 9 | |
| Overall win–loss 0–0 0–0 0–0 0–1 6–10 8–11 29–20 25–23 16–20 15–13 29–16 13–16 11–9 24–17 4–7 3 / 161 180–163 52% | |
| Year-end ranking[d] 480 285 244 149 79 93 35 34 83 79 26 98 75 34 $4,823,428 | |
| Significant finals | |
| WTA 1000 finals | |
| Singles: 1 (1 title) | |
| Result Year Tournament Surface Opponent Score | |
| Win 2021 Canadian Open Hard Czech Republic Karolína Plíšková 6–3, 7–5 | |
| WTA career finals | |
| Singles: 9 (3 titles, 6 runner-ups) | |
| Legend | |
| Grand Slam (0–0) | |
| WTA 1000 (1–0) | |
| WTA 500 (0–0) | |
| International / WTA 250 (2–6) | |
| Finals by surface | |
| Hard (2–6) | |
| Grass (1–0) | |
| Clay (0–0) | |
| Carpet (0–0) | |
| Result W–L Date Tournament Tier Surface Opponent Score | |
| Loss 0–1 Apr 2014 Katowice Open, Poland International Hard (i) France Alizé Cornet 6–7(3–7), 7–5, 5–7 | |
| Loss 0–2 Oct 2014 Linz Open, Austria International Hard (i) Czech Republic Karolína Plíšková 7–6(7–4), 3–6, 6–7(4–7) | |
| Loss 0–3 Apr 2015 Katowice Open, Poland International Hard (i) Slovakia Anna Karolína Schmiedlová 4–6, 3–6 | |
| Win 1–3 Jun 2015 Rosmalen Open, Netherlands International Grass Switzerland Belinda Bencic 7–5, 6–3 | |
| Loss 1–4 Apr 2016 Katowice Open, Poland International Hard (i) Slovakia Dominika Cibulková 4–6, 0–6 | |
| Win 2–4 Oct 2018 Linz Open, Austria International Hard (i) Russia Ekaterina Alexandrova 6–3, 6–1 | |
| Loss 2–5 Aug 2019 Washington Open, U.S. International Hard United States Jessica Pegula 2–6, 2–6 | |
| Loss 2–6 Aug 2019 Bronx Open, U.S. International Hard Poland Magda Linette 7–5, 5–7, 4–6 | |
| Win 3–6 Aug 2021 Canadian Open, Canada WTA 1000 Hard Czech Republic Karolína Plíšková 6–3, 7–5 | |
| ITF Circuit finals | |
| Singles: 7 (5 titles, 2 runner–ups) | |
| Legend | |
| $50,000 tournaments | |
| $25,000 tournaments | |
| Finals by surface | |
| Hard (3–0) | |
| Clay (2–2) | |
| Grass (0–0) | |
| Carpet (0–0) | |
| Result W–L Date Tournament Tier Surface Opponent Score | |
| Win 1–0 Aug 2009 ITF Katowice, Poland 25,000 Clay Russia Ksenia Pervak 6–2, 6–3 | |
| Win 2–0 Nov 2009 ITF Toronto, Canada 50,000 Hard (i) Hungary Anikó Kapros 4–6, 6–4, 6–0 | |
| Loss 2–1 Jun 2010 ITF Bratislava, Slovakia 25,000 Clay Slovakia Lenka Juríková 2–6, 1–6 | |
| Win 3–1 Oct 2010 ITF Rock Hill, U.S. 25,000 Hard United States Irina Falconi 6–3, 6–4 | |
| Loss 3–2 May 2011 ITF Raleigh, U.S. 50,000 Clay Slovenia Petra Rampre 3–6, 2–6 | |
| Win 4–2 May 2011 ITF Carson, U.S. 50,000 Hard United States Alexa Glatch 7–6(7–4), 6–1 | |
| Win 5–2 Apr 2012 ITF Dothan, U.S. 50,000 Clay Romania Edina Gallovits-Hall 6–2, 4–6, 6–4 | |
| Fed Cup/Billie Jean King Cup participation | |
| Giorgi debuted for the Italy Fed Cup team in 2014. | |
| Legend | |
| World Group (2–2) | |
| World Group Play-off / Finals Qualifying Round (3–2) | |
| World Group 2 Play-Off (0–2) | |
| Zone Group (2–1) | |
| Singles: 14 (7–7) | |
| Edition Round Date Location Against Surface Opponent W/L Result | |
| 2014 WG QF Feb 2014 Cleveland (USA) United States United States Hard (i) Madison Keys W (1) 6–2, 6–1 | |
| WG SF Apr 2014 Ostrava (CZE) Czech Republic Czech Republic Hard (i) Petra Kvitová L (1) 4–6, 2–6 | |
| 2015 WG QF Feb 2015 Genoa (ITA) France France Clay (i) Alizé Cornet W (2) 6–4, 6–2 | |
| Caroline Garcia L (2) 6–4, 0–6, 2–6 | |
| WG PO Apr 2015 Brindisi (ITA) United States United States Clay (i) Serena Williams L (3) 6–7(5–7), 2–6 | |
| 2016 WG QF Feb 2016 Marseille (FRA) France France Hard (i) Kristina Mladenovic W (3) 1–6, 6–4, 6–1 | |
| Hard (i) Caroline Garcia L (4) 3–6, 4–6 | |
| 2019 WG2 RR Feb 2019 Biel/Bienne (SUI) Switzerland Switzerland Hard (i) Viktorija Golubic L (5) 4–6, 6–2, 4–6 | |
| Belinda Bencic L (6) 2–6, 4–6 | |
| 2020–21 Z1 RR Feb 2020 Tallin (EST) Austria Austria Hard (i) Mira Antonitsch W (4) 4–6, 6–3, 6–0 | |
| Estonia Estonia Hard (i) Anett Kontaveit L (7) 3–6, 6–4, 6–7 | |
| Z1 PO Croatia Croatia Hard (i) Jana Fett W (5) 7–6, 6–4 | |
| 2022 F QR Apr 2022 Alghero (ITA) France France Hard Océane Dodin W (6) 6–1, 6–2 | |
| Harmony Tan W (7) 6–2, 6–0 | |
| Doubles: 1 (0–1) | |
| Edition Round Date Location Partner Against Surface Opponents W/L Result | |
| 2014 WG SF Apr 2014 Ostrava (CZE) Karin Knapp Czech Republic Czech Republic Hard (i) Andrea Hlaváčková | |
| Klára Koukalová L (1) 2–6, 7–5, [9–11] | |
| WTA Tour career earnings | |
| As of 15 November 2021 | |
| Year Grand Slam | |
| singles titles WTA | |
| singles titles Total | |
| singles titles Earnings ($) Money list rank | |
| 2013 0 0 0 357,368 72 | |
| 2014 0 0 0 448,626 63 | |
| 2015 0 1 1 580,781 54 | |
| 2016 0 0 0 352,779 88 | |
| 2017 0 0 0 374,444 98 | |
| 2018 0 1 1 922,593 40 | |
| 2019 0 0 0 407,043 107 | |
| 2020 0 0 0 334,139 69 | |
| 2021 0 1 1 733,471 47 | |
| Career 0 3 3 4,823,428 125 | |
| Head-to-head records | |
| Record vs. top-10 ranked players | |
| Giorgi's record against players who have been ranked in the top 10. Active players are in boldface.[140] | |
| Player Record Win% Hard Clay Grass Last match | |
| Number 1 ranked players | |
| Russia Maria Sharapova 1–0 100% 1–0 – – Won (6–3, 4–6, 7–5) at 2014 Indian Wells | |
| Belarus Victoria Azarenka 2–1 67% 1–1 1–0 – Lost (2–6, 2–6) at 2019 Toronto | |
| Denmark Caroline Wozniacki 3–3 50% 3–0 – 0–3 Won (6–2, 2–6, 6–4) at 2018 Tokyo | |
| Spain Garbiñe Muguruza 2–2 50% 1–0 1–1 0–1 Lost (2–6, 7–5, 4–6) at 2016 Wimbledon | |
| Poland Iga Świątek 1–1 50% 1–1 – – Lost (2–6, 4–6) at 2021 Australian Open | |
| Czech Republic Karolína Plíšková 4–5 44% 2–4 1–1 1–0 Won (6–3, 7–5) at 2021 Montréal | |
| Romania Simona Halep 0–2 0% 0–2 – – Lost (4–6, 6–7(4–7) at 2021 US Open | |
| Serbia Ana Ivanovic 0–2 0% 0–2 – – Lost (6–2, 2–6, 6–7(5–7)) at 2016 Indian Wells | |
| Serbia Jelena Janković 0–1 0% – 0–1 – Lost (5–7, 5–7) at 2015 Rome | |
| Japan Naomi Osaka 0–2 0% 0–2 – – Lost (1–6, 2–6) at 2020 US Open | |
| United States Venus Williams 0–2 0% 0–2 – – Lost (4–6, 5–7) at 2018 US Open | |
| Australia Ashleigh Barty 0–4 0% 0–2 0–1 0–1 Lost (2–6, 3–6) at 2022 Australian Open | |
| Germany Angelique Kerber 0–5 0% 0–5 – – Lost (2–6, 7–6(7–4), 3–6) at 2020 Australian Open | |
| United States Serena Williams 0–5 0% 0–2 0–2 0–1 Lost (3–6, 2–6) at 2020 Auckland | |
| Number 2 ranked players | |
| Russia Vera Zvonareva 1–0 100% 1–0 – – Won (6–4, 6–2) at 2015 Dubai | |
| Czech Republic Petra Kvitová 2–2 50% 2–2 – – Lost (2–6, 0–6) at 2022 Dubai | |
| Poland Agnieszka Radwańska 2–1 67% 2–0 – 0–1 Won (6–1, 6–2) at 2018 Sydney | |
| Belarus Aryna Sabalenka 1–1 50% – 0–1 1–0 Won (7–6(7–5), 0–6, 6–4) at 2021 Eastbourne | |
| Russia Svetlana Kuznetsova 1–2 33% 1–1 0–1 – Won (6–3, 6–1) at 2020 Australian Open | |
| Number 3 ranked players | |
| Russia Nadia Petrova 2–1 67% 1–0 0–1 1–0 Lost (3–6, 6–4, 4–6) at 2013 Madrid | |
| United States Sloane Stephens 3–2 60% 3–1 0–1 – Won (6–0, 6–3) at 2019 Osaka | |
| Ukraine Elina Svitolina 1–2 33% 0–2 – 1–0 Lost (4–6, 4–6) at 2020 Olympics | |
| Greece Maria Sakkari 0–3 0% 0–3 – – Lost (1–6, 0–6) at 2019 US Open | |
| Number 4 ranked players | |
| Slovakia Dominika Cibulková 2–1 67% 1–1 1–0 – Lost (4–6, 0–6) at 2016 Katowice | |
| Australia Samantha Stosur 2–1 67% 1–1 1–0 – Won (7–5, 6–3) at 2018 New Haven Qualifying | |
| United Kingdom Johanna Konta 1–1 50% – 1–0 0–1 Won (1–6, 7–5, 7–5) at 2014 Eastbourne | |
| Italy Francesca Schiavone 1–1 50% 1–1 – – Lost (4–6, 6–7(6–8)) at 2015 İstanbul | |
| Switzerland Belinda Bencic 2–3 40% 1–2 0–1 1–0 Lost (2–6, 4–6) at 2019 Fed Cup | |
| Netherlands Kiki Bertens 1–2 33% 0–1 0–1 1–0 Lost (6–0, 6–7(7–9), 6–4) at 2019 Doha | |
| France Caroline Garcia 1–3 25% 1–2 0–1 – Lost (7–5, 4–6, 0–6) at 2022 Lyon | |
| Canada Bianca Andreescu 0–1 0% 0–1 – – Lost (7–5, 3–6, 4–6) at 2017 Washington, D.C. | |
| Australia Jelena Dokic 0–1 0% – 0–1 – Lost (6–0, 4–6, 2–6) at 2008 Florence 25K | |
| United States Sofia Kenin 0–1 0% 0–1 – – Lost (5–7, ret.) at 2021 Melbourne | |
| Number 5 ranked players | |
| Italy Sara Errani 2–0 100% 1–0 1–0 – Won (7–5, 7–5) at 2016 Madrid | |
| Latvia Jeļena Ostapenko 1–1 50% 1–0 – 0–1 Lost (5–7, 5–7) at 2017 Wimbledon | |
| Canada Eugenie Bouchard 1–2 33% 1–1 0–1 – Won (7–5, 6–4) at 2016 Washington, D.C. | |
| Czech Republic Lucie Šafářová 0–1 0% 0–1 – – Lost (6–7(3–7), 4–6) at 2014 Beijing | |
| Estonia Anett Kontaveit 0–1 0% – – 0–1 Lost (4–5, ret.) at 2021 Eastbourne | |
| Number 6 ranked players | |
| Italy Flavia Pennetta 3–1 75% 2–1 – 1–0 Won (4–6, 6–2, 6–3) at 2015 Australian Open | |
| Spain Carla Suárez Navarro 2–2 50% 2–2 – – Won (2–6, 7–6(7–5), 6–2) at 2017 Biel | |
| Number 7 ranked players | |
| Tunisia Ons Jabeur 1–0 100% 1–0 – – Won (6–3, 6–2) at 2014 Linz | |
| France Marion Bartoli 1–1 50% – 1–0 0–1 Lost (4–6, 5–7) at 2013 Wimbledon | |
| United States Madison Keys 2–4 33% 1–3 0–1 1–0 Lost (2–6, 2–6) at 2018 Cincinnati | |
| Italy Roberta Vinci 1–2 33% 1–2 – – Lost (6–2, 3–6, 4–6) at 2016 Montréal | |
| Number 8 ranked players | |
| Russia Ekaterina Makarova 1–0 100% – – 1–0 Won (6–3, 6–4) at 2018 Wimbledon | |
| United States Danielle Collins 0–1 0% – 0–1 – Lost (6–2, 4–6, 2–6) at 2018 Rome | |
| Number 9 ranked players | |
| Germany Julia Görges 3–1 75% 3–1 – – Lost (2–6, 4–6) at 2020 Dubai Qualifying | |
| United States CoCo Vandeweghe 2–1 67% 2–0 – 0–1 Won (6–3, 6–1) at 2014 New Haven | |
| Germany Andrea Petkovic 4–3 57% 4–3 – – Lost (6–0, 4–6, 4–6) at 2019 Luxembourg | |
| Switzerland Timea Bacsinszky 0–2 0% 0–2 – – Lost (4–6, 6–3, 5–7) at 2017 Australian Open | |
| Number 10 ranked players | |
| France Kristina Mladenovic 1–0 100% 1–0 – – Won (1–6, 6–4, 6–1) at 2016 Fed Cup | |
| Russia Daria Kasatkina 0–1 0% 0–1 – – Lost (2–6, 6–4, 2–6) at 2020 Lyon | |
| Total 61–88 41% 44–59 | |
| (43%) 8–17 | |
| (32%) 9–12 | |
| (43%) Current after the 2022 Lyon | |
| Top 10 wins | |
| # Player Rank Event Surface Rd Score | |
| 2012 | |
| 1. Italy Sara Errani No. 6 China Open, China Hard 1R 5–4 ret. | |
| 2013 | |
| 2. Denmark Caroline Wozniacki No. 8 US Open, United States Hard 3R 4–6, 6–4, 6–3 | |
| 2014 | |
| 3. Russia Maria Sharapova No. 5 Indian Wells Open, U.S. Hard 3R 6–3, 4–6, 7–5 | |
| 4. Slovakia Dominika Cibulková No. 10 Italian Open, Italy Clay 1R 6–4, 7–6(2) | |
| 5. Belarus Victoria Azarenka No. 8 Eastbourne International, UK Grass 1R 4–6, 6–3, 7–5 | |
| 2015 | |
| 6. Poland Agnieszka Radwańska No. 9 Katowice Open, Poland Hard (i) SF 6–4, 6–2 | |
| 2017 | |
| 7. Czech Republic Karolína Plíšková No. 3 Prague Open, Czech Republic Clay 1R 7–6(6), 6–2 | |
| 8. Ukraine Elina Svitolina No. 5 Birmingham Classic, UK Grass 2R 6–4, 4–6, 6–2 | |
| 2018 | |
| 9. Denmark Caroline Wozniacki No. 2 Pan Pacific Open, Japan Hard (i) 2R 6–2, 2–6, 6–4 | |
| 2021 | |
| 10. Czech Republic Karolína Plíšková No. 10 Eastbourne International, UK Grass 1R 2–6, 6–2, 6–2 | |
| 11. Belarus Aryna Sabalenka No. 4 Eastbourne International, UK Grass QF 7–6(7–5), 0–6, 6–4 | |
| 12. Czech Republic Karolína Plíškova No. 7 Tokyo Olympics, Japan Hard 3R 6–4, 6–2 | |
| 13. Czech Republic Karolína Plíšková No. 6 Canadian Open, Canada Hard F 6–3, 7–5 | |
| See also | |
| List of notable Jewish tennis players | |
| Notes | |
| The first Premier 5 event of the year has switched back and forth between the Dubai Tennis Championships and the Qatar Total Open since 2009. Dubai was classified as a Premier 5 event from 2009–2011 before being succeeded by Doha for the 2012–2014 period. In 2015, Dubai regained its Premier 5 status while Doha was demoted to Premier status. The Premier 5 tournaments were reclassified as WTA 1000 tournaments in 2021. | |
| Giorgi withdraw before the second round against Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova. Not count as a loss. | |
| In 2014, the Toray Pan Pacific Open was downgraded to a Premier event and replaced by the Wuhan Open. The Premier 5 tournaments were reclassified as WTA 1000 tournaments in 2021. | |
| 2006: WTA ranking–944, 2007: WTA ranking–833. | |
| References | |
| https://www.itftennis.com/procircuit/tournaments/women%27s-tournament/info.aspx?tournamentid=1100020393 | |
| "Camila Giorgi | WTA Official". Women's Tennis Association. | |
| Sampaolo, Diego (24 August 2012). "Vinci wins all-Italian fourth round clash with Giorgi". Ubitennis. Archived from the original on 11 March 2014. Retrieved 19 November 2013. | |
| Ceballos, Juan Ignacio (17 June 2011). "Camila Giorgi: 'Me gustaría representar a Argentina'" [I would like to represent Argentina]. ESPN Deportes (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 5 August 2016. | |
| Schlecht, Neil (2 September 2013). "Giorgi girl: a small package but big game and big style". 2013.usopen.org. Archived from the original on 11 March 2014. Retrieved 11 March 2014. | |
| Shenker, Ashley (14 January 2013). "Israelis battle through to Aus Open main draw". The Australian Jewish News. Retrieved 4 September 2013. | |
| Glassman, Marvin (15 August 2017). "Brengle leads three Jewish tennis players at Rogers Cup in Toronto". Canadian Jewish News. Archived from the original on 15 March 2018. | |
| Glassman, Marvin (27 March 2017). "Israel's Dudi Sela, other Jewish players compete at Miami Open". Sun-Sentinel. Archived from the original on 15 March 2018. | |
| Fiske, Gavriel (2 July 2012). "Italian Jewish tennis star bids for Wimbledon quarter-finals on Monday". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 4 September 2013. | |
| "Meet Camila Giorgi: Italy's Jewish tennis star". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. Retrieved 20 August 2021. | |
| Griver, Simon (29 June 2012). "Giorgi lines up Israel move". The Jewish Chronicle. Retrieved 14 October 2018. | |
| Ceballos, Juan Ignacio (29 June 2012). "Wimbledon descubre el Método Giorgi" [Wimbledon discovers the Giorgi Method]. ESPN Deportes (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 12 July 2018. | |
| "Qualifier Giorgi ousts top seed Petrova". www.upi.com. 21 February 2012. Retrieved 25 July 2017. | |
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| Marvin Glassman (14 February 2014). "Toronto's Fichman thrilled by Canadian upset at Fed Cup". The Canadian Jewish News. Retrieved 12 March 2014. | |
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| "2014 results". CBSSports.com. Retrieved 20 April 2014. | |
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| "Anna Schmiedlova wins Katowice Open for 1st WTA title". www.espn.com. 12 April 2015. Retrieved 13 June 2021. | |
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| Ubha, Ravi (19 April 2015). "SERENA DEALT HISTORIC LOSS AS ITALY TRIUMPH IN BRINDISI". www.billiejeankingcup.com. Retrieved 13 June 2021. | |
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| Han, Don (6 January 2017). "WTA Shenzhen: Alison Riske reaches final for second year running after beating Camila Giorgi in straight sets". www.vavel.com. Retrieved 27 May 2021. | |
| Han, Don (17 January 2017). "Australian Open: Timea Bacsinszky gets past Camila Giorgi in a tough match". www.vavel.com. Retrieved 27 May 2021. | |
| "Madison Brengle and Christina McHale Reach Qatar Total Open Final Draw". www.beinsports.com. 13 February 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2020. | |
| Zocco, Fabrizio (9 March 2017). "Tennis, Wta Indian Wells: Camila Giorgi gives her debut to Johanna Larsson". www.sportface.it. Retrieved 29 May 2021. | |
| "Strycova into semis of WTA event in Biel". www.sbs.com.au. 15 April 2017. Retrieved 29 May 2021. | |
| Huiber, Jens (23 April 2017). "Talent rehearsals until late after midnight". www.spox.com. Retrieved 30 May 2021. | |
| "J&T Banka Prague Open: Karolina Pliskova knocked out". www.sportinglife.com. 1 May 2017. Retrieved 30 May 2021. | |
| "Mona Barthel beats Camila Giorgi to reach the semifinal in Prague". www.ubitennis.net. 4 May 2017. Retrieved 30 May 2021. | |
| "Barty storms into WTA Strasbourg quarters". wwos.nine.com.au. 24 May 2017. Retrieved 30 May 2021. | |
| "Venus Williams wins her French Open opener". thewest.com.au. 28 May 2017. Retrieved 30 May 2021. | |
| "Camila Giorgi / Tennis news, the blue beaten by Witthoeft at the Ricoh Open 2017". www.ilsussidiario.net. 14 June 2017. Retrieved 30 May 2021. | |
| "Giorgi upsets Svitolina at Birmingham". www.sportskeeda.com. 22 June 2017. Retrieved 30 May 2021. | |
| "IN SECOND TOURNAMENT BACK, KVITOVA REACHES SEMIFINALS IN BIRMINGHAM". www.tennis.com. 23 June 2017. Retrieved 30 May 2021. | |
| "Wimbledon 2017: Jelena Ostapenko blasts Camila Giorgi's father over 'unsportsmanlike' behaviour". www.firstpost.com. 8 July 2017. Retrieved 30 May 2021. | |
| "Canadian teen Bianca Andreescu beats Camila Giorgi to advance at Citi Open". nationalpost.com. 31 July 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2021. | |
| "Lepchenko downs qualifier Rybarikova to reach Rogers Cup main draw". www.sportsnet.ca. 6 August 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2021. | |
| "Karolina Pliskova Wins a Doubleheader; Rafael Nadal Falls". www.nytimes.com. 19 August 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2021. | |
| "Konta stunned in the US Open opener". tennismash.com. 29 August 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2021. | |
| "Sharapova Battles Back In Shenzhen But Ostapenko Shocked". www.beinsports.com. 2 January 2018. Retrieved 19 May 2021. | |
| Macpherson, Alex (12 January 2018). "Kerber quells Giorgi to move into second Sydney final". www.wtatennis.com. Retrieved 24 April 2020. | |
| "Australian Open: Ashleigh Barty beats Camila Giorgi to continue Melbourne Park charge". 18 January 2018. Retrieved 24 April 2020. | |
| Macpherson, Alex (18 February 2018). "Errani and Stosur win through to final Dubai qualifying round". www.wtatennis.com. Retrieved 24 April 2020. | |
| Tola, Monica (22 March 2018). "Wta Miami: outside Camila Giorgi. Naomi Osaka overwhelms Serena Williams". www.tenniscircus.com. Retrieved 24 April 2020. | |
| "Keys edges Giorgi to return to elite eight in Charleston". www.wtatennis.com. 5 April 2018. Retrieved 24 April 2020. | |
| "Sabalenka vanquishes Voegele in Lugano to reach final". www.wtatennis.com. 14 April 2018. Retrieved 24 April 2020. | |
| "Buzarnescu celebrates birthday in style, reaches Prague final". www.wtatennis.com. 4 May 2018. Retrieved 19 May 2021. | |
| Macpherson, Alex (2 June 2018). "Stephens passes tough Giorgi test in Paris". www.wtatennis.com. Retrieved 24 April 2020. | |
| MASTROLUCA, ALESSANDRO (11 June 2018). "Wta Nottingham: Naomi Osaka claims the 20th win of the season". www.tennisworldusa.org. Retrieved 24 April 2020. | |
| Adair, Dave; Flowers, Jane (18 June 2018). "Katy Dunne one win away in Birmingham from mixing it with tennis elite". uk.blastingnews.com. Retrieved 21 May 2021. | |
| "Eastbourne 2018: Caroline Wozniacki goes through but Heather Watson loses". www.bbc.com. 25 June 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2021. | |
| SUNDERLAND, TOM (10 July 2018). "Serena Williams Tops Camila Giorgi, Advances to 2018 Wimbledon Semi-Finals". bleacherreport.com. Retrieved 25 April 2020. | |
| "Keys reaches round of 16". qctimes.com. 15 August 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2021. | |
| "Bencic gets by Giorgi into New Haven quarterfinals". www.wtatennis.com. 21 August 2018. Retrieved 25 April 2020. | |
| Marshall, Ashley (29 August 2018). "Venus Williams defeats Camila Giorgi in second round of US Open". www.usopen.org. Retrieved 25 April 2020. | |
| "Giorgi shocks defending champ Wozniacki in Tokyo". www.wtatennis.com. 20 September 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2021. | |
| "Osaka grounds Giorgi to return to Tokyo final". www.wtatennis.com. 22 September 2018. Retrieved 25 April 2020. | |
| Barbiani, Diego (24 September 2018). "WTA Wuhan: Giorgi loses the rollercoaster challenge against Krunic. Halep will have Cibulkova". www.oktennis.it. Retrieved 25 April 2020. | |
| Kane, David (14 October 2018). "Giorgi conquers Alexandrova for second WTA title in Linz". www.wtatennis.com. Retrieved 25 April 2020. | |
| "Luxembourg 2018 Draw: Top seed Goerges to open against Kuzmova". www.wtatennis.com. 14 October 2018. Retrieved 25 April 2020. | |
| "Camila Giorgi Pulls Out of WTA Brisbane International". www.tennisworldusa.org. 27 December 2018. Retrieved 26 April 2020. | |
| Macpherson, Alex (8 January 2019). "Defending champion Kerber survives Giorgi barrage in Sydney opener". www.wtatennis.com. Retrieved 26 April 2020. | |
| Macpherson, Alex (19 January 2019). "'It's not always about me': Pliskova survives Giorgi, books Muguruza date in Melbourne". www.wtatennis.com. Retrieved 26 April 2020. | |
| Battersby, Kate (10 February 2019). "SWITZERLAND SWEEPS INTO WORLD GROUP PLAY-OFFS". www.fedcup.com. Retrieved 26 April 2020. | |
| "Bertens outlasts Giorgi in Doha first-round tussle". www.wtatennis.com. 12 February 2019. Retrieved 26 April 2020. | |
| Verdi, Tucker (22 March 2019). "Day 5 Recap: Top Seeds, Defending Champs Prevail". www.miamiopen.com. Retrieved 26 April 2020. | |
| Carroll, Dave (26 June 2019). "Taiwan's Hsieh outlasts Italy's Giorgi". www.eyeontaiwan.com. Retrieved 26 April 2020. | |
| Caro, Danny (1 July 2019). "Giorgi tumbles out in round one of Wimbledon". www.thejc.com. Retrieved 26 April 2020. | |
| Wallace, Ava (4 August 2019). "Jessica Pegula claims the first WTA title of her career at the Citi Open". www.washingtonpost.com. Retrieved 26 April 2020. | |
| Macpherson, Alex (6 August 2019). "'It was important to keep pressure' - Azarenka jumpstarts Toronto return with Giorgi win". www.wtatennis.com. Retrieved 26 April 2020. | |
| "Coach Talks: Tom Hill gives Maria Sakkari Thumbs-up". 12 August 2019. Retrieved 26 April 2020. | |
| "QUALIFIER LINETTE WINS INAUGURAL BRONX OPEN FOR FIRST CAREER WTA TITLE". www.tennis.com. 24 August 2019. Retrieved 26 April 2020. | |
| Elbaba, Julia (26 August 2019). "Maria Sakkari cruises to round 2 over Camila Giorgi at 2019 US Open". www.usopen.org. Retrieved 26 April 2020. | |
| ILIC, JOVICA (21 September 2019). "WTA Osaka: Naomi Osaka, Angelique Kerber and Elise Mertens reach semis". www.tennisworldusa.org. Retrieved 27 April 2020. | |
| "Peterson's luck - got free space and went on for 37 minutes". 23 September 2019. Retrieved 27 April 2020. | |
| "WTA roundup: Mertens breezes in Luxembourg opener". nationalpost.com. 15 October 2019. Retrieved 27 April 2020. | |
| Barbiani, Diego (17 December 2019). "WTA 125k Limoges: Giorgi sticks his debut, Samsonova wins in the third set". oktennis.it. Retrieved 23 May 2021. | |
| Livaudais, Stephanie (7 January 2020). "'It's a great start to build on' - Serena starts season with 'solid' win over Giorgi in Auckland". www.wtatennis.com. Retrieved 25 April 2020. | |
| "Kerber grinds past Giorgi to reach Australian Open fourth round". www.wtatennis.com. 25 January 2020. Retrieved 25 April 2020. | |
| "Tennis, Fed Cup: Italy beat Croatia, in April the decisive play-off – La Gazzetta dello Sport". www.news1.news. 8 February 2020. Retrieved 25 April 2020. | |
| Amalfi, Alberto (6 March 2020). "Kasatkina Grounds Giorgi to Reach Lyon Semifinals". www.tennisnow.com. Retrieved 25 April 2020. | |
| "Tennis in Palermo, no final for Camila Giorgi". www.repubblica.it. 8 August 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2021. | |
| "Pliskova, Mertens reach quarterfinals of Prague Open". sports.nbcsports.com. 12 August 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2021. | |
| Osborn, Richard (2 September 2020). "Focused Osaka Powers Past Giorgi Into Third Round". www.usopen.org. Retrieved 24 May 2021. | |
| Kane, David (14 September 2020). "Yastremska triumphs in Rome rematch with Giorgi". www.wtatennis.com. Retrieved 27 May 2021. | |
| TAYAL, KSHITIJ (28 September 2020). ""Don't Really Take Anything for Granted": Coco Gauff After Massive Win Over Johanna Konta". www.essentiallysports.com. Retrieved 27 May 2021. | |
| "Podoroska comeback ousts former champ Giorgi in Linz". www.wtatennis.com. 12 November 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2021. | |
| "SOFIA KENIN ADVANCES AT YARRA VALLEY CLASSIC". tennisuptodate.com. 2 February 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2021. | |
| QUARRELL, DAN (10 February 2021). "AUSTRALIAN OPEN 2021 - IGA SWIATEK IN SUBLIME FORM AS SHE BEATS CAMILA GIORGI IN MELBOURNE". www.eurosport.com. Retrieved 17 May 2021. | |
| Macpherson, Alex (5 March 2021). "Tauson powers past Giorgi as semifinal lineup is settled in Lyon". www.wtatennis.com. Retrieved 18 May 2021. | |
| JOHNSON, ABBEY (25 March 2021). "Miami Open: Ana Konjuh and Sloane Stephens win milestone matches". www.tennisworldusa.org. Retrieved 19 May 2021. | |
| "Tennis: Camila Giorgi positive at Covid, no Billie Jean King Cup". www.italy24news.com. 7 April 2021. Retrieved 19 May 2021. | |
| "WATCH: Three hours and 51 minutes later, Sara Sorribes Tormo beats Camila Giorgi in sixth longest WTA match in Open Era". www.tennis365.com. 11 May 2021. Retrieved 19 May 2021. | |
| Garber, Greg (19 May 2021). "Anisimova rediscovering confidence ahead of showdown vs. Gauff". www.wtatennis.com. Retrieved 20 May 2021. | |
| "Camila Giorgi manages to qualify for the 30th final at the expense of Petra Martic". www.explica.co. 31 May 2021. Retrieved 3 June 2021. | |
| JOHNSON, ABBEY (3 June 2021). "French Open: Ashleigh Barty retires due to injury; Karolina Pliskova upset". www.tennisworldusa.org. Retrieved 6 June 2021. | |
| "Viking Classic Birmingham 2021: Watson into quarter-finals after opponent retires". www.lta.org.uk. 16 June 2021. Retrieved 16 June 2021. | |
| "Svitolina, Andreescu advance in Eastbourne, Giorgi ousts Pliskova". www.wtatennis.com. 22 June 2021. Retrieved 22 June 2021. | |
| "Giorgi knocks out top seed Sabalenka at Eastbourne". www.reuters.com. 24 June 2021. Retrieved 12 August 2021. | |
| "Ostapenko breezes past Rybakina to set up Kontaveit final in Eastbourne". www.reuters.com. 25 June 2021. Retrieved 12 August 2021. | |
| "LINETTE STUNS SVITOLINA AT WIMBLEDON; KREJCIKOVA, PAVLYUCHENKOVA ADVANCE". www.wtatennis.com. 1 July 2021. Retrieved 12 August 2021. | |
| JOHNSON, ABBEY (17 July 2021). "Ladies Open Lausanne: Caroline Garcia and Clara Burel set up French derby in SF". www.tennisworldusa.org. Retrieved 12 August 2021. | |
| SINGH, ANSHUL (27 July 2021). "Wimbledon Finalist Karolina Pliskova Stunned By Italy's Camila Giorgi at Tokyo Olympics 2020". www.essentiallysports.com. Retrieved 12 August 2021. | |
| Chopra, Lakshya (28 July 2021). "Tokyo Olympics 2020: Elina Svitolina storms into her maiden Olympic semifinal, beats Camila Giorgi". firstsportz.com. Retrieved 12 August 2021. | |
| "Giorgi ousts Gauff; Pegula upends Jabeur to reach Montreal semis". Women's Tennis Association. | |
| "Giorgi overcomes Pegula in Montreal to reach biggest career final". | |
| "Giorgi captures biggest title of career over Plíšková in Montreal". WTA Tour. | |
| Wilks, Hannah (9 April 2014). "Camila Giorgi ousts defending champion Roberta Vinci to reach Katowice quarterfinals". livetennis.com. Retrieved 12 April 2014. | |
| Pilhofer, Aron (2 September 2013). "What to Watch at the U.S. Open on Monday". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 April 2014. | |
| Coffey, Wayne (1 September 2013). "U.S. Open: Camila Giorgi upsets Caroline Wozniacki". nydailynews.com. Retrieved 12 April 2014. | |
| "Camila Giorgi – Roberta Vinci Live". Yahoo.com. 2 September 2013. Retrieved 13 April 2014. | |
| "Stats Hub 2015". Women's Tennis Association. Retrieved 28 February 2021. | |
| Walz, Nicholas J. (11 March 2014). "US Open Player to Watch: Camila Giorgi". livetennis.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2016. Retrieved 2 April 2014. | |
| Wilks, Hannah (11 March 2014). "Maria Sharapova falls to qualifier Camila Giorgi in error-strewn Indian Wells third round". livetennis.com. Retrieved 12 April 2014. | |
| "Camila Giorgi [ITA] | Australian Open". ausopen.com. Archived from the original on 13 June 2020. | |
| "Head to Head". WTA Tennis. Archived from the original on 15 August 2021. | |
| External links | |
| Wikimedia Commons has media related to Camila Giorgi. | |
| Camila Giorgi at the Women's Tennis Association Edit this at Wikidata | |
| Camila Giorgi at the International Tennis Federation Edit this at Wikidata | |
| Camila Giorgi at the Billie Jean King Cup Edit this at Wikidata | |
| vte | |
| Women's Tennis Association: Italy Top Italian female singles tennis players | |
| as of 26 July 2021 | |
| 1. Camila Giorgi (61 Decrease3)2. Jasmine Paolini (91 Increase1)3. Martina Trevisan (102 Steady)4. Sara Errani (112 Decrease8)5. Elisabetta Cocciaretto (125 Decrease12) | |
| 6. Lucia Bronzetti (174 Increase16)7. Giulia Gatto-Monticone (199 Decrease8)8. Lucrezia Stefanini (248 Increase4)9. Jessica Pieri (250 Decrease5)10. Federica Di Sarra (275 Increase12) | |
| Categories: 1991 birthsLiving peoplePeople from MacerataPeople from the Province of PisaItalian expatriates in the United StatesItalian expatriates in FranceItalian female tennis playersItalian JewsItalian sportspeople of Argentine descentJewish tennis playersOlympic tennis players of ItalyTennis players at the 2020 Summer OlympicsJapan at the 1986 Asian Games | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
| Jump to navigationJump to search | |
| Japan at the | |
| 1986 Asian Games | |
| Flag of Japan (1870-1999).svg | |
| IOC code JPN | |
| NOC Japanese Olympic Committee | |
| in Seoul | |
| Medals | |
| Ranked 3rd | |
| Gold58Silver76Bronze77Total211 | |
| Asian Games appearances (overview) | |
| 195119541958196219661970197419781982198619901994199820022006201020142018 | |
| Japan participated in the 1986 Asian Games held in Seoul, South Korea from September 20, 1986 to October 5, 1986. This country was ranked 3rd with 58 gold medals, 76 silver medals and 77 bronze medals with a total of 211 medals to secure its third spot in the medal tally.[1] | |
| References | |
| 1986 Asian Games medal tally Archived 2009-03-07 at the Wayback Machine | |
| vte | |
| Nations at the 1986 Asian Games in Seoul, South Korea | |
| BahrainBangladeshBhutanChinaHong KongIndiaIndonesiaIranIraqJapanJordanKuwaitLebanonMalaysiaMaldivesNepalNorth YemenOmanPakistanPhilippinesQatarSaudi ArabiaSingaporeSouth KoreaSri LankaThailandUnited Arab Emirates | |
| Stub icon | |
| This article related to sports in Japan is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. | |
| Stub icon | |
| This Asian Games article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. | |
| Categories: Nations at the 1986 Asian GamesJapan at the Asian Games1986 in Japanese sportJapanese sport stubsAsian Games stubsMuller's morphs | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
| Jump to navigationJump to search | |
| "Neomorph" redirects here. For uses in fiction, see Eon (novel) and Alien (creature in Alien franchise) § Neomorph. | |
| Hermann J. Muller (1890–1967), who was a 1946 Nobel Prize winner, coined the terms amorph, hypomorph, hypermorph, antimorph and neomorph to classify mutations based on their behaviour in various genetic situations, as well as gene interaction between themselves.[1] These classifications are still widely used in Drosophila genetics to describe mutations. For a more general description of mutations, see mutation, and for a discussion of allele interactions, see dominance relationship. | |
| Key: In the following sections, alleles are referred to as +=wildtype, m=mutant, Df=gene deletion, Dp=gene duplication. Phenotypes are compared with '>', meaning 'phenotype is more severe than' | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Loss of function | |
| 1.1 Amorph | |
| 1.2 Hypomorph | |
| 2 Gain of function | |
| 2.1 Hypermorph | |
| 2.2 Antimorph | |
| 2.3 Neomorph | |
| 3 Isomorph | |
| 4 Overview | |
| 5 References | |
| Loss of function | |
| Amorph | |
| Main article: Amorph (gene) | |
| Amorphic describes a mutation that causes complete loss of gene function.[1] Amorph is sometimes used interchangeably with "genetic null". An amorphic mutation might cause complete loss of protein function by disrupting translation ("protein null") and/or preventing transcription ("RNA null"). | |
| An amorphic allele elicits the same phenotype when homozygous and when heterozygous to a chromosomal deletion or deficiency that disrupts the same gene.[2] This relationship can be represented as follows: | |
| m/m = m/Df | |
| An amorphic allele is commonly recessive to its wildtype counterpart. It is possible for an amorph to be dominant if the gene in question is required in two copies to elicit a normal phenotype (i.e. haploinsufficient). | |
| Hypomorph | |
| Hypomorphic describes a mutation that causes a partial loss of gene function.[1] A hypomorph is a reduction in gene function through reduced (protein, RNA) expression or reduced functional performance, but not a complete loss. | |
| The phenotype of a hypomorph is more severe in trans to a deletion allele than when homozygous.[2] | |
| m/DF > m/m | |
| Hypomorphs are usually recessive, but occasional alleles are dominant due to haploinsufficiency. | |
| Gain of function | |
| Hypermorph | |
| A hypermorphic mutation causes an increase in normal gene function.[1] Hypermorphic alleles are gain of function alleles. A hypermorph can result from an increase in gene dose (a gene duplication), from increased mRNA or protein expression, or constitutive protein activity. | |
| The phenotype of a hypermorph is worsened by increasing the wildtype gene dose, and is reduced by lowering wildtype gene dose.[2] | |
| m/Dp > m/+ > m/Df | |
| Antimorph | |
| Antimorphs are dominant mutations that act in opposition to normal gene activity.[1] Antimorphs are also called dominant negative mutations. | |
| Increasing wildtype gene function reduces the phenotypic severity of an antimorph, so the phenotype of an antimorph is worse when heterozygous than when in trans to a gene duplication.[2] | |
| m/m > m/Df > m/+ >>> +/Df > +/+ [3] | |
| An antimorphic mutation might affect the function of a protein that acts as a dimer so that a dimer consisting of one normal and one mutated protein is no longer functional. | |
| Neomorph | |
| A neomorphic mutation causes a dominant gain of gene function that is different from the normal function.[1] A neomorphic mutation can cause ectopic mRNA or protein expression, or new protein functions from altered protein structure. | |
| Changing wildtype gene dose has no effect on the phenotype of a neomorph.[2] | |
| m/Df = m/+ = m/Dp | |
| Isomorph | |
| After Muller's classification of gene mutation, an isomorph was described as a silent point mutant with identical gene expression as the original allele.[4][5] | |
| m/Df = m/Dp | |
| Therefore, with respect to the relationship between the original and mutated genes, one cannot talk about the effects of dominance and/or recessiveness.[4][5][6] | |
| Overview | |
| Muller’s classification of mutant alleles | |
| Category Alternative function | |
| Wild type Referent gene expression, full ("normal"), expression of parent allele | |
| Amorph Dysfunctional, with null expression | |
| Hypomorph Reduced, or partial reduced gene activity | |
| Hypermorph Increased or partial increased parent gene activity | |
| Neomorph Novel function, comparing with the initial, new property | |
| Antimorph Opposing, antagonizing, or interfering gene activity | |
| Isomorph Identical expression with original (parent) allele, mostly resulting from silent point mutations | |
| References | |
| Muller, H. J. 1932. Further studies on the nature and causes of gene mutations. Proceedings of the 6th International Congress of Genetics, pp. 213–255. | |
| Wilkie, A. O. 1994. The molecular basis of genetic dominance. Journal of Medical Genetics 31: 89-98. [1] | |
| Hawley R. S., Walker Y.M. (2003) Advanced Genetic Analysis: Finding Meaning in a Genome, pp. 6-7, ISBN 1405123923 | |
| Lawrence E., ed. (1999). Henderson's Dictionary of biological terms. London: Longman Group Ltd. ISBN 0-582-22708-9. | |
| Rieger R. Michaelis A., Green M. M. (1976). Glossary of genetics and cytogenetics: Classical and molecular. Berlin - Heidelberg - New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-07668-9. | |
| "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-08-19. Retrieved 2017-01-27. | |
| Categories: Classical geneticsMutationVote 1 Local Jobs | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
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| Vote 1 Local Jobs | |
| Vote 1 Local Jobs logo.png | |
| Secretary James Purcell | |
| Founded 2014 | |
| Headquarters 32 Bank Street, Port Fairy, Victoria, 3284 | |
| Ideology Regionalism | |
| Website | |
| Vote 1 Local Jobs Website | |
| Politics of Australia | |
| Political parties | |
| Elections | |
| Vote 1 Local Jobs was a minor political party in the state of Victoria, Australia. It was registered as a political party by the Victorian Electoral Commission on 3 November 2014,[1] in time for the 2014 Victorian state election. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Policies and philosophy | |
| 2 History | |
| 2.1 Electoral results | |
| 3 Political representatives | |
| 4 References | |
| 5 External links | |
| Policies and philosophy | |
| The Vote 1 Local Jobs party is mainly concerned with employment issues in Victoria's Western District.[2] | |
| The party's key policies at the 2014 election included:[3] | |
| Opposition to foreign ownership/investment of agricultural land | |
| Legislating against the 'dumping' of foreign products in Australia | |
| Decentralising government services from major cities to make services easier to access by people in country areas | |
| Cutting the $50 million the government spends on the Grand Prix and injecting these funds into Western Victoria’s roads | |
| Creating government incentives to encourage job creation in Western Victoria | |
| Support of jumps racing | |
| Support of camping and fishing in public reserves. | |
| In 2015 the party voted in favour of an exemption for religious institutions to deny same-sex couples access to adoption.[4] | |
| History | |
| The Vote 1 Local Jobs party was formed in November 2014 by James Purcell, former councillor and mayor of the Shire of Moyne. The party was registered by the Victorian Electoral Commission on 3 November 2014, in time for the 2014 Victorian state election, held later that month. | |
| At the 2014 Victorian election, two candidates stood for the party for the Victorian Legislative Council. Purcell stood in the Western Victoria Region and received 5,501 first preference votes (1.26% of the region),[5] and after the distribution of preferences was the last of the five members elected for the region, and sat as a crossbencher for a four year term. In the Northern Metropolitan Region[6] the candidate was unsuccessful. | |
| At the 2018 Victorian state election, the party lost its sole member in the Legislative Council. While Nathan Purcell and Aaron Purcell unsuccessful stood in the Northern Metropolitan Region for the party,[7] James Purcell contested the Legislative Assembly seat of South-West Coast as an independent, receiving 16.47% of the vote, and was also unsuccessful. The party was de-registered by the Victorian Electoral Commission on 30 July 2019.[8] | |
| Electoral results | |
| Victorian Legislative Council | |
| Election year # of | |
| overall votes % of | |
| overall vote # of | |
| overall seats won # of | |
| overall seats +/– Notes | |
| 2014 7,108 0.21 (#19) | |
| 1 / 40 | |
| 1 / 40 | |
| Increase 1 Shared balance of power | |
| 2018 5,338 0.15 (#20) | |
| 0 / 40 | |
| 0 / 40 | |
| Decrease 1 | |
| Political representatives | |
| James Purcell (Victorian Legislative Council, 2014–2018) | |
| References | |
| "Registration of Vote 1 Local Jobs". Victorian Electoral Commission. 3 November 2014. Retrieved 19 November 2014. | |
| Sinnott, Alex (18 November 2014). "Upper house chance for Vote 1 Local Jobs party". The Standard. Retrieved 19 November 2014. | |
| Party policies | |
| Gordon, Josh (13 November 2015). "Conservatives force religious exemptions into same-sex adoption laws". The Age. Retrieved 25 November 2015. | |
| "State 2014 Results Western Victoria Region". | |
| Moss, Dan (14 November 2014). "Shifting alliances and bitter distrust as Vic preference deals go down to the wire". Crikey. Retrieved 19 November 2014. | |
| https://www.vec.vic.gov.au/Results/State2018/NorthernMetropolitanRegion.html | |
| "De-registration of Vote 1 Local Jobs". Victorian Electoral Commission. 30 July 2019. | |
| External links | |
| Official website | |
| vte | |
| Political parties in Victoria | |
| Stub icon | |
| This article about an Australian political party is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. | |
| Categories: 2014 establishments in AustraliaPolitical parties established in 2014Defunct political parties in Victoria (Australia)Western District (Victoria)Australia political party stubsArthur Erich Haas | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
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| Arthur Erich Haas | |
| Born April 30, 1884 | |
| Brno, Austria | |
| Died February 20, 1941 | |
| Chicago, Illinois | |
| Resting place Cedar Grove Cemetery, Notre Dame, Indiana | |
| Nationality Austrian | |
| Occupation Physicist | |
| Arthur Erich Haas (April 30, 1884 in Brno – February 20, 1941 in Chicago) was an Austrian physicist, noted for a 1910 paper[1] he submitted in support of his habilitation as Privatdocent at the University of Vienna that outlined a treatment of the hydrogen atom involving quantization of electronic orbitals, thus anticipating the Bohr model (1913) by three years. | |
| Haas’ paper, however, was initially rejected and even ridiculed. As noted in his autobiography, Haas recalls: "When I lectured to the Chemical-Physical Society of Vienna ... Lecher ... referred to the presentation during open discussion as a carnival joke" (the lecture was held during carnival time in Austria, February 1910). Soon thereafter, however, by September 1911 at a physical science convention in Karlsruhe, former detractors of Haas' work acknowledged it with greater enthusiasm as noted in a footnote: "We do not know what caused [a] change of mind in 1911 and can merely suggest the general trend of thinking at the time: 1910 saw the beginning of a universal shift of opinion of the quantum concept."[2] | |
| The significance of Haas' work lay in the establishment of a relationship between Planck's constant and atomic dimensions, having been first to correctly estimate the magnitude of what is today known as the Bohr radius. | |
| From 1936 to his death he was professor at the University of Notre Dame. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Acceptance at the 1911 Solvay Conference | |
| 2 Works | |
| 3 See also | |
| 4 References | |
| 5 External links | |
| Acceptance at the 1911 Solvay Conference | |
| During the proceedings of the first Solvay Conference in 1911 at which Bohr’s mentor, Rutherford was present. Max Planck’s lecture ended with this remark: “… atoms or electrons subject to the molecular bond would obey the laws of quantum theory.”[3] Hendrik Lorentz in the discussion of Planck’s lecture raised the question of the composition of the atom based on Thompson’s model with a great portion of the discussion around the Quantum atom developed by Arthur Erich Haas. Lorentz explained that due to the dimension of Planck’s constant, it defined the atom.[4] Haas’s model of the atom is mentioned seventeen times during the Proceedings of the Conference. Planck uses Haas’ model in his speech saying: “A.E. Haas, for example, takes as oscillator the uniform sphere of J.-J. Thomson, within which an electron can oscillate around the center. The maximum energy for this oscillation, which is reached when the amplitude becomes equal to the radius of the sphere, must be equal to the quantum of energy e = hv.” [5] | |
| Works | |
| Die Grundgleichungen der Mechanik dargestellt auf Grund der geschichtlichen Entwicklung, Leipzig: Veit, 1914. | |
| Einführung in die theoretische Physik (2 volumes) 1. {online} Leipzig: Veit, 1919; 2. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1921. English translation: Introduction to Theoretical Physics, translated by T. Verschoyle, London: Constable, 1925. | |
| Naturbild der Neuen Physik, Berlin: de Gruyter, 1920. English translation: The New Physics, translated by R. Lawson, London: Methuen, 1923. | |
| Atomtheorie, Berlin: de Gruyter, 1924. English translation: Atomic Theory: An Elementary Exposition, translated by T. Verschoyle, London: Constable, 1927. | |
| Materiewellen und Quantenmechanik, Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, 1928. English translation: Wave Mechanics and the New Quantum Theory, translated by L. W. Codd, London: Constable, 1928. | |
| Die Grundlagen der Quantenchemie, Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, 1929. Revised English translation: Quantum Chemistry: A Short Introduction in Four Non-Mathematical Lectures, translated by L. W. Codd, New York: R. R. Smith, 1930. | |
| Die kosmologischen Probleme der Physik, Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, 1934. | |
| Umwaldlungen der chemischen Elemente, Berlin: de Gruyter, 1935. | |
| Physik für Jedermann, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der modernen technischen Anwendungen, Berlin: Verlag von Julius Springer, 1933 (popular scientific). | |
| See also | |
| Bohr model | |
| History of quantum mechanics | |
| References | |
| Haas, Arthur Erich (1884-1941) Über die elektrodynamische Bedeutung des Planck'schen Strahlungsgesetzes und über eine neue Bestimmung des elektrischen Elementarquantums und der Dimension des Wasserstoffatoms. Sitzungsberichte der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien. 2a, 119 pp 119-144 (1910). Haas A.E. Die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Satzes von der Erhaltung der Kraft. Habilitation Thesis, Vienna, 1909. Hermann, A. Arthur Erich Haas, Der erste Quantenansatz für das Atom. Stuttgart, 1965 [contains a reprint]. | |
| Hermann, Armin (1974) Claude W. Nash (tr.) The Genesis of Quantum Theory (1899-1913). The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England, Ch. 5. ISBN 0-262-08047-8. | |
| Original Proceedings of the 1911 Solvay Conference published 1912. THÉORIE DU RAYONNEMENT ET LES QUANTA. RAPPORTS ET DISCUSSIONS DELA Réunion tenue à Bruxelles, du 30 octobre au 3 novembre 1911, Sous les Auspices dk M. E. SOLVAY. Publiés par MM. P. LANGEVIN et M. de BROGLIE. Translated from the French, P. 114. | |
| Original Proceedings of the 1911 Solvay Conference published 1912. THÉORIE DU RAYONNEMENT ET LES QUANTA. RAPPORTS ET DISCUSSIONS DELA Réunion tenue à Bruxelles, du 30 octobre au 3 novembre 1911, Sous les Auspices dk M. E. SOLVAY. Publiés par MM. P. LANGEVIN et M. de BROGLIE. Translated from the French, p. 124. | |
| Original Proceedings of the 1911 Solvay Conference published 1912. THÉORIE DU RAYONNEMENT ET LES QUANTA. RAPPORTS ET DISCUSSIONS DELA Réunion tenue à Bruxelles, du 30 octobre au 3 novembre 1911, Sous les Auspices dk M. E. SOLVAY. Publiés par MM. P. LANGEVIN et M. de BROGLIE. Translated from the French, p. 108. | |
| External links | |
| Arthur Erich Haas - FREE Arthur Erich Haas Biography | Encyclopedia.com: Facts, Pictures, Information! at www.encyclopedia.com | |
| Arthur Erich Haas at the aeiou Encyclopedia | |
| Authority control Edit this at Wikidata | |
| General | |
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| Norway 2SpainFrance (data)GermanyIsraelUnited StatesJapanCzech RepublicAustraliaNetherlandsPoland | |
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| Faceted Application of Subject TerminologySocial Networks and Archival ContextSUDOC (France) 1Trove (Australia) 1 | |
| Categories: 1884 births1941 deathsAustrian physicistsUniversity of Notre Dame facultyFellows of the American Physical SocietyBeaduheard | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
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| Beaduheard was an Anglo-Saxon reeve who was based in Dorchester in Dorset, who in 789 became the first known person killed by a Viking raid in England.[1][2] | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Early life | |
| 2 Death | |
| 3 Aftermath | |
| 4 Notes | |
| 5 References | |
| Early life | |
| Nothing is known of Beaduheard's early life, including where he was born or who his parents were. However, his name (Beaduheard means 'battle-hard')[3] and position suggests that his family were of relatively high rank, from a martial background, and that he was over the age of 31, which is regarded as middle aged for the time.[4] He was reeve during the reign of Beorhtric of Wessex, king of Wessex from 786 to 802. | |
| Death | |
| The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for AD 789 reports: | |
| 787 [789][a] Here Beorhtric took King Offa's daughter Eadburh. And in his days came first 3 ships from Hordaland:[b] and then the reeve rode there and wanted to compel them to go to the king's town because he did not know who they were; and then they killed him. These were the first ships of the Danish men which sought out the land of the English race.[1] | |
| Æthelweard's version of the Chronicle, known as the Chronicon Æthelweardi, a Latin translation of a lost version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, goes into more detail. He tells us that the three ships landed at Portland and that when Beaduheard heard of their arrival he "leapt on his horse" and "sped to the harbour with a few men". He also claims that Beaduheard spoke to the arrivals in an "authoritative tone" and this is why they killed him.[5] | |
| Æthelweard was writing nearly 200 years after the event, sometime after 975 and probably before 983.[6] His account is the first to name Beaduheard, however as his work was a Latin translation of a (now lost) Anglo-Saxon original, there is nothing to suggest that the name is incorrect. | |
| Aftermath | |
| Four years later, in 793, a major Viking raid took place on the monastery of Lindisfarne in the kingdom of Northumberland. This has commonly been regarded as the start of the Viking raids on Britain. | |
| Notes | |
| Historians believe that the dates written in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle are two years too early than the actual events at this time.[1] | |
| Hordaland is the area around Hardangerfjord in Norway, but the Chronicle says that they were Danes.[1] | |
| References | |
| Swanton, Michael, ed. (2000). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. London, UK: Phoenix. pp. 54–55. ISBN 978-1-84212-003-3. | |
| Yorke, Barbara (1995). Wessex in the Early Middle Ages. London, UK: Leicester University Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-7185-1856-1. | |
| "Probing Attacks: England, Scotland, and Ireland". Highbrow. 11 June 2018. | |
| "Life expectancy in Jorvik". www.viking.no. | |
| Lavelle, Ryan; Roffey, Simon (30 November 2015). Danes in Wessex: The Scandinavian Impact on Southern England, c. 800–c. 1100. Oxbow Books. ISBN 9781782979326 – via Google Books. | |
| Miller, Sean, "Æthelweard" in The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England, ed. Michael Lapidge, 2001 | |
| Categories: Anglo-Saxon EnglandAnglo-Saxons killed in battleAnglo-Norse EnglandWessex787 deaths8th-century English people8th century in EnglandTwinemen | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
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| Twinemen | |
| Origin Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States | |
| Genres Acid rock, alternative rock, indie rock, jazz rock | |
| Years active 2001–present | |
| Labels Hi-n-Dry, Kufala Recordings | |
| Associated acts Morphine, Face to Face | |
| Members Laurie Sargent | |
| Dana Colley | |
| Billy Conway | |
| Twinemen is an alternative rock band based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA created by former members of the bands Morphine and Face to Face. The group includes Dana Colley (saxophone / vocals), Billy Conway (percussion / vocals / sometimes acoustic guitar), and Laurie Sargent (lead singer / lead guitar). Various bass players, including former Face to Face guitarist Stuart Kimball, also perform with the band on the road and in the studio. Twinemen's music includes a mix of jazz, blues, acid rock, and lounge. | |
| Twinemen chose their name as an homage to Morphine's late leader Mark Sandman and his The Twinemen comic series. The Twinemen depicted three anthropomorphic balls of twine who play together in a band. Twinemen currently records in their Cambridge-based Hi-n-Dry Studios. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 Discography | |
| 1.1 Studio albums | |
| 1.2 Live albums | |
| 2 External links | |
| Discography | |
| Studio albums | |
| Twinemen (July 9, 2002) | |
| Sideshow (September 21, 2004) | |
| Twinetime (August 21, 2007) | |
| Live albums | |
| All live albums released through the Kufala Recordings label. | |
| Madison, Wisconsin 02/01/2003 | |
| Chicago, Illinois 02/02/2003 | |
| Cambridge, Massachusetts 10/23/2003 | |
| Denver, Colorado 09/25/2003 | |
| San Francisco, California 10/01/2003 | |
| Los Angeles, California 10/02/2003 | |
| External links | |
| Twinemen on Myspace | |
| Twinemen at Hi-N-Dry archive | |
| Authority control Edit this at Wikidata | |
| General | |
| ISNI 1VIAF 1WorldCat | |
| National libraries | |
| United States | |
| Other | |
| MusicBrainz artist | |
| Stub icon | |
| This article about a United States alternative rock band is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. | |
| Categories: Musical groups from MassachusettsAlternative rock groups from MassachusettsUnited States alternative rock musical group stubsJatuli Laevuo | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
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| Jatuli Laevuo | |
| Jatuli Laevuo.jpg | |
| Personal information | |
| Date of birth 19 May 1995 (age 26) | |
| Position(s) Defender | |
| Club information | |
| Current team FC Honka | |
| Senior career* | |
| Years Team Apps (Gls) | |
| 2013–2014 Pallohonka 28 (4) | |
| 2014– FC Honka 75 (9) | |
| * Senior club appearances and goals counted for the domestic league only and correct as of 08:57, 25 May 2018 (UTC) | |
| Jatuli Laevuo (born 19 May 1995) is a Finnish professional footballer who plays for FC Honka, as a defender.[1] | |
| References | |
| Jatuli Laevuo at Soccerway. Retrieved 25 May 2018. | |
| Flag of FinlandSoccer icon | |
| This biographical article related to association football in Finland, about a defender, is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. | |
| Categories: 1995 birthsLiving peopleFinnish footballersPallohonka playersFC Honka playersKakkonen playersYkkönen playersVeikkausliiga playersAssociation football defendersFinnish football defender stubsMonnet-la-Ville | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
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| Monnet-la-Ville | |
| Commune | |
| The church in Monnet-la-Ville | |
| The church in Monnet-la-Ville | |
| Location of Monnet-la-Ville | |
| Monnet-la-Ville is located in FranceMonnet-la-VilleMonnet-la-Ville | |
| Show map of France | |
| Show map of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté | |
| Show all | |
| Coordinates: 46°43′15″N 5°47′48″ECoordinates: 46°43′15″N 5°47′48″E | |
| Country France | |
| Region Bourgogne-Franche-Comté | |
| Department Jura | |
| Arrondissement Lons-le-Saunier | |
| Canton Champagnole | |
| Government | |
| • Mayor (2020–2026) Jean-Marie Voisin[1] | |
| Area1 6.19 km2 (2.39 sq mi) | |
| Population (Jan. 2019)[2] 335 | |
| • Density 54/km2 (140/sq mi) | |
| Time zone UTC+01:00 (CET) | |
| • Summer (DST) UTC+02:00 (CEST) | |
| INSEE/Postal code | |
| 39344 /39300 | |
| Elevation 478–690 m (1,568–2,264 ft) | |
| 1 French Land Register data, which excludes lakes, ponds, glaciers > 1 km2 (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) and river estuaries. | |
| Monnet-la-Ville is a commune in the Jura department in Bourgogne-Franche-Comté in eastern France.[3] | |
| See also | |
| Communes of the Jura department | |
| References | |
| "Répertoire national des élus: les maires". data.gouv.fr, Plateforme ouverte des données publiques françaises (in French). 2 December 2020. | |
| "Populations légales 2019". The National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies. 29 December 2021. | |
| INSEE commune file | |
| Wikimedia Commons has media related to Monnet-la-Ville. | |
| vte | |
| Communes of the Jura department | |
| Authority control Edit this at Wikidata | |
| Stub icon | |
| This Jura geographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. | |
| Categories: Communes of Jura (department)Jura (department) geography stubsKosuke Mine | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
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| Kosuke Mine (峰厚介) (born Kenji Wakabayashi, February 6, 1944, Tokyo) is a Japanese jazz saxophonist. | |
| Mine played clarinet as a youth before switching to saxophone as a teenager. He began recording as a leader around 1970, and worked during this time with Masabumi Kikuchi, Joe Henderson, and Mal Waldron. He moved to New York City in 1973, but came back to Japan in 1975, and subsequently became a member of the fusion group Native Son. He has also worked with Nobuyoshi Ino, Sadao Watanabe, and Terumasa Hino. | |
| Discography | |
| First (Philips, 1970) | |
| Mine (Three Blind Mice, 1970) | |
| 2nd Album (Three Blind Mice, 1971) | |
| Yellow Carcass in the Blue with Kimiko Kasai (Three Blind Mice, 1971) | |
| Daguri (JVC Victor, 1973) | |
| Out of Chaos (East Wind, 1974) | |
| Sunshower (East Wind, 1976) | |
| Solid (East Wind, 1976) | |
| Major to Minor (Verve, 1993) | |
| References | |
| Kazunori Sugiyama, "Kosuke Mine". The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz. 2nd edition, ed. Barry Kernfeld. | |
| Authority control Edit this at Wikidata | |
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| ISNI 1VIAF 1WorldCat | |
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| Other | |
| MusicBrainz artist | |
| Categories: Japanese jazz saxophonistsJapanese jazz bandleadersMusicians from Tokyo1944 birthsLiving people21st-century saxophonistsKilt | |
| From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia | |
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| This article is about the garment. For the acronym, see KILT (disambiguation). | |
| One of the earliest depictions of the kilt is this German print showing Highlanders around 1630 | |
| A kilt (Scottish Gaelic: fèileadh [ˈfeːləɣ]; Irish: féileadh)[1] is a type of knee-length men’s dress skirt non-bifurcated with pleats at the back, originating in the traditional dress of Gaelic men and boys in the Scottish Highlands. It is first recorded in the 16th century as the great kilt, a full-length garment whose upper half could be worn as a cloak. The small kilt or modern kilt emerged in the 18th century, and is essentially the bottom half of the great kilt. Since the 19th century, it has become associated with the wider culture of Scotland, and more broadly with Gaelic or Celtic heritage. It is most often made of woollen cloth in a tartan pattern. | |
| Although the kilt is most often worn on formal occasions and at Highland games and other sports events, it has also been adapted as an item of informal male clothing, returning to its roots as an everyday garment. Particularly in North America, kilts are now made for casual wear in a variety of materials. Alternative fastenings may be used and pockets inserted to avoid the need for a sporran. Kilts have also been adopted as female wear for some sports. | |
| Contents | |
| 1 History | |
| 2 Variants | |
| 2.1 Scotland | |
| 2.1.1 Design and construction | |
| 2.1.1.1 Fabrics | |
| 2.1.1.2 Setts | |
| 2.1.1.3 Measurements | |
| 2.1.1.4 Pleating and stitching | |
| 2.1.2 Accessories | |
| 2.1.3 Styles of kilt wear | |
| 2.2 Ireland | |
| 2.3 Other Celtic nations | |
| 2.4 Contemporary designs | |
| 3 See also | |
| 4 References | |
| 5 Bibliography | |
| 6 Further reading | |
| 7 External links | |
| History | |
| Main article: History of the kilt | |
| The kilt first appeared as the great kilt, the breacan or belted plaid, during the 16th century. The filleadh mòr or great kilt was a full-length garment whose upper half could be worn as a cloak draped over the shoulder, or brought up over the head. A version of the filleadh beag (philibeg), or small kilt (also known as the walking kilt), similar to the modern kilt was invented by an English Quaker from Lancashire named Thomas Rawlinson some time in the 1720s. He felt that the belted plaid was "cumbrous and unwieldy", and his solution was to separate the skirt and convert it into a distinct garment with pleats already sewn, which he himself began making.[2] His associate, Iain MacDonnell, chief of the MacDonnells of Inverness, also began making it, and when clansmen employed in logging, charcoal manufacture and iron smelting saw their chief making the new apparel, they soon followed making the kilt. From there its making use spread "in the shortest space" amongst the Highlanders, and even amongst some of the Northern Lowlanders.[3] It has been suggested there is evidence that the philibeg with unsewn pleats was made from the 1690s.[4] | |
| Variants | |
| The name "kilt" is applied to a range of garments: | |
| The traditional garment, either in its historical form, or in the modern adaptation now usual in Scotland (see History of the kilt), usually in a tartan pattern | |
| The kilts worn by Irish pipe bands are based on the traditional Scottish garment but now in a single (solid) colour[5] | |
| Variants of the Scottish kilt adopted in other Celtic nations, such as the Welsh cilt and the Cornish cilt | |
| According to the Dictionary of the Scots Language and Oxford English Dictionary, the noun derives from a verb to kilt, originally meaning "to gird up; to tuck up (the skirts) round the body", which is apparently of Scandinavian origin. | |
| Scotland | |
| The modern Scottish kilt worn with formal evening wear (2009) and a highly decorative sporran (purse) hanging from the waist | |
| General William Gordon, shown wearing a kilt - part of the uniform of the short-lived 105th Regiment of Foot - in the painting by Pompeo Batoni (1765–66). | |
| Organisations that sanction and grade the competitions in Highland dancing and piping all have rules governing acceptable attire for the competitors. These rules specify that kilts are to be worn (except that in the national dances, the female competitors will be wearing the Aboyne dress).[6][7] | |
| Design and construction | |
| The Scottish kilt displays uniqueness of design, construction, and convention which differentiate it from other garments fitting the general description. It is a tailored garment that is wrapped around the wearer's body at the natural waist (between the lowest rib and the hip) starting from one side (usually the wearer's left), around the front and back and across the front again to the opposite side. The fastenings consist of straps and buckles on both ends, the strap on the inside end usually passing through a slit in the waistband to be buckled on the outside; alternatively it may remain inside the waistband and be buckled inside. | |
| A kilt covers the body from the waist down to the centre of the knees. The overlapping layers in front are called "aprons" and are flat; the single layer of fabric around the sides and back is pleated. A kilt pin is fastened to the front apron on the free corner (but is not passed through the layer below, as its function is to add weight). Underwear may or may not be worn, as the wearer prefers, although tradition has it that a "true Scotsman" should wear nothing under his kilt.[8][9] The Scottish Tartans Authority, however, warns that in some circumstances the practice could be "childish and unhygienic" and flying "in the face of decency".[10] | |
| In the World War I, the regiment would be inspected by a senior officer who would have a mirror to look under kilts. Anyone found wearing underpants would be sent back to take them off.[9] | |
| In 2015, the Scottish barmen of the Hootananny pub in Inverness abandoned kilts because some drunk female customers were lifting them. Ian Howie, the pub’s assistant manager, said, "You get large groups of drinking women circling around when you are collecting glasses and asking whether you are true Scotsman – and they find out for themselves. Mainly hen nights". The traditional Scottish garment was initially chosen to give the venue a more authentic feel. Now Tartan shorts are worn instead.[11] | |
| Fabrics | |
| The typical kilt as seen at modern Highland games events is made of twill woven worsted wool. The twill weave used for kilts is a "2–2 type", meaning that each weft thread passes over and under two warp threads at a time. The result is a distinctive diagonal-weave pattern in the fabric which is called the twill line. This kind of twill, when woven according to a given sett or written colour pattern (see below) is called tartan. In contrast kilts worn by Irish pipers are made from solid-colour cloth, with saffron or green being the most widely used colours. | |
| Kilting fabric weights are given in ounces per yard and run from the very-heavy, regimental worsted of approximately 18–22 ounces (510–620 g) down to a light worsted of about 10–11 ounces (280–310 g). The most common weights for kilts are 13 ounces (370 g) and 16 ounces (450 g). The heavier weights are more appropriate for cooler weather, while the lighter weights would tend to be selected for warmer weather or for active use, such as Highland dancing. Some patterns are available in only a few weights. | |
| A modern kilt for a typical adult uses about 6–8 yards of single-width (about 26–30 inches) or about 3–4 yards of double-width (about 54–60 inches) tartan fabric. Double-width fabric is woven so that the pattern exactly matches on the selvage. Kilts are usually made without a hem because a hem would make the garment too bulky and cause it to hang incorrectly. The exact amount of fabric needed depends upon several factors including the size of the sett, the number of pleats put into the garment, and the size of the person. For a full kilt, 8 yards of fabric would be used regardless of size and the number of pleats and depth of pleat would be adjusted according to their size. For a very large waist, it may be necessary to use 9 yards of cloth. | |
| Setts | |
| One of the most-distinctive features of the authentic Scots kilt is the tartan pattern, the sett, it exhibits. The association of particular patterns with individual clans and families can be traced back perhaps one or two centuries. It was only in the 19th-century Victorian era that the system of named tartans known today began to be systematically recorded and formalised, mostly by weaving companies for mercantile purposes. Up until this point, Highland tartans held regional associations rather than being identified with any particular clan. | |
| Today there are also tartans for districts, counties, societies and corporations. There are also setts for states and provinces; schools and universities; sporting activities; individuals; and commemorative and simple generic patterns that anybody can wear (see History of the kilt for the process by which these associations came about). | |
| Setts are always arranged horizontally and vertically, never diagonally (except when adapted for women's skirts). They are specified by their thread counts, the sequence of colours and their units of width. As an example, the Wallace tartan has a thread count given as "K/4 R32 K32 Y/4" (K is black, R is red, and Y is yellow). This means that 4 units of black thread will be succeeded by 32 units of red, etc., in both the warp and the weft. Typically, the units are the actual number of threads, but as long as the proportions are maintained, the resulting pattern will be the same. This thread count also includes a pivot point indicated by the slash between the colour and thread number. The weaver is supposed to reverse the weaving sequence at the pivot point to create a mirror image of the pattern. This is called a symmetrical tartan. Some tartans, like Buchanan, are asymmetrical, which means they do not have a pivot point. The weaver weaves the sequence all the way through and then starts at the beginning again for the next sett. | |
| Oliver tartan kilt (2006) | |
| Setts are further characterised by their size, the number of inches (or centimetres) in one full repeat. The size of a given sett depends on not only the number of threads in the repeat but also the weight of the fabric. This is because the heavier the fabric, the thicker the threads will be, and thus the same number of threads of a heavier-weight fabric will occupy more space. The colours given in the thread count are specified as in heraldry, although tartan patterns are not heraldic. The exact shade which is used is a matter of artistic freedom and will vary from one fabric mill to another as well as in dye lot to another within the same mill. | |
| Tartans are commercially woven in four standard colour variations that describe the overall tone. "Ancient" or "Old" colours may be characterised by a slightly faded look intended to resemble the vegetable dyes that were once used, although in some cases "Old" simply identifies a tartan that was in use before the current one. Ancient greens and blues are lighter while reds appear orange. "Modern" colours are bright and show off modern aniline dyeing methods. The colours are bright red, dark hunter green, and usually navy blue. "Weathered" or "Reproduction" colours simulate the look of older cloth weathered by the elements. Greens turn to light brown, blues become grey, and reds are a deeper wine colour. The last colour variation is "Muted" which tends toward earth tones. The greens are olive, blues are slate blue, and red is an even deeper wine colour. This means that of the approximately 3500 registered tartans available in the Scottish Tartans Authority database as of 2004[12] there are four possible colour variations for each, resulting in around 14,000 recognised tartan choices. | |
| Setts were registered until 2008, with the International Tartan Index (ITI) of the charitable organisation Scottish Tartans Authority (STA), which maintained a collection of fabric samples characterised by name and thread count, for free, which had its register, combined with others to form the Scottish Register of Tartans (SRT) of the statutory body the National Archives of Scotland (NAS), if the tartan meets SRT's criteria, for GB£70 as of 2010. Although many tartans are added every year, most of the registered patterns available today were created in the 19th century onward by commercial weavers who worked with a large variety of colours. The rise of Highland romanticism and the growing Anglicisation of Scottish culture by the Victorians at the time led to registering tartans with clan names. Before that, most of these patterns were more connected to geographical regions than to any clan. There is therefore nothing symbolic about the colours, and nothing about the patterns is a reflection of the status of the wearer. | |
| Measurements | |
| Stitching on the fell of a kilt (Robertson Red Modern) | |
| Although ready-to-wear kilts can be obtained in standard sizes, a custom kilt is tailored to the individual proportions of the wearer. At least three measurements, the waist, hips, and length of the kilt, are usually required. Sometimes the rise (distance above the waist) or the fell (distance from waistline to the widest part of the hips) is also required. | |
| A properly made kilt, when buckled on the tightest holes of the straps, is not so loose that the wearer can easily twist the kilt around their body, nor so tight that it causes "scalloping" of the fabric where it is buckled. Additionally, the length of the kilt when buckled at the waist reaches a point no lower than halfway across the kneecap and no higher than about an inch above it. | |
| Pleating and stitching | |
| Pleating to the stripe (2005) | |
| Pleating to the sett | |
| A kilt can be pleated with either box or knife pleats. A knife pleat is a simple fold, while the box pleat is bulkier, consisting of two knife pleats back-to-back. Knife pleats are the most common in modern civilian kilts. Regimental traditions vary. The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders use box pleats, while the Black Watch make their kilts of the same tartan with knife pleats. These traditions were also passed on to affiliated regiments in the Commonwealth, and were retained in successor battalions to these regiments in the amalgamated Royal Regiment of Scotland. | |
| Pleats can be arranged relative to the pattern in two ways. In pleating to the stripe, one of the vertical stripes in the tartan is selected and the fabric is then folded so that this stripe runs down the center of each pleat. The result is that along the pleated section of the kilt (the back and sides) the pattern appears different from the unpleated front, often emphasising the horizontal bands rather than creating a balance between horizontal and vertical. This is often called military pleating because it is the style adopted by many military regiments. It is also widely used by pipe bands. | |
| In pleating to the sett, the fabric is folded so that the pattern of the sett is maintained and is repeated all around the kilt. This is done by taking up one full sett in each pleat, or two full setts if they are small. This causes the pleated sections to have the same pattern as the unpleated front. | |
| Any pleat is characterised by depth and width. The portion of the pleat that protrudes under the overlying pleat is the size or width. The pleat width is selected based on the size of the sett and the amount of fabric to be used in constructing the kilt, and will generally vary from about 1/2" to about 3/4". | |
| The depth is the part of the pleat which is folded under the overlying pleat. It depends solely on the size of the tartan sett even when pleating to the stripe, since the sett determines the spacing of the stripes. | |
| The number of pleats used in making kilts depends upon how much material is to be used in constructing the garment and upon the size of the sett. | |
| The pleats across the fell are tapered slightly since the wearer's waist is usually narrower than the hips and the pleats are usually stitched down either by machine or by hand. | |
| In Highland dancing, it is easy to see the effect of the stitching on the action of a kilt. The kilt hugs the dancer's body from the waist down to the hipline and, from there, in response to the dancer's movements, it breaks sharply out. The way the kilt moves in response to the dance steps is an important part of the dance. If the pleats were not stitched down in this portion of the kilt, the action, or movement, would be quite different. | |
| Accessories | |
| Main article: Kilt accessories | |
| Highland dancer revealing the action of a kilt, worn here with a velvet waistcoat | |
| The Scottish kilt is usually worn with kilt hose (woollen socks), turned down at the knee, often with garters and flashes, and a sporran (Gaelic for "purse": a type of pouch), which hangs around the waist from a chain or leather strap. This may be plain or embossed leather, or decorated with sealskin, fur, or polished metal plating. | |
| Other common accessories, depending on the formality of the context, include: | |
| A belt (usually with embossed buckle) | |
| A jacket (of various traditional designs) | |
| A kilt pin | |
| A sgian-dubh (Gaelic: "black knife": a small sheathed knife worn in the top of the hose) | |
| Ghillie brogues | |
| Occasionally worn with a ghillie shirt, although this is more casual and, being a relatively modern invention, shouldn't be confused with actual historic garments. | |
| Styles of kilt wear | |
| See also: Highland dress | |
| Today most Scottish people regard kilts as formal dress or national dress. Although there are still a few people who wear a kilt daily, it is generally owned or hired to be worn at weddings or other formal occasions and may be worn by anyone regardless of nationality or descent. For semi-formal wear, kilts are usually worn with a Prince Charlie or an Argyll jacket. Irish formal dress is distinguished from Highland Dress by the Brian Boru jacket, a modified Prince Charlie jacket with a shawl collar, chain closure and round buttons. Formal is white tie and requires a Regulation Doublet or higher. | |
| Kilts are also used for parades by groups such as the Boys' Brigade and Scouts, and in many places kilts are seen in force at Highland games and pipe band championships as well as being worn at Scottish country dances and ceilidhs. | |
| Certain regiments/units of the British Army and armies of other Commonwealth nations (including Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa) with a Scottish lineage or heritage still continue to wear kilts as part of dress or duty uniform, though they have not been used in combat since 1940[13] Uniforms in which kilts are worn include Ceremonial Dress, Service Dress, and Barracks Dress. Kilts are considered appropriate for ceremonial parades, office duties, less formal parades, walking out, mess dinners, and classroom instruction or band practice. Ceremonial kilts have also been developed for the US Marine Corps, and the pipe and drum bands of the US Military Academy, US Naval Academy and Norwich University – The Military College of Vermont. | |
| It is not uncommon to see kilts worn at Irish pubs in the United States, and it is becoming somewhat less rare to see them in the workplace.[14] Casual use of kilts dressed down with lace-up boots or moccasins, and with T-shirts or golf shirts, is becoming increasingly familiar at Highland Games. The kilt is associated with a sense of Scottish national pride and will often be seen being worn, along with a football top, when members of the Tartan Army are watching a football or rugby match. The small sgian-dubh knife is sometimes replaced by a wooden or plastic alternative or omitted altogether for security concerns:[15] for example, it typically is not allowed to be worn or carried onto a commercial aircraft.[16] | |
| Ireland | |
| Irish Defence Force pipers wearing saffron kilts | |
| Though the origins of the Irish kilt continue to be a subject of debate, current evidence suggests that kilts originated in the Scottish Highlands and Isles and were worn by Irish nationalists from at least 1850s onwards and then cemented from the early 1900s as a symbol of Gaelic identity.[17] | |
| A garment that has often been mistaken for kilts in early depictions is the Irish lein-croich, a long tunic traditionally made from solid colour cloth, with black, saffron and green. Solid coloured kilts were first adopted for use by Irish nationalists and thereafter by Irish regiments serving in the British Army, but they could often be seen in late 19th and early 20th century photos in Ireland especially at political and musical gatherings, as the kilt was re-adopted as a symbol of Gaelic nationalism in Ireland during this period.[17] Tartan was rarer in Irish kilts as it was more expensive to manufacture and only the wealthier members of Ireland could afford to have tartan kilts such as the Gaelic Chieftains and high ranking soldiers, for the most part it was usually only sashes, trews and shawls were made in tartan. | |
| Within the world of Irish dancing, boys' kilts have been largely abandoned, especially since the worldwide popularity of Riverdance and the revival and interest in Irish dancing generally.[18] | |
| The Irish still wear kilts but they are largely restricted to formal events and weddings. Irish marching bands often dress in kilts as well. | |
| Other Celtic nations | |
| Although not a traditional component of national dress outside Scotland or Ireland, kilts have become recently popular in the other Celtic nations as a sign of Celtic identity.[19] Kilts and tartans can therefore also be seen in Wales, Cornwall, the Isle of Man, Brittany and Galicia. Although not considered a Celtic region, Northumbrian kilts in border tartan have also been adopted. | |
| There are currently sixteen Breton tartans officially recorded in the Scottish tartan registries. The Breton tartans are: Brittany National (Breton National),[20] Brittany Walking,[21] Lead it Of, and a further nine county tartans (Kerne,[22] Leon,[23] Tregor,[24] Gwened,[25] Dol,[26] St. Malo,[27] Rennes,[28] Nantes,[29] St. Brieuc).[30] Others have been recently created for smaller areas in Brittany (Ushent, Bro Vigoudenn and Menez Du "Black Mountain").[31][32] | |
| There are three Galician tartans recorded in the Scottish registries: Galicia, [33] "Gallaecia – Galician National", [34] and Bombeiros Voluntarios De Galicia. [35]There is historical evidence of the use of tartan and kilt in Galicia up to the 18th century.[36] | |
| Kilts are also traditionally worn by some people in Austria, especially in Carinthia and Upper Austria, due to their celtic heritage.[citation needed] | |
| Contemporary designs | |
| Example of contemporary kilt | |
| Kilts and other male skirts in general were relaunched as a trend during the 1980s. Stephen Sprouse introduced a black denim mini-skirt over black denim jeans in 1983. Then in 1984, Jean Paul Gaultier made waves in the fashion industry when he reintroduced mini skirts and kilts for men.[37] | |
| Contemporary kilts (also known as modern kilts and, especially in the United States of America, utility kilts) have appeared in the clothing marketplace in Scotland,[38] the US, and Canada in a range of fabrics, including leather, denim, corduroy, and cotton.[39] They may be designed for formal or casual dress, for use in sports or outdoor recreation, or as white or blue collar workwear. Some are closely modelled on traditional Scottish kilts, but others are similar only in being knee-length skirt-like garments for men. They may have box pleats, symmetrical knife pleats and be fastened by studs or velcro instead of buckles. Many are designed to be worn without a sporran, and may have pockets or tool belts attached. | |
| In Canada, kilts are widely common as part of female dress at schools with a uniform policy. As well, due to the rich Scottish heritage of the country, they may frequently be seen at weddings and formal events. In Nova Scotia, they may even be worn as common daily attire. | |
| Contemporary hybrid kilt | |
| In 2008, a USPS letter carrier, Dean Peterson, made a formal proposal that the kilt be approved as an acceptable postal uniform—for reasons of comfort.[40][41] The proposal was defeated at the convention of the 220,000-member National Association of Letter Carriers in 2008 by a large margin.[41] | |
| 5.11 Tactical produced a Tactical Duty Kilt as a result of the corporate April Fools' joke.[42][43] The contemporary hybrid kilts are made up of tartan-woven fabric material.[44][45] | |
| Female athletes, especially lacrosse players, often wear kilts during games. They will typically wear compression shorts or spandex underneath. Kilts are popular among many levels of lacrosse, from youth leagues to college leagues, although some teams are replacing kilts with the more streamlined athletic skirt. | |
| Men's kilts are often seen in popular contemporary media. For example, in the Syfy series Tin Man, side characters are shown wearing kilts as peasant working clothes. Trends in everyday fashion, especially in the Gothic subculture, have led to a popularisation of the kilt as an alternative to more conventional menswear. Some of these are made of PVC or cotton-polyester blends. | |
| See also | |
| map Clans of Scotland portal | |
| Men's skirts | |
| Shendyt | |
| Argyle (pattern) | |
| Belted plaid | |
| Check (pattern) | |
| Fly plaid | |
| Full plaid | |
| Highland dress | |
| Trews | |
| Dhoti | |
| Lungi | |
| Fustanella | |
| Wrap (clothing) | |
| References | |
| "Am Faclair Beag". www.faclair.com. | |
| Thomson 1816, p. 150. Thomson also references Culloden Papers p 103, and the Edinburgh Magazine of 1785 in which a letter from Evan Baillie of Oberiachan states this. | |
| Trevor-Roper, Hobsbawm & Ranger 1983, pp. 22–23. | |
| {{Citation |last=Newsome |first=Matt Allen |title=The Early History of the Kilt |url=http://www.scottishtartans.org/kilt.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321081106/http://www.scottishtartans.org/kilt.html |publisher=The Scottish Tartans Museum |access-date=26 June 2008 |archive-date=21 March 2015 | |
| Newsome, Matthew Allen C (1 July 2005). "On the Confusion of the Kilt as an Irish Garment". Albanach. Clemmons, NC. Archived from the original (World Wide Web log) on 15 October 2009. Retrieved 10 June 2009. | |
| Rules of the British Columbia Pipers Association, BC Pipers' Association, 11 October 2007, archived from the original on 3 October 2009, retrieved 10 June 2009 | |
| Johnson, Erik. "Costuming Regulations of the Scottish Official Board of Highland Dancing". Margs highland dance wear. Archived from the original on 30 January 2009. Retrieved 13 March 2009. | |
| "The Real Story", The Real Story: What does a Scotsman wear under his kilt?, However, there is nothing mysterious about what was worn below the clansmen's shirts. "You cannae tak the breeks aff a Hielanman!", runs an old saying, signifying the futility of attempting the impossible! | |
| "Scots Tradition Hit by Cover-Up Ruling". The Times. United Kingdom. 2 August 2004. Archived from the original on 6 June 2010. Retrieved 12 May 2008. | |
| "What's Down Under?". Scottish Tartan Authority. Retrieved 30 May 2013. | |
| Carr, Simon (14 July 2015). "Find out how randy women forced Scottish barmen to abandon their kilts". mirror. Retrieved 29 June 2020. | |
| Newsome, Matthew Allen C (December 2004), What's the 'Official' Word About Tartans?, Clemmons, NC: Albanach, archived from the original on 25 October 2010, retrieved 21 May 2010 | |
| "Army's wartime bloomers revealed". BBC News. Retrieved 21 February 2019. | |
| Bolton, Andrew (2003). Bravehearts: Men in Skirts. London: Victoria and Albert Museum. ISBN 0-8109-6558-5. | |
| MacMillan, Arthur (26 November 2006). "Top private school bans sgian-dubhs ahead of Christmas dance". The Scotsman. Retrieved 19 October 2009. | |
| "Can I carry sharp-edged religious/cultural regalia/accessories (eg Kirpans, Sgian Dhub or Dirks) on my person or in my hand baggage?", FAQ, Stansted Airport. | |
| Newsome, Matthew Allen C (2010). "Hibernean Dress, Caledonian Custom". Scottish Tartans Museum. Franklin, NC: The Scottish Tartans Museum. Retrieved 15 March 2017. | |
| "Irish Step Dancing Costumes". Historical Boys Clothing. Retrieved 25 July 2009. | |
| "Welsh National Dress". St. Fagan's National History Museum. Archived from the original on 13 October 2008. Retrieved 11 June 2008. | |
| "Brittany National", Tartan register, UK. | |
| "Brittany National Walking", Tartan register. | |
| "Bro-kerne", Tartan register, UK. | |
| "Bro-Leon", Tartan register, UK. | |
| "Bro-Dreger", Tartan register, UK. | |
| "Bro-Wened", Tartan register, UK. | |
| "Bro-Zol", Tartan register, UK. | |
| "Bro-Sant-Maloù", Tartan register, UK. | |
| "Bro-Raozhon", Tartan register, UK. | |
| "Bro-Naoned", Tartan register, UK. | |
| "Bro-Sant-Brieg", Tartan register, UK. | |
| "Menez Du". Tartan register. Scotland, UK: National Records. Retrieved 21 August 2012. | |
| Reun-Jezegou. "Un Breton en kilt". Blog4ever. Archived from the original on 18 January 2013. Retrieved 21 August 2012. | |
| "Galicia". Scottish Register of Tartans. Retrieved 7 February 2022. | |
| "Gallaecia - Galicia National". Scottish Register of Tartans. Retrieved 7 February 2022. | |
| "Bombeiros Voluntarios De Galicia". Scottish Register of Tartans. Retrieved 7 February 2022. | |
| "History of the Kilt in Galicia and Other Celtic Nations". Kilt and Tartan Gallaecia. Archived from the original on 11 May 2009. Retrieved 10 June 2009. | |
| Duka, John (27 October 1984). "Skirts for Men? Yes and No". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 10 August 2020. | |
| "Kilts Dance to New Tune". BBC News. 25 July 2000. Retrieved 10 June 2009. | |
| Harper, Christina. "Revealing a New-Look Kilt for Everyday Wear". The Scotsman. Heritage & Culture. Retrieved 10 June 2009. | |
| Block, Melissa (21 July 2008). "Wash. Mail Carrier Seeks Right to Wear Kilt to Work". Talk of the Nation. NPR. Retrieved 19 February 2010. | |
| Catchpole, Dan (6 August 2008). "U.S. mail carrier demands kilt uniform option". USA Today. Associated Press. Retrieved 19 February 2010. | |
| "Tactical Duty Kilt Is Back". PR Newswire. | |
| "No Joke: How 5:11's Tactical Duty Kilt Was Born". Retrieved 25 June 2017. | |
| Ian Brown (2012). From Tartan to Tartanry: Scottish Culture, History and Myth. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-6464-1. | |
| Frank Pierce Foster (1888). International Record of Medicine and General Practice Clinics. MD Publications. pp. 654–. | |
| Bibliography | |
| Trevor-Roper, Hugh; Hobsbawm, Eric; Ranger, Terence, eds. (1983), The Invention of Tradition, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-24645-8. | |
| Thomson, Thomas, ed. (1816), Annals of Philosophy, vol. VIII, London: Baldwin, Cradock and Joy | |
| Further reading | |
| Teall, Gordon; and Smith, Jr., Philip D. (1992). District Tartans. Shepheard-Walwyn (London, United Kingdom). ISBN 0-85683-085-2. | |
| Tewksbury, Barbara; Stuehmeyer, Elsie (2001), The Art of Kiltmaking, Rome, New York: Celtic Dragon Press, ISBN 0-9703751-0-7. | |
| Thompson, J. Charles (1979). So You're Going to Wear the Kilt. Heraldic Art Press (Arlington, Virginia). ISBN 0-86228-017-6. | |
| Kinloch Anderson, Deirdre (2013). Kinloch Anderson, A Scottish Tradition. Neil Wilson Publishing (Castle Douglas, United Kingdom) ISBN 978-1906000677 | |
| External links | |
| Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kilts. | |
| The Scottish Tartans Authority | |
| Acts Against the Highland Dress | |
| Clans of the Scottish Highlands Fashion Plates from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries, featuring a variety of kilts | |
| vte | |
| Scottish clans | |
| vte | |
| Folk costumes | |
| vte | |
| National costume of Europe | |
| Categories: Medieval European costumeDancewearFolk costumesScottish clothingWoolen clothingSkirts |
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